PERSONALIT Y DEVELOPMENT

FIRST EDITION
A COMPIL ATION
This document is for students of MIT WPU S.Y. BBA. This document is not to be
circulated outside of the college premises.

INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................3

Meaning and Definition of Personality ........................................................................3

Factors affecting Personality Development ..................................................................4
Contributions of Sigmund Freud .................................................................................6
Carl G Jung’s Classification of Personality ..................................................................7
John Holland’s Classification of Personality .................................................................8
Attitude and Perception ................................................................................11

Attitude ...................................................................................................................11
Concept of attitude ..................................................................................................11
attitude formation process ........................................................................................11
Perception: Concept ...............................................................................................12
Perceptual Process ...................................................................................................12
factors affecting perception......................................................................................13
improving the perception .........................................................................................13
Pillars of Personality Development ...............................................................14

Real Self vs. Ideal Self: Definitions ............................................................................16

Introspection ...........................................................................................................17
Self-assessment: Concept and how to do Self-Assessment? .........................................18
Personal Branding ...................................................................................................18
Adjustment and Mental Health .....................................................................19

Concept of Adjustment .............................................................................................19

Characteristics of a Well-Adjusted Person..................................................................19
Personal, Social and Occupational Adjustment..........................................................20
Frustration and Defense Mechanism .........................................................................20
Emotional Intelligence .............................................................................................26
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................31
 INTRODUCTION

Every day, you have to interact with yourself as well as other people in your family, work, and romantic
relationships. Each of them has a unique personality.

People are different, and it can be challenging to understand other perspectives because you see the
world through the lens of your own particular personality.

Although personality differences can be frustrating, they are important. Each personality type is evolved to
solve a different kind of problem. Humans cooperate in societies by solving many kinds of problems
together, through these diverse personality types.

Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognisable soon after birth.
The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn by
performers in order to either project different roles or disguise their identities.

When we meet new people, it is often their personality that grabs our attention. Understanding how
personality develops can provide insight into who someone is and their background while also increasing
our understanding of what's behind our own personality traits and characteristics.

At its most basic, personality is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that make
a person unique. Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic
effects to the role of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's personality.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY

What exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles, and
so do these fundamental characteristics of personality:

• Consistency: There is generally a recognisable order and regularity to behaviours. Essentially,

people act in the same way or in similar ways in a variety of situations.
• Both psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but research
suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
• Affects behaviours and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our
environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
• Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behaviour. It can also be seen in
our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

Personality development is the development of the organised pattern of behaviours and attitudes that
makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament,
character, and environment.

A child's personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character. Temperament is
the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's approach to the world and how the child
learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes do control the
development of the nervous system, which in turn controls behaviour.
A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child's specific environment.
Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and environment—influence the
development of a person's personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is
sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental factors are called "nurture."

Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioural
patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. A person's
character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on inborn traits and early
experiences. Character is also dependent on a person's moral development .

FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G P E R S O N A L I T Y D E V E L O P M E N T

A human being's personality is a product of his/her genetic endowment and cultural environment. As Cole
and Bruce described, "from the moment of conception it grows - 'whole', having within itself possibilities of
developing into a dynamic, active, walking, talking, thinking, feeling human being, provided that the
environment furnishes the raw materials and the appropriate conditions of stimulation."

There are a number of factors which influence the development of personality. The following are the main
factors:

Heredity/Biological

According to Roberts’ heredity provides the child with certain endowments. Hereditary factors may be
summed up as constitutional, biological and physiological factors. The constitution of an individual is
an effective factor in determining the type of his/her Personality. Physical structure, facial attractiveness,
gender, temperament, muscle composition, reflexes, energy level and biological rhythms are
characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influences by the
parents.

Biological factors consist of the nervous system, glands and blood chemistry which determines our
characteristics and habitual modes of behaviour. These factors form the biological basis of our personality.
Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality.

Heredity predisposes a certain mental, physical and emotional states. It has been established through
research that those psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity. However, such
conclusive proof is not available for human beings.

Personality defects lead to the development of inferiority complex and the mental mechanism of
compensation. This aspect also includes the mental ability of the child. It is this ability which enables him/
her to mould the social environment according to his/her requirements.

Intelligence is another factor, which is mainly hereditary. According to Mangal - Persons who are very
intelligent can make better adjustment in home, school and society.

Home Environment and Parents

The Home environment is the most important institution for the existence, a continuance of human life and
the development of various personality traits. An ideal home environment is one where there is a
proper reward to strengthen the desired behaviour, a keen interest and love for the child,
Provision of opportunities to express its views freely, where parents put fewer restrictions to discipline
the child, not preventing the child from acting independently and not continuing infantile care,
Optimum use physical and effective punishment, wherever the youngsters aren’t compelled to
act consistent with parental wishes and expectations. Studies show that top parental
involvement result in high accomplishment and low parental involvement result in low
accomplishment (Ahuja and Goyal 2005)

A critical impact is driven by the family especially in the early and naive age. For example, a child brought
up in a violent household will be quite different and emotionally and socially timid and cold as compared to
a child reared in a warm, adjusting and healthy environment.
Let us understand the importance of parents and family as crucial determinants of personality with the help
of the American-Australian Psychologist Walter Mischel’s theory:
• Identification can be done by observing the similarity of the behaviour like feelings and attitude between
the child and their parents.
• Identification can be viewed as the child’s desire and aspiration to be like their parents.
• It can be looked as the method through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the personality
from their parents.

During the past few decades, home environment had been identified as being a contributing factor in
a child ‘s educational, cognitive and affective development. Researcher separate elements of the
home environment into two major categories; social and physical (Wachs, 1989).
Crow and Crow (1965) describe that home is the primary societal unit. Family relationships
play a very important role in associate degree individual’s life pattern from time of life through
adulthood. Much of an individual’s personality patterning originates at home .Not only does the child
inherit certain family potentialities, but during developing years, his attitudes, beliefs, ideals and overt
behaviour reflects the influences on him of home experiences.

School Environment and Teachers

For most of the kids, school is their first encountered social circle that provides an excellent opportunity for
personality development. Traditionally, schools were considered as a place just to learn concepts.
However, today, they are taken as a place to build a foundation for children to make them upstanding
adults. Each school sets a tone for integrity, respect, and kindness for its students. Moreover, teachers are
the most important individuals that kids take as a role model after their parents. They notice everything
teachers do; hence, they can set a better classroom environment to make their personality well-groomed.
Encouraging students to participate, develop, and adopt disciplined and ethical norms of behaviours is
imperative for their personality development.

Peer Group

The social determinants analyse a personality as per the status of the individual in their social group or
community and consider the individual’s conception of their role in the group is like. The key factor that this
approach weighs in is what others perceive us as plays a greater role in the formation of our personality.

Peers, or a group of people who have similar interests, age, background, or social status, serve as an
important source of information, feedback, and support to individuals as they develop a sense of self.
Peers help socialize an individual by reinforcing or punishing behaviors or interpersonal interactions

The era has seen the widespread emergence of communication tools, especially through social media.
Social media influencers hold an authoritative power to influence the masses around the globe. Hence,
anyone’s personality is majorly persuaded by the social lives they lead and are a part of. Through
socializing, be it virtual or real, one encounters a plethora of other individuals which some way or the other
leave a mark on our personalities. The process starts as soon as we step into the real world from the
playschool we go to peers and friends, amongst others. Our social life is one of the essential determinants
of personality and that’s why we are always advised to choose our social circle wisely.

Sibling Relationships,

Mass Media and Cultural

Just as we are born with biological determinants, cultural determinants of personality are the ones with
which we grow up with. The ritual and norms in the family, the early conditioning, the way we are raised
up, the social group in which we hang out are the factors that have an impactful emphasis on our
personality formation. Each culture trains and expects its members to behave and breathe in a way that is
acceptable by society. Hence, factors like aggression, independence, cooperation and competition are
major cultural contributors to personality determination. Thus, it is quite evident to filter out the individuals
brought up in the western part of the world from the citizens of our country as the cultures we have been
brought up with are poles apart.

Culture shapes our personal values and predispositions. It is the unique characteristic of a social group.
The values and norms shared by its member’s sets it apart from other social groups. The essence of
culture is the collective programming of the mind.

According to anthropological concepts, culture relates to a shared system of beliefs, attitudes,

possessions, attributes, customs, and values that define group behaviour. Values are assumptions about
‘how things ought to be’ in the group. Thus, culture plays a significant role in influencing the behaviour of
an individual.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SIGMUND FREUD

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

Sigmund Freud not only theorised about how personality developed over the course of childhood, but he
also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured.
According to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behaviour is known as the libido. This
libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.

According to Freud, these three elements of personality work together to create complex human
behaviors. The superego attempts to make the ego behave according to these ideals. The ego must then
moderate between the primal needs of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego, and reality.

The Id
According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.
• The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
• This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.

The Ego
According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
• The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
• The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.

The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego.
• According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
• The superego holds the internalised moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents
and society (our sense of right and wrong).
• The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the
superego.

If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the superego, a
healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance between these elements
would lead to a maladaptive personality.

For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or even
criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no concern for whether their behavior is
appropriate, acceptable, or legal.

On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is extremely moralistic
and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything or anyone that they
perceive to be "bad" or “immoral."

C A R L G J U N G ’ S C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F P E R S O N A L I T Y

Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist whose research was deeply-rooted in psychoanalysis. He was
greatly influenced by Sigmund Freud and even conducted research alongside him. Eventually, though,
Jung disagreed with many of Freud's theories. Jung is best known for his research in personality, dream
analysis and the human psyche. His theories are so revered that they were made into their own school of
psychotherapy: Jungian psychology, which is also called analytical psychology.

In his theory of personality, Carl Jung distinguishes two different attitude types: Introverts, which are those
people who receive stimulation from within, and extroverts, which are those who receive their stimulation
from the environment.
Introverts can be perceived as withdrawn or shy, but they are more defined as those who get their energy
from being alone and being able to recharge through less stimulating activities, whereas extroverts get
their energy from being around other people and engaging in stimulating activities. For example, Donna is
an extrovert. She loves to go out on adventures with lots of people and see exciting new things. Her friend
David, though, is the opposite. Given the choice, he'd rather read a book on his couch than go skydiving
with Donna. David is an introvert.

Jung also separates introverts and extroverts into four subtypes according to the functions that control the
way they perceive the world. Both introverts and extroverts can be any of these subtypes, so there are
eight possible personality types. These four functions are:

• Thinking
• Feeling
• Sensation
• Intuition

J O H N H O L L A N D ’ S C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F P E R S O N A L I T Y

John Holland, Ph.D., professor emeritus at Johns Hopkins University, is a psychologist who devoted his
professional life to researching issues related to career choice and satisfaction. He developed a well-
known theory, and designed several assessments and supporting materials to assist people in making
effective career choices. His theory and assessment tools have helped millions of people worldwide and
are supported by hundreds of research studies.
Holland’s Theory
Holland found that people needing help with career decisions can be supported by understanding their
resemblance to the following six ideal vocational personality types:
• Realistic (R)
• Investigative (I)
• Artistic (A)
• Social (S)
• Enterprising (E)
• Conventional (C)

Holland’s Six Personality Types

The descriptions of Holland’s personality types refer to idealized or pure types. Holland’s personality types
are visually represented by a hexagonal model. The types closest to each other on the hexagon have the
most characteristics in common. Those types that are furthest apart, i.e., opposites on the hexagon, have
the least in common.

Listed below are the six Holland Occupational Personality Types. The descriptions of “pure types” will
rarely be an exact fit for any one person. Your personality will more likely combine several types to varying
degrees. To get a better picture of how your interests and skills relate to the types and to identify your
dominant type, you can highlight the phrases in each description that are true for you.

Realistic (R)
Realistic individuals are active and stable and enjoy hands-on or manual activities, such as building,
mechanics, machinery operation and athletics. They prefer to work with things rather than ideas and
people. They enjoy engaging in physical activity and often like being outdoors and working with plants and
animals. People who fall into this category generally prefer to “learn by doing” in a practical, task-oriented
setting, as opposed to spending extended periods of time in a classroom. Realistic types tend to
communicate in a frank, direct manner and value material things. They perceive themselves as skilled in
mechanical and physical activities but may be uncomfortable or less adept with human relations. The
preferred work environment of the realistic type fosters technical competencies and work that allows them
to produce tangible results. Typical realistic careers include electrician, engineer, veterinarian and the
military.

Investigative (I)
Investigative individuals are analytical, intellectual and observant and enjoy research, mathematical or
scientific activities. They are drawn to ambiguous challenges and may be stifled in highly structured
environments. People who fall into this category enjoy using logic and solving highly complex, abstract
problems. Because they are introspective and focused on creative problem solving, investigative types
often work autonomously and do not seek leadership roles. They place a high value on science and
learning and perceive themselves as scholarly and having scientific or mathematical ability but lacking
leadership and persuasive skills. The preferred work environment of the investigative type encourages
scientific competencies, allows independent work and focuses on solving abstract, complex problems in
original ways. Typical investigative careers include medical technologist, biologist, chemist and systems
analyst.

Artistic (A)
Artistic individuals are original, intuitive and imaginative and enjoy creative activities, such as composing
or playing music, writing, drawing or painting and acting in or directing stage productions. They seek
opportunities for self- expression through artistic creation. People who fall into this category prefer
flexibility and ambiguity and have an aversion to convention and conformity. Artistic types are generally
impulsive and emotional and tend to communicate in a very expressive and open manner. They value
aesthetics and view themselves as creative, non-conforming and as appreciating or possessing musical,
dramatic, artistic or writing abilities while lacking clerical or organizational skills. The preferred work
environment of the artistic type fosters creative competencies, and encourages originality and use of the
imagination in a flexible, unstructured setting. Typical artistic careers include musician, reporter and
interior decorator.

Social (S)
Social individuals are humanistic, idealistic, responsible and concerned with the welfare of others. They
enjoy participating in group activities and helping, training, healing, counseling or developing others. They
are generally focused on human relationships and enjoy social activities and solving interpersonal
problems. Social types seek opportunities to work as part of a team, solve problems through discussions
and utilize interpersonal skills but may avoid activities that involve systematic use of equipment or
machines. Because they genuinely enjoy working with people, they communicate in a warm and tactful
manner and can be persuasive. They view themselves as understanding, helpful, cheerful and skilled in
teaching but lacking in mechanical ability. The preferred work environment of the social type encourages
teamwork and allows for significant interaction with others. Typical social careers include teacher,
counselor and social worker.

Enterprising (E)
Enterprising individuals are energetic, ambitious, adventurous, sociable and self-confident. They enjoy
activities that require them to persuade others, such as sales, and seek out leadership roles. They are
invigorated by using their interpersonal, leadership and persuasive abilities to obtain organizational goals
or economic gain but may avoid routine or systematic activities. They are often effective public speakers
and are generally sociable but may be viewed as domineering. They view themselves as assertive, self-
confident and skilled in leadership and speaking but lacking in scientific abilities. The preferred work
environment of the enterprising type encourages them to engage in activities, such as leadership,
management and selling, and rewards them through the attainment of money, power and status. Typical
enterprising careers include salesperson, business executive and manager.

Conventional (C)
Conventional individuals are efficient, careful, conforming, organized and conscientious. They are
comfortable working within an established chain of command and prefer carrying out well-defined
instructions over assuming leadership roles. They prefer organized, systematic activities and have an
aversion to ambiguity. They are skilled in and often enjoy maintaining and manipulating data, organizing
schedules and operating office equipment. While they rarely seek leadership or “spotlight” roles, they are
thorough, persistent and reliable in carrying out tasks. Conventional types view themselves as
responsible, orderly and efficient, and possessing clerical, organizational and numerical abilities. They
may also see themselves as unimaginative or lacking in creativity. The preferred work environment of the
conventional type fosters organizational competencies, such as record keeping and data management, in
a structured operation and places high value on conformity and dependability. Typical conventional
careers include secretary, accountant and banker.
 AT T I T U D E A N D P E R C E P T I O N

AT T I T U D E

Attitude is the major factor, which affect the behaviour of a person or an organisation. It manipulates the
perception of objects and people, exposure to and comprehension of information, choice of friends, co-
workers, and so on. The importance of attitudes in understanding psychological phenomenon was given
formal recognition early in the history of social psychology.

From the time of the concept’s entry into the language of psychology until now, interest in attitudes has
been strong and growing. However, over the years attitudes have been studied with differing emphases
and methods. For example, between the period of 1920s and up to World War II the attention of attitude
researchers was directed principally towards definitional issues and attitude measurement.

C O N C E P T O F AT T I T U D E

Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include
evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they
can also be uncertain at times.

For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue. Researchers also suggest
that there are several different characteristics that make up attitudes. The components of attitudes are
sometimes referred to as CAB or the ABC's of attitude.

Attitudes are formed with respect to situations, persons or groups with which individual comes in contact
in course of the growth and development of his personality.

The concept of attitude is perhaps the most indispensable and distinctive concept in contemporary social
psychology. As a consequence of interaction between the individual and the society certain beliefs,
opinions, values, norms, customs and traditions grow to which the individual usually conforms. Through
the process of socialisation the human being conforms to these social norms and traditional values.
Socialization develops mainly through attitude and confirming behaviour.

AT T I T U D E F O R M AT I O N P R O C E S S

Attitudes are not biologically inherited but built out of continuous experiences of the world around us. They
are the outcome of complex function of both cultural and functional factors. From birth onwards, every
individual is exposed to direct and indirect stimuli of the environment which teach him to hold certain
ideas, values and beliefs.
Through the process of socialisation when one is taught to associate good or bad feelings, dos or donots,
favourable and unfavourable experiences with certain actions or behaviour patterns, he develops certain
consistent attitudes. When some action are rewarded one develops a favourable attitude towards it and
any action or view which is punished one develops an unfavourable attitude towards it.

Attitudes also occur when one imitates his parents and other intimate friends, relations. Children and
adults form attitudes very often based on suggestions and second hand experiences. Many adults are
also found forming attitudes spontaneously based on their own personal and first hand experiences.
Nevertheless, attitudes grow in the mind of individual through the process of socialization.

Social attitudes develop out of verbal value judgements, dos and donots. But personal attitudes may
develop out of one’s own interaction, contact and firsthand experience with the attitudinal objects and
other objects related to it. In case of social attitudes one is taught to hold a particular attitude towards an
attitudinal objects like “Mama says not to play with girls” or blacks.

Parents, family members, media and press, peers, teachers and well wishers acquaintances, all play a
tremendous role in the formation and growth of attitudes. Some studies relating to attitudes and values of
American, British and Indian students and Indian and Western Children are quite simulating.

PERCEPTION: CONCEPT

Perception is another most important aspect of life of organization. Many problems of the organisation
and that of its members may be traced to the distortion in perception. Perception means the ability to
perceive i.e. understanding or knowledge, mental grasp of qualities by means of senses or awareness.

Communication is influenced by one’s perception of individual. When we communicate with someone, the
language we used, the tone of the language and gesture we make portray an individual’s character and a
kind of relationship he wants to develop.

We see an object but it is understood differently by different people. It is perception. Perception is vividly
defined by experts. Some of the definitions are given below which make the meaning of perception clear.

Slephen P. Robbins — “A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment.”

B. Von Haller Gilmer — “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of adding meaningful
associations to sensations.”

Udai Prateek — “The process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting, checking and reacting to
sensory stimuli or data.”

PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Perception varies from person to person and situation to situation and time to time i.e. it is relative to
person situation and time. The individuals listening to the same thing may perceive it differently. In the
same manner the individuals looking at the same thing may perceive it in different ways.
The environment consists of lights, sounds, smell, objects, social, political, cultural, technological
environments which govern the human behaviour and stimulate him into action. On listening, seeing and
talking he makes judgment about others.

The information which is received by the communicate takes place in a perceptual process which is
responsible in organising the information into meaningful unit.
It consists of the following steps:
• Stimuli or Cue:
Every human being has five sensory organs; namely, vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Stimuli or
cues are received by these organs. Written information is received through seeing; oral information is
received through hearing. Once this cue in the form of information is received, communicate starts
interpreting it. The different communicates have different interpretation of the information.
• Selection of Stimuli or Cue:
Many types and kinds of cues or stimuli (information’s for instance) are received but the communicate
selects only that information which makes some sense to him. Why the selection? Because it is the most
relevant information at that time.
Joseph A Litterer has rightly observed that “the reason is that we have thresholds or barriers which
regulate outside information reaching our consciousness. When the barriers are high we remain oblivious
to them but when they are low the information reaches our consciousness and thus becomes sensitized.”
Selection of information is influenced by the factors — bold letters or underlined message, flagged with
urgent sign, size of information, repetition or stressed words, physical attraction and the language of the
information etc.
• Filling the Gaps:
Perceiver will try to fill the gaps or complete the missing links in the information by supplementing it with
relevant information. Perceiver again makes necessary efforts to maintain continuity in the information.
• Proximity:
It means nearness or closeness of information may be perceived as a whole. It should be noted here that
proximity is different than similarity.

FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G P E R C E P T I O N

Perception simply refers to a process through which an individual interprets and organizes sensations in
order to comprehend a meaningful understanding of the world. There are many factors that can
consciously or unconsciously affect perception.
Here are the major factors influencing perception:
• Characteristics of the Perceiver: Beliefs, Expectations, Needs and Motives, Self Concept, Past
Experience, Current Psychological State, Situation, Cultural Upbringing
• Characteristics of the Perceived: Appearances, Manners of Communication, Personality Traits, Age,
Gender, other forms of behaviour
• Characteristics of the Situation: The context we perceive certain objects or people in.

IMPROVING THE PERCEPTION

• Knowing Oneself Accurately:

One of the powerful ways to minimize perceptual distortions is to know yourself. One should be aware of
his or her values, beliefs and prejudices. People normally misperceive others because they fail to
perceive themselves accurately. The more accurately a person understands himself, the more accurately
he can perceive others. The concept of Johari window must be applied by people so as to increase
awareness about self and others.

• Emphathise with Others:

Empathy refers to a person’s ability to understand and be sensitive to the feelings of others. Empathy is a
natural phenomenon and develops within an individual by itself. However, empathy skills can also be
developed over a passage of time by proper feedback system and by close interaction and working. By
emphasizing with other person, one can perceive the other individual more aptly.

• Have a Positive Attitude:

Attitudes have a strong and long lasting effect on perception. If one holds a negative attitude towards
someone or something, our perception is undoubtedly going to be distorted. We should make effort to
have a positive attitude and should not let our personal biases to crop in and hinder the perceptual
powers.

• Postpone Impression Formation:

It is a natural tendency of the human beings to form impression about something or someone very quickly.
Just in a meeting or two we draw conclusion about someone. Forming judgments with such limited
information is very wrong. A much better strategy is to postpone the impression formation until more
information about the individual and the situation is collected.

• Communicating Openly:
Much of misperception in an organisation arises due to inadequate communication or one way
communication. Utmost care should be taken, so that the message reaches the right person, at the right
time and in the right manner. Proper transmission of information followed by appropriate feedback can
help minimize perceptual distortions.

• Comparing One’s Perceptions with that of Others:

Another useful strategy to reduce perceptual errors is to compare one’s own perception with the
perception of the other person about the same object. By sharing perceptions we come across different
point of views and potentially gain a much better understanding of the situation and the object.

• Introducing Diversity Management Programs:

If we talk of today’s organisations, they are very much diverse and heterogeneous. The workforce is so
diverse with language differences, religious differences and cultural differences that it becomes really hard
to make the employees work together in an effective manner. The biggest challenge in front of the
management in to minimise perceptual bias and benefit from such diversity.

PILLARS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPT OF SELF

Self-concept is how we perceive our behaviours, abilities, and unique characteristics. For example, beliefs
such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-concept. Self-concept is the
image we have of ourselves. It is influenced by many forces, including our interaction with important
people in our lives.

Other examples of self-concept include:

• How you view your personality traits, such as whether you are an extrovert or introvert
• How you see your roles in life, such as whether you feel that being a parent, sibling, friend, and partner
are important parts of your identity
• The hobbies or passions that are important to your sense of identity, such as being a sports enthusiast
or belonging to a certain political party
• How you feel about your interactions with the world, such as whether you feel that you are contributing
to society
Self-concept tends to be more malleable when we're younger and still going through self-discovery and
identity formation. As we age and learn who we are and what's important to us, these self-perceptions
become much more detailed and organised.

At its most basic, self-concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of
others. It embodies the answer to the question: "Who am I?" If you want to find your self-concept, list
things that describe you as an individual. What are your traits? What do you like? How do you feel about
yourself?

Rogers' Three Parts of Self-Concept

Humanist psychologist Carl Rogers believed that self-concept is made up of three different parts:
• Ideal self: The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities you are
either working toward or want to possess. It's who you envision yourself to be if you were exactly as you
wanted.
• Self-image: Self-image refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time. Attributes like physical
characteristics, personality traits, and social roles all play a role in your self-image.
• Self-esteem: How much you like, accept, and value yourself all contribute to your self-concept. Self-
esteem can be affected by a number of factors—including how others see you, how you think you
compare to others, and your role in society.

Self-concept is not always aligned with reality. When it is aligned, your self-concept is said to be
congruent. If there is a mismatch between how you see yourself (your self-image) and who you wish you
were (your ideal self), your self-concept is incongruent. This incongruence can negatively affect self-
esteem.

COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT MODEL

There are some characteristics that all of our self-concepts have in common.
• Displays uniquely with each person.
• Vary from very positive to very negative.
• Carries emotional, intellectual, and functional dimensions.
• Changes with the context.
• Changes over time.
• Influence the individual’s life

Different dimensions may constitute different kinds of self-concept; for example, the dimensions that
create “academic self-efficacy” will not have as much overlap with “social self-efficacy.”
There are some overarching dimensions that researchers understand with the self-concept puzzle. These
dimensions include:
• Self-esteem
• Self-worth
• Self-image (physical)
• Ideal self
• Identities or roles (social)
• Personal traits and qualities

Some examples of positive self-concepts include:

• A person sees herself as an intelligent person;
• A man perceives himself as an important member of his community;
• A woman sees herself as an excellent spouse and friend;
• A person thinks of himself as a nurturing and caring person;
• A person views herself as a hard-working and competent employee.
On the flip side, these people could have negative self-concepts like:
• A person sees herself as stupid and slow;
• A man perceives himself as expendable and a burden on his community;
• A woman sees herself as a terrible spouse and friend;
• A person thinks of himself as a cold and unapproachable person;
• A person views herself as a lazy and incompetent employee.

REAL SELF VS. IDEAL SELF: DEFINITIONS

According to Carl Rogers, a humanistic psychologist, the personality is made up of the Real Self and the
Ideal Self. They are terms used to describe the domains of a person's personality.

The real self is the actual self that reflects the true qualities, aptitudes, inclinations, and characteristics of
an individual. It is intrinsically who a person actually is. It is the way one thinks, feels, looks, and behaves.
One's real self, however, is defined by their self-image because they have no way of knowing how others
view them. It is the self that feels most true to what and who a person is; it is the authentic self that leaves
a person feeling most at ease in their own skin.

The ideal self, on the other hand, is the self defined by the characteristics to which the individual aspires. It
is a self guide. It is the self that one believes they want to be, strives to be, and believes they should be as
a result of what they have learned and experienced. This self is a result of outside influences. The ideal
self is the repository of values absorbed from others; it is the sum of all the things a person believes they
should be and that they believe others think they should be.

The ideal self concept may incorporate elements of what one's parents taught them, what they admire in
others, what their society promotes, and what they believe is in their best interest.

Real Self vs. Ideal Self: Examples

The following examples illustrate what happens when one's ideal self and real self are in alignment and
what happens when they are not.

For instance, if an individual's ideal self-image includes honesty, a situation in which that individual does
not cheat on a test or assignment instills pride in his or her own work and mental well-being. This is an
example of the result of one's real self aligning with the ideal self's aspect of honesty.

However, if this person cheats on a test or assignment, he or she will experience anxiety and distress. The
result is that the real self does not demonstrate alignment with the ideal self.

To use another example, as an ideal self example, if a person's ideal self-image includes a strong work
ethic, attending all classes, reading all assignments, working diligently, and studying properly for exams
will result in that person earning a grade consistent with a strong work ethic. That individual experiences
peace of mind in terms of the congruence between their ideal and real selves.

On the other hand, if he or she admits to themselves that they did not keep up with assigned readings, did
not study for exams, or did not turn in term papers on time, they will experience anxiety and distress as a
result of the discrepancy between their actual work ethic and the ideal work ethic they have created for
themselves.

SELF-INTRODUCTION
“Nice to meet you. It’s a wonderful starry night, have you seen the epic full moon tonight? Do you also
enjoy taking photos of colorful sunsets or feel a bit reassured when you spot the moon while walking alone
at night? Isn’t being alive and able to witness the beauty of nature such a gift? I get excited and touched
just thinking about it.”

While above introduction might seem long-winded and maybe even a bit heavy (depending on the
atmosphere and location it might be appropriate or not – although you might even be able to break the
prevalent mood if you stand with some confidence). Enthusiasm, curiosity and rawness are contagious.
Who wants to spend time talking with a lifeless, boring person?

Whether the other person enjoys sunsets and full moons or not, they will be intrigued. Most introductions
tend to be superficial and boring. We are afraid of standing out too much and being judged, so we stick to
the basics. Why not try a more meaningful introduction next time? Or, if it is an acquaintance, going a bit
deeper in your small-talk. You can open up and share a vulnerable point about you (ideally somehow
related to the occasion) and spice up the dialogue. Appropriate self-revelation will most likely induce the
other person to also share a story of their own and allow a deeper connection.
If you feel you need some guidance, here is a useful tool:

The ‘meaningful introduction’ toolkit

1) out of the provided questions pick a few (3-5) that resonate with you and think of related stories in your
life
2) look for patterns/themes in your answers
3) weave the stories/answers together and share your personal narrative with others
4) reflect on your introduction
– did you learn something new?
– was it easy/hard? What parts did you struggle with?

Authenticity and meaningful connections go hand in hand. To express yourself you need to be aware of
your strengths, values, dreams and fears first, become comfortable with sharing portions of it with people
on the way, knowing that we all share similar joys and pains in life. A bit of vulnerability can spark a deep
and thoughtful discussion about a random topic and lead to stronger connections. And aren’t positive,
meaningful connections on of the main pillars of a happy, fulfilled life?

INTROSPECTION

Introspection is a psychological process that involves looking inward to examine one's own thoughts,
emotions, judgments, and perceptions.

While introspection has fallen out of favour as a research technique, there are many potential benefits to
this sort of self-reflection and self-analysis. Among them are:
• Introspection can be a great source of personal knowledge, enabling you to better recognise and
understand what you're thinking and feeling. This leads to a higher level of self-awareness, which can
help promote mental health and increase our happiness.
• The introspective process provides knowledge that is not possible in any other way; there is no other
process or approach that can provide this information. The only way to understand why you think or feel
a certain way is through self-analysis or reflection.
• Introspection can help people make connections between different experiences and their responses. For
example, when engaging in self-reflection after a disagreement with your spouse, you may recognise
that you responded defensively because you felt belittled or disrespected.
• Introspection can improve our capacity for empathy. The more we understand ourselves, the easier it
becomes to understand others. We're able to put ourselves "in their shoes" and empathise with how they
may feel.
• Introspection makes us stronger leaders. While some believe that being a good leader requires self-
confidence, others contend that self-awareness is more important. People who understand themselves
internally are able to lead others effectively, also often making better decisions.

Sometimes, seeing examples can help increase your understanding of a particular concept or idea. Some
examples of introspection in everyday life include:
• Engaging in mindfulness activities designed to increase self-awareness
• Journaling your thoughts and feelings
• Practicing meditation to better understand your inner self
• Reflecting on a situation and how you feel about it
• Talking with a mental health professional while exploring your mental and emotional states

If you want to be more introspective, there are a few things you can do to assist with this.
• Ask yourself "what" questions.
• Be more mindful.
• Expand your curiosity.
• Spend some time alone

S E L F - A S S E S S M E N T: C O N C E P T A N D H O W T O D O S E L F - A S S E S S M E N T ?

A self assessment is an individual review performed to identify elements that can be improved or exploited
to achieve certain predefined goals. In other words, the person analyses himself to improve his
perspective about his capabilities and potential.

Self-assessments are a great way to analyse your work performance and any areas for growth. You can
customise self-assessments to include the criteria that best fit your life and professional career. If you're
planning for the future or developing new aspirations, reflecting on your strengths, weaknesses, values
and accomplishments can help you determine what goals to work toward next.

A self-assessment is a process through which you can learn more about yourself and measure your
growth. You can perform self-assessments according to a variety of criteria, including development, skills
and relationships. These are some reasons why self-assessments are important:
• Better understand how well you're performing in your role
• Grow intrinsic motivation for development
• Know your strengths and weaknesses
• Create reasonable and ambitious goals
• Develop strategies for enhancing your skills
• Gain recognition for improvement

PERSONAL BRANDING

Personal branding is the conscious and intentional effort to create and influence public perception of an
individual by positioning them as an authority in their industry, elevating their credibility, and differentiating
themselves from the competition, to ultimately advance their career, widen their circle of influence, and
have a larger impact.

Personal branding is the process of creating a brand identity for a person or a company. As the name
suggests, this is a brand for you or your business.
Essentially, it is how you project your brand and its values to the world and ensure that your target
audience knows who you are, what you stand for, and why it’s worth choosing you over your competitors.
Personal branding is not just about marketing but about being your marketer. It is about standing for
yourself and your business to command respect and confidence from your peers and customers.

A D J U S T M E N T A N D M E N TA L H E A LT H

CONCEPT OF ADJUSTMENT

Something that is adjusted is altered or fixed slightly to better go with the needs of what's around it. When
you move to a new place, it takes a little while to get adjusted or used to the new environment.

As per Collin’s dictionary, A well-adjusted person has a mature personality and can control their emotions
and deal with problems without becoming anxious.

If you lose weight you might have to get your pants adjusted or altered slightly to fit and look better. If you
have a well-adjusted personality, you are someone who can get adjusted or situated to a particular set of
circumstances easily and without much fuss. As you can see, the meaning of the word can be adjusted or
altered slightly, depending on what context it's used in.

In psychology, adjustment is that condition of a person who is able to adapt to changes in their physical,
occupational, and social environment. In other words, adjustment refers to the behavioural process of
balancing conflicting needs, or needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals
regularly adjust to their environment. For example, when they are stimulated by their physiological state to
seek food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to the hunger stimulus. Adjustment
disorder occurs when there is an inability to make a normal adjustment to some need or stress in the
environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-ADJUSTED PERSON

Some characteristics of a well-adjusted person include high self-esteem, contentment, a realistic view of
the world, emotional stability and independence. Other characteristics include an ability to conduct self-
appraisals, responsibility and social stability.

A well-adjusted person understands his position in the world and readily accepts the responsibilities that
come with it. Adjustment develops over time and is highly dependent on a person’s upbringing and also on
life experiences.
A well-adjusted person knows how to deal with life’s challenges without compromising on the quality of his
life. He also knows his strengths and is constantly working towards improving on his weaknesses, which
results in high self-esteem. A well-adjusted person knows how to conduct realistic self-appraisals, taking
account of where he has failed and where he has succeeded. This helps in the creation of realistic goals
that help him reach his full potential.
A well-adjusted person is self-driven, has a good work-life balance, and is motivated to achieve personal
goals. Another characteristic of a well-adjusted person is a commitment to relationships, career and
business. A well-adjusted person takes responsibilities seriously and does not commit to things he cannot
complete. He is emotionally stable and can control anger and other emotions well. Overall, the well-
adjusted person is characterised as happy.

P E R S O N A L , S O C I A L A N D O C C U PAT I O N A L A D J U S T M E N T

Emotional adjustment may include good mental health, personal life satisfaction and coordination between
feelings, activities and thoughts, i.e. emotional adjustment is the mechanism by which individual achieves
emotional stablility.

Social adjustment is a process by which the relationships between persons, groups and cultural elements
are established on a mutually satisfactory basis.

According to Dawis and Lofquist, people enter their needs into the work environment and in return working
environment has demands from employees. Two key elements in this theory are work adjustment and
environmental structure. Work adjustment is ideal when person and environment have matching work
needs and work skills. A worker's attempts to improve his/her fitness to work environment can be
considered as actions designed to achieve work adjustment.

The basic assumption in the theory of work adjustment is that each individual employee seeks to achieve
and maintain a positive relationship with their work environment. Work adjustment is an important factor in
individual’s successful continuation in work setting.

It is important to remember that adjustment is a continuum, not a simple dichotomy; people can fluctuate
and be adept at adjusting in different circumstances. In general, a person that is well-adjusted will have the
following characteristics:

• An understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses and a tendency to play up strengths while
limiting the appearance of weaknesses
• Personal respect and appreciation, a well-adjusted individual finds themselves to be inherently
valuable
• Appropriate aspirations that require hard work and capitalizing on strengths without being too far out
of reach and setting them up for failure
• Basic needs such as food, water, shelter, and sleep are consistently met, as well as a general feeling
of security and positive self-esteem
• Positive attitude and a tendency to find the goodness in other people, objects and activities. A well-
adjusted person will acknowledge others' weaknesses but not actively search for faults.
• Flexibility to respond to and accommodate for changes in the environment
• Ability to handle adverse circumstances: well-adjusted people are able to take negative life events in
stride, they will be motivated to take action to remedy the problem rather than passively accept it
• A realistic perception of the world that allows for a healthy amount of distrust of others and
encourages pragmatic thinking
• A feeling of ease within surrounding environments. A well-adjusted person feels comfortable in
different aspects of their community such as home, school, work, neighborhood, religious
organization, etc.
• A balanced life philosophy that accounts for and acknowledges the impact that the world has on an
individual, as well as the impact an individual can have on the world [8]

F R U S T R AT I O N A N D D E F E N S E M E C H A N I S M
Frustration
Every human in this world has some kind of expectations and goals in their lives, and when their goals and
expectations do not come or get fulfill the way they wanted, then that feeling and emotions start frustrating
people. Everyone has some goals related to their work life, everyone has certain aims, everyone has
certain expectations from their loved ones, every individual in this world desires successful personal and
professional lives, but when these expectations and goals do not give the positive outcome, then its starts
frustrating people.

In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and
disappointment. Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or
goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. Frustration originates from feelings
of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs. If the needs of an
individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are
constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence, annoyance, aggression, and
sometimes violence are likely to follow.

People have a misconception related to time and outcome, and that misconception gives them frustration
people believe that more time they will give to certain work the better and best they will become and soon
they will achieve their desired successful life, No, Your hard work will for sure give you success and
desired life, but which work requires how much hard work and efforts is also very important, Always
Remember this saying “IF YOU REALLY LOOK CLOSELY, MOST OVERNIGHT SUCCESS TOOK A
LONG TIME.” -Steve Jobs

Hence before getting frustrated and quitting, remember your success graph in this real world can never be
Linear, But it will for sure give you success, most of the time you don’t get what you wish for but you will for
sure get what you work for. hence always do smart work and hard work before getting frustrated in your
life, Our misconception becomes the reason for different types of Frustration first Internal Frustration and
the other one is External Frustration, and these types of frustration become the major reason for our lack
of self-esteem, self-believe, and self-confidence.

Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. Internal blocking happens within an
individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears.
External blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks,
or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or challenges were unexpected, or if the
individual expected the goal to be easy to accomplish. Frustration is usually less when an individual
expected, or knew beforehand, that the goal would be “challenging."

Types of frustration are handled differently by different people, the first way is a negative way, such as
they become angry, get violent, talk rudely, go to silent mode, or shout for no reason, spoil others mood,
talk negatively about life etc whereas another way which very few people use is a positive way, they look
for solution, they don’t waste a second on cribbing and blaming, they try to find out the original cause of
the frustration, they face the situation bravely, they never allow frustration feeling to influence their
surrounding and mood, they stay positive about the outcome, they don’t play victim game, they work
hard and believe their efforts and capabilities etc, such people who learn to handle different types of
frustration positively, they are the ones who are capable of becoming a successful person.
Let’s understand different types of Frustration:

1) Personal Frustration
The reason I am writing Personal Frustration first because I believe that personal life matters a lot, Our
loved ones care, support is the biggest driving force, hence personal life matters a lot, therefore,
understanding Personal Frustration is also very important, The point from where personal frustration
starts is expectations, we expect a lot from others, we want others to be Perfect, but to be very frank
Perfection is nothing but just a myth, hence expecting perfection will definitely create Frustration, Hence
don’t over-expect from someone, because That over-expectation will definitely create frustration in you
and in your relationships.

2) Conflicting Frustration
Nowadays Conflict happens between anyone, it can happen between workers, employees, owners,
between travelers, between strangers etc, Nowadays people live under so much pressure, that their work
or personal life pressure becomes the reason for their conflicting frustration, people travel with negative
and frustrated mood and just a small push is enough to increase their frustration, hence always handle
your frustrated feeling or mood in a positive way, always look for solution always have a positive mental
attitude and mindset.
Another example, nowadays conflict takes place between two strangers who haven’t seen each other, who
are not aware of each other, but still they fight over an unnecessary topic, yes I am talking about social
sites and pages, people fight on comments, This fight becomes the reason for conflicting frustration, after
fighting and doing argument, people become frustrated and they spoil their entire day thinking about that
frustrated conflict and fight.

3) Pressure Frustration
There’s a huge difference between Motivation and pressure, Nowadays management tries to use
motivation to increase the productiveness of their workers, Motivation is really very positive and it
encourages people to do more work, it makes people understand their capability, it gives positivity,
Motivation decreases mental pressure, whereas negative pressure and more workload becomes the
reason for Pressure frustration, for example, pressure frustration can happen from both the sides, such as
giving lot of homework to students or assignment to students can be the pressure frustration from teacher
or professor side, but wasting too much time on other unnecessary things and doing studies in the last
minute can be the pressure frustration from students side, hence Understanding Pressure Frustration is
very important.

4) Environmental Frustration
Environment plays a very important role for Frustration, If we live in a positive and joyful environment then
staying positive becomes easy but however if we work or stay in the negative environment where people
always lie or fight for small reasons, or always say negative about life, or always believe in luck more than
hard work then getting frustrated becomes very easy, hence environment matters a lot, good environment
gives you positive vibes, whereas a negative environment can be the reason for your Environment
Frustration.
It is very important to choose the right people and the right environment because your environment is
more powerful than your will power.

Defense Mechanism
Sigmund Freud (1894, 1896) noted a number of ego defenses which he refers to throughout his written
works. His daughter Anna Freud (1936) developed these ideas and elaborated on them, adding ten of her
own. Many psychoanalysts have also added further types of ego defenses.

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from
anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian theory, defense
mechanismss involve a distortion of relaity in wome way so that we are better able to cope with a situation.

Why do we need Ego defenses?

We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise because we
feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding.
Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety)
or make good things feel better for the individual.
Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion (i.e., used with
frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.

Here are a few common defense mechanisms: There are a large number of defense mechanisms; the
main ones are summarized below.

1. Denial

Denial is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud which involves a refusal to accept reality, thus
blocking external events from awareness.If a situation is just too much to handle, the person may respond
by refusing to perceive it or by denying that it exist.
As you might imagine, this is a primitive and dangerous defense - no one disregards reality and gets away
with it for long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with other, more subtle
mechanisms that support it.

What is an example of denial?

Many people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life
they don’t wish to admit.
For example, a husband may refuse to recognise obvious signs of his wife’s infidelity. A student may
refuse to recognise their obvious lack of preparedness for an exam!

2. Repression

Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening
thoughts from becoming conscious.
Repression, which Anna Freud also called "motivated forgetting," is just that: not being able to recall a
threatening situation, person, or event. Thoughts that are often repressed are those that would result in
feelings of guilt from the superego.
This is not a very successful defense in the long term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or
memories into the unconscious, where, although hidden, they will create anxiety.
Repressed memories may appear through subconscious means and in altered forms, such as dreams or
slips of the tongue ('Freudian slips').

What is an example of repression?

For example, in the oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed and
pushed down into the unconscious.

3. Projection

Projection is a psychological defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud in which an individual attributes
unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person.

Projection, which Anna Freud also called displacement outward, is almost the complete opposite of turning
against the self. It involves the tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people.
In other words, the desires are still there, but they're not your desires anymore.

What is an example of projection?

Thoughts most commonly projected onto another are the ones that would cause guilt such as aggressive
and sexual fantasies or thoughts.
For instance, you might hate someone, but your superego tells you that such hatred is unacceptable. You
can 'solve' the problem by believing that they hate you.

4. Displacement
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target. The
target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic substitute.
Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something of which the Super ego does not permit. The Ego
thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id. Thus there is a transfer of energy from
a repressed object-cathexis to a more acceptable object. Turning against the self is a very special form
of displacement, where the person becomes their own substitute target. It is normally used in reference to
hatred, anger, and aggression, rather than more positive impulses, and it is the Freudian explanation for
many of our feelings of inferiority, guilt, and depression.
The idea that depression is often the result of the anger we refuse to acknowledge is accepted by many
people, Freudians and non-Freudians alike.

What is an example of displacement?

Someone who feels uncomfortable with their sexual desire for a real person may substitute a fetish.
Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiours may go home and kick the dog, beat up a family
member, or engage in cross-burnings.

5. Regression

Regression is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud whereby the the ego reverts to an earlier
stage of development usually in response to stressful situations.
Regression functions as form of retreat, enabling a person to psychologically go back in time to a period
when the person felt safer.

What is an example of regression?

When we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or primitive.
A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when they need to spend some time in the
hospital. Teenagers may giggle uncontrollably when introduced into a social situation involving the
opposite sex.

6. Sublimation

Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace our unacceptable
emotions into behaviors which are constructive and socially acceptable, rather than destructive activities.
Sublimation is one of Anna Freud's original defense mechanisms.

Sublimation for Freud was the cornerstone of civilized life, as arts and science are all sublimated
sexuality. (NB. this is a value-laden concept, based on the aspirations of a European society at the end of
the 1800 century).
What is an example of sublimation?
Many great artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium of art of music to
express themselves. Sport is another example of putting our emotions (e.g., aggression) into something
constructive.
For example, fixation at the oral stage of development may later lead to seeking oral pleasure as an adult
through sucking one's thumb, pen or cigarette. Also, fixation during the anal stage may cause a person to
sublimate their desire to handle faeces with an enjoyment of pottery.

7. Rationalization

Rationalization is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud involving a cognitive distortion of "the
facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do it often enough on a fairly conscious level
when we provide ourselves with excuses.
But for many people, with sensitive egos, making excuses comes so easy that they never are truly aware
of it. In other words, many of us are quite prepared to believe our lies.

What is an example of rationalization?

When a person finds a situation difficult to accept, they will make up a logical reason why it has happened.
For example, a person may explain a natural disaster as 'God's will'.
8. Reaction Formation

Reaction formation, which Anna Freud called "believing the opposite," is a psychological defense
mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she
thinks or feels.
Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding their socially
unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. Usually, a reaction formation is marked by exaggerated
behavior, such as showiness and compulsiveness.
By using the reaction formation, the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives.

Therapists often observe reaction formation in patients who claim to strongly believe in something and
become angry at everyone who disagrees.
What is an example of reaction formation?
Freud claimed that men who are prejudice against homosexuals are making a defense against their own
homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their
heterosexuality.
Another example of reaction formation includes the dutiful daughter who loves her mother is reacting to
her Oedipus hatred of her mother.

9 Introjection

Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into your own personality characteristics of
someone else, because doing so solves some emotional difficulty. For
Introjection is very important to Freudian theory as the mechanism by which we develop our superegos.
What is an example of introjection?
A child who is left alone frequently, may in some way try to become "mom" in order to lessen his or her
fears. You can sometimes catch them telling their dolls or animals not to be afraid. And we find the older
child or teenager imitating his or her favorite star, musician, or sports hero in an effort to establish an
identity.

10. Identification with the Aggressor

Identification with the aggressor is a defense mechanism proposed by Sandor Ferenczi and later
developed by Anna Freud. It involves the victim adopting the behavior of a person who is more powerful
and hostile towards them.
By internalising the behavior of the aggressor the 'victim' hopes to avoid abuse, as the aggressor may
begin to feel an emotional connection with the victim which leads to feelings of empathy.
What is an example of identification with the aggressor?
Identification with the aggressor is a version of introjection that focuses on the adoption, not of general or
positive traits, but of negative or feared traits. If you are afraid of someone, you can partially conquer that
fear by becoming more like them.
An extreme example of this is the Stockholm Syndrome, where hostages establish an emotional bond with
their captor(s) and take on their behaviors.
Patty Hearst was abused by her captors, yet she joined their Symbionese Liberation Army and even took
part in one of their bank robberies. At her trial, she was acquitted because she was a victim suffering from
Stockholm Syndrome.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence (EI) is most often defined as the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage,
control, evaluate and handle emotions. People with high emotional intelligence can recognize their own
emotions and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour, discern between
different feelings and label them appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments. Some
researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is
an inborn characteristic.

The term emotional intelligence was created by two researchers, Peter Salavoy and John Mayer in their
article “Emotional Intelligence” in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality in 1990. Although the
term first appeared in 1964, it gained popularity in the 1995 best-selling book Emotional Intelligence,
written by science journalist Daniel Goleman. Goleman defined EI as the array of skills and characteristics
that drive leadership performance.

We define Emotional Intelligence (or EI) as the ability to:

• Recognise, understand and manage our own emotions and;
 • Recognise, understand and influence the emotions of others.
In practical terms, this means being aware that emotions can drive our behaviour and impact people
(positively and negatively), and learning how to manage those emotions – both our own and others.
Managing emotions is especially important in situations when we are under pressure. For example, when
we are…
• Giving and receiving feedback
• Meeting tight deadlines
• Dealing with challenging relationships
• Not having enough resources
• Navigating change
• Working through setbacks and failure

Why Emotional Intelligence is Important?

It’s a scientific fact that emotions precede thought. When emotions run high, they change the way our
brains function, diminishing our cognitive abilities, decision-making powers, and even interpersonal skills.
Understanding and managing our emotions (and the emotions of others) helps us to be more successful in
both our personal and professional lives.

At a personal level, emotional intelligence helps us:

• Have uncomfortable conversations without hurting feelings
 • Manage our emotions when stressed or feeling overwhelmed
• Improve relationships with the people we care about

At work, emotional intelligence can help us:

• Resolve conflicts
• Coach and motivate others
• Create a culture of collaboration
• Build psychological safety within teams

In comparison to emotional intelligence, the idea of an IQ tends to be more focused on solving problems.
This is a much more clear-cut way of looking at things when compared to something like EQ.

Five Domains of Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence includes five realms.

1. Know your emotions.
2. Manage your emotions.
3. Motivate yourself.
4. Recognize and understand other people’s emotions.
5. Manage relationships (others’ emotions)

These five realms are broken down into four quadrants:

1. Self-Awareness.
 2. Social Awareness.
3. Self-Management.
4. Relationship Management.

The idea of emotional intelligence is widely recognized as a positive trend, because it is something that
can be improved and developed. While everyone may not accept this, research suggests that emotional
intelligence is something that one can improve upon over time.
• Personal competence is comprised of self-awareness and self-management.
• Self-awareness has to do with self-confidence, awareness of your emotional state, recognizing how
your behavior impacts others and paying attention to how others influence your emotional state.
• Self-management is about keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check, acting in congruence
with your values, handling change flexibly, and pursuing goals and opportunities despite obstacles
and setbacks.
• Social competence is comprised of social awareness and relationship management.
• Social awareness competencies include things like picking up on the moods of others, caring about
what others are going through and really hearing what someone else is saying.
• Relationship management competencies involve getting along well with others, handling conflict,
clearly expressing ideas and using sensitivity to manage others’ feelings.

In terms of emotional intelligence, self-awareness and self-management have to do with our ability to
relate to ourselves.
Social awareness and relationship management have to do with our ability to relate to others.

Self-Awareness
“If you understand your own feelings you get a really great handle on how you’re going to interact and
perform with others…So one of the first starting points is, ‘what’s going on inside of me?’”
Chuck Wolfe President, C.J. Wolfe Associates, LLC
Self-awareness involves being able to read your own emotions and recognize their impact. It also involves
knowing your strengths and limits and having a sense of self-confidence.
It’s about having the ability to both recognize and better understand moods and emotions and about
understanding what drives those moods and emotions and how that affects others.
In order to practice this skill, you must develop an awareness of your own emotional states.

Self-Management
Self-management competencies involve having a sense of achievement, displaying honesty, integrity and,
trustworthiness and being able to keep disruptive emotions under control.
It also involves having a sense of optimism, being adaptable and flexible and recognizing and seizing
opportunities as they arrive. Those who practice this competency accept responsibility and learn to choose
their own emotional response.
Self-management also involves learning to re-frame stressful situations into situations that are simply
challenging. Tuning into those emotional triggers can help you better manage your emotions as well.

Social Awareness
Social awareness competencies involve being able to sense other people’s emotions, understanding their
unique perspectives and learning to take an active interest in things they are concerned about.
It also involves having a sense of organizational awareness and a sense of service.

Relationship Management
Relationship management involves having a sense of teamwork and collaboration, being an inspirational
leader and learning how to resolve disagreements.
Those who are well versed in this competency know how to guide and motivate others, and use a wide
range of tactics for persuasion.
Relationship management also involves being able to initiate and lead people in a new direction and
learning how to bolster other’s abilities through feedback and guidance
 REFERENCES

Index Links
http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Personality-
Development.html
https://www.verywellmind.com/personality-
development-2795425
https://www.academia.edu/14511432/
Factors_affecting_Personality_Development
https://leverageedu.com/blog/determinants-of-
personality/
https://www.usatestprep.com/blog/role-teachers-
students-personality-development/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html
https://www.careers.govt.nz/assets/pages/docs/
career-theory-model-holland.pdf
https://www.thepositivepsychologypeople.com/a-
different-kind-of-self-introduction/
https://study.com/learn/lesson/ideal-self-vs-real-
self-overview-differences-examples.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC5139937/
https://seeken.org/types-of-frustration/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-
mechanisms.html
https://positivepsychology.com/emotional-
intelligence-frameworks/#domains
Img 5.1.1 https://sanapowell.com/author/curlytherapist/
Table 5.1.2 https://www.thehubevents.com/resources/examples-
assertive-behaviour
Img 5.2.1 https://www.performanceup.com.au/blog/be-smart
https://www.managementstudyguide.com/what-is-
assertiveness.htm
Index Links
https://cornercanyoncounseling.com/wp-content/
uploads/2015/05/Assertive-Passive-and-Aggressive-
Behavior.pdf
https://www.wattletreepsychology.com.au/why-do-
we-struggle-with-assertiveness/
https://www.wattletreepsychology.com.au/
assertiveness-is-self-care-and-self-compassion/
https://jamesclear.com/goal-
setting#What%20is%20Goal%20Setting?
https://positivepsychology.com/goal-setting/
https://www.tonyrobbins.com/ask-tony/can-create-
compelling-future/
https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/outliers/section7/
https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/outside-
voices-careers/2013/06/20/how-to-be-assertive-and-
get-what-you-want-at-work