Review of Related Literature

CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The literature review is associated with the review of previous research studies
and is considered as the most important and essential aspect of an investigation. It
refers to the general retrospective survey about the previous researches undertaken
related to the given research problem. Without consulting the previous research work,
it is imprudent and wasteful to proceed in any further study. The process of review of
the literature involves the location, study and evaluation reports of the researches
which are related to different areas, articles published, relevant portions of the
encyclopedias, abstracts of research, study of the pages out of the comprehensive
books on the related subjects and also the material from the related manuscripts. The
researcher must acquaint himself with all the familiar work done in the area of his
choice. He must update his knowledge about what has been thought and done in the
particular area in which he want to conduct his research. The researcher must develop
his research based upon the accumulated and recorded past knowledge which must be
dependent upon the previous investigation, previous findings and from the previous
researches. He must draw the relevant conclusion based on the survey of the previous
researches and add few drops to a deep ocean of knowledge. The whole of the future
work will be built upon the previous literature studies. According to Borg (1965), our
work will become shallow and native as well as it will prove to be work of duplication
with the previous work if we fail to lay the foundation of our work on the basis of past
studies.

The main objective of retrospection of the previous researches is to provide

enough evidence so that a researcher becomes familiar with the work done earlier in
the same area and to provide knowledge about the unknown and untested areas. The
research becomes authentic, reliable and effective if the prior knowledge is taken into
account. It will assist research scholar to eliminate repetition of preceding research,
provides helpful assumptions and give appropriate recommendations which are
essential for research. Review of related literature also helps to hone an understanding
of already existing knowledge in problem area, provides the foundation for the
research project and makes the researcher aware of the status of the problem (Best and
Kahn, 2008). The review is very important for any type of research which helps to

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minimize the possibility of deadlocks, rebuffed topics, wasteful attempts rejected by

earlier investigators and the vital inaccurate results established on defective research
model. In nutshell, the preceding knowledge of research studies is very crucial as it
provides insight to the investigator so that duplication of the facts which are already
established can be avoided.

2.1 Review
The present study is an attempt to find the career aspirations of government
and private school students and to find the significant difference between the two. A
study conducted by Green, Parsons, Sullivan, Wiggins (2015) has highlighted that the
success of private schooling in Britain in delivering high academic achievements and
better jobs has recently been attributed to the schools engendering high aspirations
and confidence among their students. However, no empirical evidence has yet been
offered to support this diagnosis or the policy implications that may follow. Using
recently repaired data on secondary school type from the 1970 British Cohort Study
and on cognitive skills at the age of 16, we investigate the effect of private schools on
pupils‟ self-esteem and locus of control at ages 10 and 16, on aspirations and high-
value network access at age 16. We then examine the effect of these factors on
earnings in mid-career and their hypothesized significance for understanding the
private school earnings premium achieved in later life. We find that private school
pupils‟ have substaintially higher levels of self-esteem, a more internal locus of
control, higher job quality aspirations and better perceived access to high-valued
networks for job search. There is some evidence that private schools do help to
stimulate locus of control, especially at primary level and to raise aspirations and
provide access to network.

This study by Singh and Dogra (2015) has attempted to explore vocational
aspirations of Muslims girls pursuing graduation level course in Barielly region. A
sample of 2000 Muslim girls was randomly selected from four districts of Barielly
region i.e. Bareilly, Budaun, Pilibhit and Shahjahanpur. Vocational aspirations of
Muslim girls were explored deeply in relation to their academic stream, their parents‟
occupational status and type of family. The results have shown that the parents‟
occupational status and academic stream had produced significant impact on

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vocational aspirations of Muslim girls while type of family i.e single/joint did not
affect their aspirations.

Since the present investigation is aimed at exploring the relationship of

Career Aspirations in relation to Self-Efficacy, Peer Pressure and Perceived Parenting
Style among government and private secondary school students. The review is
presented under the following major heads:

 Career Aspirations and Self-Efficacy

 Career Aspirations and Peer Pressure

 Career Aspirations and Perceived Parenting Style

2.1.1 Career Aspirations and Self-Efficacy

The significance of Self-Efficacy on a person‟s beliefs about education had

been extensively reviewed in the literature. It has been revealed that person‟s beliefs
about oneself have an important impact on promotion of positive results and reduction
of the possibility of negative results. The people possessing high level of self-efficacy
tend to be creative, efficacious and competent about their achievements as compared
to their peer group. They apply greater efforts and complete their tasks with more
concentration than others. They showcase more commitment towards the attainment
of their targets. Following studies show how a person‟s own efficacy is related with
the students‟ career aspirations.

The self-efficacy theory of Bandura have been tested in a study by Timothy,

Teresa, Judith, Brook, Ron, Szendre and Dottie (1992). The sample included 85
equivalent students who were having background of the worker working seasonally
on the farm. They studied in the minority high schools. The willingness to consider
the occupations depends upon the students‟ own expectations about themselves, their
interest areas and their perception about the satisfaction which they will get from
benefits of pursuing specific jobs. A range of jobs they considered was related with
their self-efficacy but not to their aptitude. The study has reported that males and
females both had higher Self-Efficacy and readiness to select those employment
opportunities in which most of their gender is employed.

Arulmani, Van and Easton (2001) conducted a study related with the planning

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of the students about their career as well as the affect of socio-economic and social
cognitive variables. These students included disadvantaged boys who studied in the
high schools. It was administered in the Indian economy and measured the influence
of socio-economic determinants of Self-Efficacy and career beliefs on the career
planning orientation of high school boys from disadvantaged backgrounds. A sample
consisted of 755 high school boys from nine urban schools in Bangalore, South India.
The various instruments were used like socioeconomic status scale, questionnaire,
middle school Self-Efficacy scale with 5 point to determine career decision-making
Self-Efficacy. It adopted cross-sectional research design. This study showed that the
career development process is positively affected by career decision-making and self-
efficacy.

Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara and Pastorelli (2001) conducted a study to find

the influence of the three general types of Self-Efficacy, academic aspirations and
academic achievements of the children in regard to their efficacy perceptions
particularly in six career paths (science-technology, education, medical, literary-art,
social-service, military-police and agricultural-horticultural). A sample of 272
children was taken. The results have shown that these types of occupational Self-
Efficacy proved to be major factors which form the basis of children‟s career choices.

The study by Rottinghaus, Lindley, Green and Borgen (2002) have focused in their
research on finding how the level of educational aspirations of the young adults is
affected by their interests, self- efficacy and personality. A sample of 365 college
students was taken. The researchers explained the level of educational aspirations by
analyzing the incremental role of personality, interest and Self-Efficacy. The
measures included the Adjective Check List (ACL) (Gough and Melbrun, 1983) the
skills confidence Inventory (Betz, Borgen and Harmon 1996) as well as the six
general occupational Themes (GOTs) of the strong interest inventory (Harman,
Hansen, Borgen and Hammer, (1994). The overall result of this study has shown that
the personality, Self- Efficacy and interests are the domains which made individual
contributions to determine the occupational aspirations of the college students.

Pinquart, Juang and Silbereisen (2002) have shown that to achieve promising
career development, it is essential to have a successful transition from school to work.
The present study is longitudinal. This study investigated whether unemployment and
job satisfaction at the age of 21 can be associated with academic Self-Efficacy beliefs

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and grades in school at the ages of 12-15. They found that those individuals who had
high Self-Efficacy got better grades. They faced less chance of becoming unemployed
and were more likely to be satisfied with their job. Higher career related motivation
and less perceived application stress which were measured at the time of vocational
training at the age of 18 acted as the mediator in the relationship between higher self-
efficacy beliefs and unemployment . It was concluded that an adolescent can be
prepared for successful transition from school to work on the basis of the
interventions of the school which focused on the measurement of academic capability
and self-efficacy.

A study conducted by Lent, Brown, Schmidt, Brenner, Lyons and &

Treistman (2003) has depicted how the outcome expectations, interests and major
choice of goals of engineering students are related with their self-efficacy. In this
longitudinal study, they analyzed the nature of the temporal relationships among the
basic personal variables in the social cognitive model of academic and career choice.
The sample consisted of 209 students who took the beginning level engineering
courses either a predominantly white or a historically black university. The measures
of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests and goals were completed by them
near the end of two consecutive semesters. The study indicated the support for a
model in which Self-Efficacy served as a temporal precursor of outcome expectation,
interests and goals.

Creed, Patton and Bartum (2004) conducted a study on 130 school students
who were in the final year. The various scales which were tapping optimism/
pessimism, self-esteem, external career barriers, career decision making Self-Efficacy,
career focus and career indecision were administered on these students. The study has
concluded that the career focus (males and females) and career indecision (males
only) were predicted on the basis of career decision-making self- efficacy, internal
and external barriers and optimistic cognitive style.

Gushue, Cristine, Clarke, Pantzer and Scanlan (2006) conducted a study to

explore whether the social cognitive variables of career decision-making, self-efficacy
and perceptions of barriers and the outcome variables of vocational identity and career
exploration behavior are related to one another or not. They took a sample of 128
students from urban high school in Latino. It was indicated in the results that higher
levels of career decision-making Self-Efficacy was related with the differentiated

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vocational identity and a greater engagement with career exploration tasks.

A study was conducted by Leal (2006) to examine the various predictors

associated with the non-Traditional career Self-Efficacy especially in Mexican
American Adolescent Women. The major objective of this study was to find out how
the mastery motivation and career aspirations contributed as the predictors of non-
traditional career Self-Efficacy in Mexican American Adolescent Women. The
sample for the study consisted of 121 adolescent high school girls in south Texas.
Four instruments were used to measure their responses. These instruments were -
occupational self-efficacy scale, work and family orientation questionnaire, multi-
group ethnic identity measure followed by a demographic questionnaire. The study
concluded that a significant and positive relationship between career aspirations and
non-traditional career Self-Efficacy has been established in the Mexican American
adolescent women.

In their study Ming, Ahmad and Ismail (2007) have examined that in the
manufacturing sector whether there existed the relationships between Self-Efficacy,
work-family conflict, social support, gender role attitudes, role model and career
aspirations of top management, especially among women in middle management. For
this purpose data was collected from 109 women working in 8 companies. The self-
administered questionnaires were used. It was found that self- efficacy, social support,
gender role attitudes and role model were significantly related to career aspiration.
Out of all these variables only three were found to be significantly explaining career
aspirations. These included self-efficacy, social support and gender role attitudes. It
was also concluded that overall about 44% of the variability in career aspirations was
explained by the studied variables.

Lee, Choi, Kim, Lee and Lee (2008) studied how the social supports, career
barriers and the academic self-efficacy are related with career aspirations. The social
cognitive theory was taken as the basis for this research whose purpose was to find
out the relationships between the career aspirations and these related variables. A
survey was conducted on 246 people out of which 129 were males and 117 were
females. The conclusion was drawn that the career aspirations are positively related to
academic Self-Efficacy (r = 0.353).

Tang, Pan, and Newmeye (2008) have highlighted that in career decision-

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making, the career Self-Efficacy has to play a significant role. All the factors which
influence the career aspirations of the students of high school were taken into account.
In this study a sample of 141 high school students was taken. The interactive
relationships among learning experiences, career Self-Efficacy outcome expectations,
career interests and career choices were examined in regard to the social cognitive
career development model. The structural equation modeling analysis has concluded
that the career Self-Efficacy played the mediating role in the process of the career
decision-making. The specific paths among the predicting variables to career
aspirations were seen to be different for males and female high school students.

Zeldin, Britner and Pajaras (2008) conducted a study to better understand the
ways in which their Self-Efficacy beliefs were created and subsequently influenced
their academic and career choices. For this purpose they explored the personal stories
of men who selected careers in science, technology, engineering or mathematics
(STEM). The analysis of ten narratives revealed that the primary source of men's Self-
Efficacy beliefs was mastery experience and that for women social persuasions and
vicarious experiences. The study concluded that different sources are significant in the
creation and development of the Self-Efficacy beliefs of men and women who pursue
stem careers.

Ziebell (2010) in her study explored the relationship among personal factors,
environmental factors, career maturity and career-decision-making within a selected
population. The sample consisted of 220 students who were 10th -12th grade inner-
city adolescents with mean age of 16.33. They were selected from a large
metropolitan public school in the Midwestern United States. A demographic
questionnaire and five research measures–the career decision Self-Efficacy scale short
form, the structured career maturity inventory, attitudes screening form A-2,
vocational outcome expectations –revised and the perceptions of barrier scale were
used to collect data. The results have been shown in the structural equation modeling
which suggested that environmental supports e.g. career maturity, proactively, career
exploration, perception of fewer barriers instrumental and emotional support were
directly related to inner-city youths efficacy to make career decisions as well as the
expected outcomes of these decisions. On the basis of social cognitive career theory
(SCCT), career decision-making Self-Efficacy and vocational outcome expectations
were positively correlated to career choice goals. It has also concluded that the inner

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city adolescents who possessed greater levels of career decision-making Self-

Efficacy, more positive vocational outcome expectations and higher level of academic
achievement are able to endorse viable career choice goals.

Knight and Vainre (2011) have conducted a study to measure career

aspirations and Self-Efficacy of European psychology students. A sample consisted of
284 European students who studied psychology. It was observed in the study that a
majority of participants claim to have received no career guidance (68.4%), a sizeable
group (39.1%) have a mismatch between the job area they would like to enter and the
area they think they are most likely to enter. The results have also indicated that
higher Self-Efficacy is related to the wish to work in the field of the degree and
believing in finding a job in the area of one's interest.

Duffy, Allan and Dik (2011) examined in their study the relationship between
calling and academic satisfaction. The study was conducted on a diverse sample of
312 undergraduate students. It was observed that the presence of a calling was
moderately correlated with academic satisfaction. A multiple mediation model was
used to test three potential mediators to this relation: career decision Self-Efficacy,
work hope and meaning in life. With the use of boot strapping techniques it was found
that significant indirect effects were there for two mediators out of the three namely,
career decision Self-Efficacy and work hope. The inclusion of the mediators in the
model has made the relation of calling and academic satisfaction non-significant. The
results have shown that calling relates to greater satisfaction in the academic domain
because of increased career decision Self-Efficacy and work hope.

Shumbal and Naong (2012) determined various factors which influenced

career choice and aspirations of the students in South Africa. The study was guided by
quantitative paradigm. It followed the survey method in which data was collected
through structured questionnaire for identification of all the factors that influence
career choice and aspirations among South African students. A sample was selected
which consisted of 133 first and second year university students out of which 77 were
females and 56 were males in the age range 15 to 30 years. Purposive sampling
technique was used. Data collected by Career aspirations questionnaire has explored
the factors that influenced medical students' career choice and aspirations. The
collected data was analyzed using percentages and tables. The results have indicated
that the family, the ability of the learner to identify his/her preferred career choice and

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teachers were the most important factors that influence the career choice and
aspirations of students.

Sandra (2012) studied factors influencing adolescents‟ career aspirations in

Hong-Kong. The study took social cognitive career theory (SCCT) as the main basis.
Those variables were selected which empirically and theoretically supported their
possible importance to influence the career aspirations high school students of Hong-
Kong. In this study two separate studies were included. In the first study, the Chinese
Career Aspiration Scale (CAS) and Career Related Parent Support Scale (CRPSS)
were constructed. Self-Efficacy Inventory (AD-SEI) and Career Development Self-
Efficacy Inventory (CD-SEI) were also used in a simplified way in this study. A
sample of 677 secondary school students was selected and the four measures were
validated for this sample. The relationship between predictor and outcome variables
was measured by using correlation coefficient analysis. The results have shown that
the students' perceived academic achievement influenced continuing education
directly and indirectly through academic Self-Efficacy or career-efficacy.

Yon and Goh (2012) examined the various determinants of career maturity
change of Korean adolescents in the past time period of five years. These
determinants included personal as well as contextual. For this study data was
collected through the Korean Youth Panel survey which consisted of 3,449 junior
high students from grades 8 to 12 which started in the year of 2003. The statistical
technique of linear mixed-effects regression was used. The results concluded that the
levels of Korean Adolescents career maturity were significantly influenced by
personal predictors (gender, work values, Self-Efficacy, career development activities,
school achievement and part time experiences and contextual predictor (career
conversations with parents, relationships with friends and private education expense).

Kaur and Bala (2013) explored the decision-making difficulties related to

career with regard to decision-making Self-Efficacy, personality and style of decision-
making among students of government senior secondary schools of Chandigarh. This
study compared the behavior of adolescents on the basis of the variables of career
decision-making difficulties career decision-making Self-Efficacy, personality and
decision making style on the basis of gender i.e. boys/girls, decided and undecided
and on the basis of stream i.e. medical/non-medical/commerce and arts. The
descriptive, analytical survey method of investigation along with the techniques of

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comparison has been used. The results have been calculated through bi variate and
multi- variate correlation between the groups. The study has been conducted on a
sample of 533 senior secondary school (+2 students) studying in the government
senior schools of Chandigarh. The career decision-making difficulties were taken as
the main criterion variable. The results have indicated that the significant predictors
which contributed in career decision-making difficulties were self-appraisal, problem
solving ability, Career decision making Self-Efficacy and self-confidence.

Reddan (2015) examined how the learning activities and assessment items
affect the students. These were developed for the course on students “Self-Efficacy in
making positive career decisions”. Before the commencement of work experience
placement, various workshops were conducted on the basis of SOAR Model (Kumar,
2007). It consisted of activities related to the development of the three phases of the
model - self-awareness, opportunity awareness and aspirations. Prior to and on
completion of the course the two measuring tools namely career decision Self-
Efficacy scale (CDSS) and a questionnaire were administered. The scores were
compared which demonstrated significant differences in relation to student‟s
confidence in self-appraisal, occupational information, goal selection, planning and
problem solving. The students had the perception that course has increased their
awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses which were related to employability
and their knowledge of specific occupations.

Kim and Yun (2015) conducted a study to measure the correlation between the
academic Self-Efficacy, achievement motivation and career aspirations of the
students. It‟s objective is also to identify the various factors which effect their career
aspirations. This study was analyzed by using three statistical measures - t-test,
ANOVA, Pearson's correlation coefficient, multiple regressions. The research has
shown that there exists the positive correlation between personality, satisfaction in
major, academic Self-Efficacy and achievement motivation. The multiple regressions
have indicated that personality, achievement motivation, academic Self-Efficacy and
major satisfaction were jointly predicting career aspirations. The research findings
have suggested the development of a program that can enhance academic Self-
Efficacy and achievement motivation. This program will assist the students to dream
about a happy future in their school years by helping them choose and decide their
career according to their aptitude.

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Gbadamosi, Evans, Richardson and Ridolfo (2015) examined how the

students' part time work, career aspirations and Self-Efficacy are related to each other.
A sample of 357 UK students from 92 universities was selected. It was found that
Self-Efficacy is significantly correlated with the career aspiration so Self-Efficacy is
considered as the strongest indicator of career aspiration. The findings have
highlighted the importance of individual Self-Efficacy in the value attached to part-
time working among students in higher education (HE).

Curtin, Malley, and Stewart (2016) examined the relationships between

different kinds of mentoring (instrumental, psycho social and sponsorship) and
academic career Self-Efficacy interests and goals. Analysis controlled for race,
gender, field and candidacy status. Psychosocial and instrumental mentoring predicted
feelings of Self-Efficacy in one's ability to pursue an academic career and exerted
significant indirect effects through that Self-Efficacy on students' interest in such a
career.

Cho and Ryu (2016) examined the relationships among Self-Efficacy, social
comparison standards, career success, career expectation (CE) and family-work
conflict, through surveying the faculties of two main universities in Shandong
Province, China. The survey instruments were used which collected the data online.
The sample included 147 university women faculties of two major universities in the
region. The results have shown that the higher Self-Efficacy group had higher career
expectations and the increasing Self-Efficacy should be a prerequisite to help them
develop their careers.

Harlow and Bowman (2016) measured the career decision Self-Efficacy and
career maturity of college students. The study was conducted on 268 first-generation
baccalaureate and community college student participants. The research has analyzed
three independent variables which included generational status, college type and
socio-economic status. A separate analysis was undertaken by using career maturity
as dependent variable and it highlighted a main effect for generation with first
generation students reporting the lower level of career maturity than non first
generation students. The analysis has also indicated about an interaction effect for
generation by SES with first generation students from high SES backgrounds
reporting the lowest levels of CDSE.

Alam (2016) studied the relationships between Self-Efficacy, self-concept and

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occupational aspiration of adolescents. Simple random sampling technique was used

for selecting the participants. The research aimed to investigate the relation between
self-constructs viz. Self-Efficacy as well as self-concept and occupational aspirations,
to find out the gender and residential differences in the selected variables. A random
sample consisted of 300 students out of which 150 were boys and 150 were girls
selected from different government schools of Hyderabad city was taken using Self-
Efficacy scale by Schwarzer and Jerusalem, self-concept scale by Ahluwalia and
occupational aspiration scale by Grewal. Analysis of the results was done using
correlation and t-test. The results have shown that Self-Efficacy and self-concept have
large associations with adolescents‟ occupational aspirations. There is significant
gender and residential differences in the relation between Self-Efficacy, self-concept
and occupational aspirations of adolescents. No relationship was found in Self-
Efficacy and gender of adolescents.

Nauta, Epperson and Kahn, (1998); O‟Brien, Friedman, Tipton and Linn
(2000); Mau (2003) and Nauta and Epperson (2003), has confirmed in their research
that Self-Efficacy played a highly influential role in occupational development and
pursuits. The term Self-Efficacy means the way by which an individual views his
abilities and capabilities to pursue an academic endeavor or for a career choice. If an
individual has a lower sense of self-efficacy, he or she may not persevere in
challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997). The higher the individuals‟ perceived efficacy to
fulfill occupational roles, the greater their staying power in challenging career pursuits
(Bandura et.al. 2001). It is the tendency of the individuals that they try to eliminate
those occupations they feel are beyond their capabilities, regardless of how attractive
the occupations are. Thus, Self-appraisal of capabilities determines goal aspirations
and hence, the stronger the perceived Self-Efficacy, the higher the goal aspirations
and the firmer the commitment to them (Locke and Latham, 1990)

2.1.2 Career Aspirations and Peer Pressure

Peer Pressure is a significant variable which is studied in the literature

concerned with the various factors for determining the academic and career
expectations of the students. It includes the positive or negative influence which
others have on person‟s expectations and level of achievement through providing of
feedbacks, models or norms as well as how one should behave, think and act in

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certain situations. Peers are considered as the essential socialization agents for a
young individual who help them to develop their identities and self-concept. The
following studies are the review that shows how the peer pressure has an effect on the
career aspirations of the students. A teenager's career decisions are influenced by a
large number of factors, one of them is Peer-Pressure. The young children take the
career decisions as influenced by the peer pressure. Sometimes peer pressure can also
limit young people's career aspirations.

Auyeung and Sands (1997) had conducted a study to investigate the various
factors which influence the career choice of accounting students who belonged to
different cultural backgrounds. The research has used the individualism-collectivism
dichotomy to analyze the significance of factors which have their impact on the
comparative career choices of Australian, Hong Kong and Taiwanese students in
selection of accountancy as a career. The results have revealed that the factors like
parental influence, peer influence, teacher influence and association with others have
higher impact on career choices for Hong Kong and Taiwanese students. On the other
hand, the Australian students were more influenced by aptitude for subject matter.

Wall, Covell and Peter (1999) in their study have examined relationship
among social support, perception of future opportunity and education with career
aspirations and expectations. The path analysis has indicated that peer, family, teacher
support the prediction of opportunity for females, on the other hand only family
support is predicting the perception of opportunity for males. The research has used
ANOVAS which concluded that females perceived more teacher and peer support
than do males.

Flaxman, Guerrero and Gretchen (1999) examined the institutional and social
and psychological effects of attending an urban career magnet high school. It was
constructed specially to investigate the differential impact of the curriculum and
instruction in the school students‟ extracurricular experience, work experience while
in school after graduation, peer relationships while in school and family attitudes
towards schooling on the postsecondary education potential and career development
of the graduates of both career magnet and comprehensive high schools. The sample
in the study included 110 graduates of four career magnet high schools and four
comprehensive high schools in the city of New York. The graduates of the career
magnet schools told that most of their friends were fellow students in their classes

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who didn't live in their neighbourhood and it was pressure from these peers that
influenced them not to cut classes. Positive peer influence was the major cause for the
higher attendance rates found at career magnet high schools. The analyses has
highlighted that the influence on the career magnet student is transmitted through peer
relationships.

Stuart (2000) conducted a study with a title „What Women Want: In Finance,
the Operative Worlds are Opportunity, Flexibility and Balance‟. It was depicted that
peers‟ attitudes towards gender and ethnicity may increase or decrease a person‟s
confidence in pursuing a career. The findings have revealed that adolescents are easily
influenced by their peers as they depend on their friends to prove the validation of
their choices that also includes their career decisions.

Webber (2006) examined the impact of the gender specific peer groups on
students‟ intentions and realization to stay on into post - compulsory education when
they reached the age of 16. The findings of the study have revealed that boys'
intentions and realizations are influenced by their male peers. On the other hand the
girls' intentions are influenced by their whole peer group while their realizations are
influenced by their female peer group.

Bojuwoye (2006) conducted a study to find out all the factors that have strong
impact on the career decisions. The sample included eighty respondents out of which
40 were males and 40 were females. All having mean age of 22 years. The findings
have shown that family variables of parental high expectations of children and
appropriate communications within the family and factors such as prestige statuses of
some occupations, school curricular subjects, academic performance, teacher
influences as well as peer pressure had strong positive influences on career choices of
these respondents.

Adya and Kaiser (2006) examined the influence of some of the variables on
girls' choice of IT careers. These include modeling social, structural and personal
variables that affect IT career choice. They have used Ahuja's (2002) classification of
social and structural influences on women's IT careers Myers, Brackle and Chevli-
Saruq's (2003) model of women's career decisions and individual differences
suggested by Trauth (2002) to extend literature to children as well as adolescents
career choices. The structural influences included social influences, biased external

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and internal gender perceptions and stereotyping, role models, peers, media and
family institutional support such as teachers and counselors, access to technology and
same - sex versus co-educational schools. Results have revealed that both can
influence career decisions, among women, the male peers play an important part in
choice of MST as a career (Smith 2000).

Dorji (2008) investigated the career aspirations of secondary school leavers‟

and the various factors affecting these aspirations in Bhutan. The main objective of
this study was to find out the contribution of age, gender, ability, self-concept, career
goals, economic status, parental influences, and experiences in school and peers‟
influences as predictors of career aspirations. The design was quantitative research
design. The data was collected with the help of simple descriptive survey
questionnaires. The research sample of this study included- 376 class 10 and 12
students from six public higher secondary schools in Bhutan. The findings have
highlighted that there was a significant relationship between self-concept, career
goals, parental influences and experiences in schools with career aspirations.
However, the other factors like age, gender, level of education, ability, economic
status and peer influences did not indicate a significant relationship with their career
aspirations. Results from this study have shown that there are other factors that may
be impeding the actualization of these students‟ aspirations.

Johnson (2008) studied students of the final grade of the Swedish

comprehensive school by matching information on social origin and achievements.
The study was conducted in two entire cohorts of students. The sample consisted of
160 and 417 students out of 829 schools. By controlling the school fixed effects and
thus, through observing the features of students and families, the results revealed that
the propensity to make a high-aspiring choice of upper-secondary school program is
lower for students with high-achieving schoolmates, given own achievement. While
theoretically, it was interesting that the effect is small compared to that of own
achievement. The movement of an average student from an average school to a school
that shows one standard deviation lower in achievement increases the probability of a
high-aspiring choice by three percentage points. Therefore, the conclusion was that
the children with high academic expectations and achievements are likely to connect
with those students who were sharing the same interests and expectations. On the
other hand, the adolescents who have worse attitude to school and lower expectations

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will most likely to be attracted to their peers.

Christofides, Hoy and Milla (2008) explored all the factors that help to shape
the development of aspirations and achievements of grades during high school. It also
studied the role that these aspirations, grades and other variables play in achievement
of the educational outcomes. The data was collected by using YITS-A, a biennial
longitudinal survey of 5 cycles. The process included the follow-ups of the students in
the age group of age 15 to 23 years. The interviews took place during the time period
of 2000 to 2008, in the spring of every 2 years of the time span. The required sample
was selected on the basis of two stage probability sampling method. The findings
have revealed that parental expectations and peer effects have an important influence
on educational outcomes through grades, aspirations and their interconnectedness. It
was seen that the students are influenced more by their close friends and classmates
than by their parents, teachers and the features of high school.

Espero (2009) studied the correlation among the factors that influence the
career decisions among children of overseas - Filipino Workers (OFW). The main
objective of this study was to find out the extent of relationship between career
decisions and selected internal (personal) and external (social/environmental) factors.
The research was conducted by using the descriptive survey method. For collection of
data, survey questionnaire and focus group discussion guide were used. The
investigator has made a questionnaire to collect information regarding the students‟
career decision-making process, their post secondary career decisions and the factors
affecting them. A focus group discussion was undertaken to justify and explain the
students‟ answers to the questionnaires. The sample included respondents who were
341 senior high school students out of which 137 males and 204 were females. All
children were of OFWs. The results have shown that only 2% friends contribution in
their career decision making. The total influence of the friends‟ was perceived 38%
which was considered to be moderate.

Ngee (2011) has explored the influence of peer and parental encouragement to
the students‟ for choosing the nursing education. Total 1200 students were send
invitation to participate in the study. Out of these only 798 students replied to the
invitation by completing a self-administered survey. The research has followed a
qualitative descriptive design. It was exploratory in nature. The sample was selected
from the health and life science school in Singapore polytechnic. The whole of the

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questionnaire was divided into 3 parts for the collection of data. The results have
indicated that peer and parental encouragement have significant influence on the
students for the selection of a nursing tertiary education in Singapore.

Edwards and Quinter (2011) in his study has examined the influence of the
factors on the career choice among four secondary school students in Kisumu
Municipality, Kenya. The research has been conducted by using descriptive survey
design. The sample included a population of 332 students. The data was gathered
through questionnaire and interview schedules. No variance was reported for persons
that influenced career aspirations by gender. It was seen that the family members have
more influence in student‟s career choices as compared to other persons. Results have
depicted that when the students interact with peers, their advice is less important as
compared to family members, teachers and career counselors.

Patmalniece (2011) conducted a study towards understanding of educational

aspirations and expectations. The objective of this research was to create an
understanding of how factors like gender, ethnicity, peers, parents, teachers and Self-
Efficacy beliefs have an impact on young adults‟ academic and career aspirations as
well as expectation. A variable which is considered important in the literature and is
concerned with the determinants of academic and career expectations is the peer
effect. It has been highlighted that if a person is around a certain group of people, it
will have an effect on a person‟s future specifically on his academic level or career
which he will expect to achieve. But, the degree of the importance of peers is dubious
as different studies provide different types of results.

Garla (2011) investigated about the reasons as to why students at Gandhi

Dental College have made a choice of dentistry as their career. It also had the
objective to investigate all the factors that have their influence on their decision as
well as to study their different career goals. Career aspiration of dental students was
measured through the use of a questionnaire that was distributed among dental
students and interns. It was found that the overall response rate was 86%. Results
have revealed that the major reason for the students to enter this profession was their
own interest (53.91%) and 81.74% said they will advice their friends to take this
profession since it has good scope.

Alika (2010) investigated the influence of parents and peer groups of school

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students in the choice of a career among secondary school students. The study has
used three research instruments - occupational clusters preference scale (OCPS) peer
pressure assessment scale (PPAS) and parental influence assessment inventory (PIA).
The sample included a population consisting of 552 students of the two senior
secondary schools. Findings have shown that there was no significant relationship
between parental and peer group influence on career choice in humanities among
secondary school students. The research has also given recommendation that
counselors should work directly with parents and peers specifically in relation to
career development so that they can enhance the positive aspects. This may result in
the improvement of the career development prospects of our future workers.

Peter and Maria (2012) investigated the variables that have an impact on the
career choice among secondary school students in Kenya. The entire research was
directed towards the achievement of the two objectives- firstly, to find out the impact
of peer groups on students' career choice at secondary school level and secondly, to
investigate the influence of career guidance and information on students' career
choice. The study has chosen a survey design. It used the purposive and random
sampling techniques for the selection of the sample of the study. The sample consisted
of 24 teacher counselors and 240 students in twelve selected schools in Machakos and
Kitui Countries of Kenya. Findings of the study have shown that only 17.5% of the
students have stated that they were influenced by their peers when they have to make
a choice of their future career.

Yates (2013) explored about the students' perceptions as regard to the

structural factors that may have an impact on the post-secondary educational
aspirations and career plans of urban high school students. This study was
supplemented by three theoretical approaches namely, the college choice model
(Hossler and Gallagher, 1987), multicultural navigator model (Carter, 2005) and
cultural capital and habitus theory (Bourdieu, 1987) which were used to analyze the
data. The research was conducted on nine students (African American and White)
who participated in the study over a three year period at a high school located in a
rural area in the mid-Atlantic region of the country. This nature of the study was
exploratory. It used a qualitative case study approach. The results have shown a
support for the previous literature on the impact of peer influence on students' college
decision during the college choice process (Furukawa 2011; Kuh et al., 2011). The

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students have told that there is an increased maturity and prudence to decide about
which friends/associates were focused and encouraged them to actualize their post-
secondary and career aspirations.

Adeleke, Olayinka, Binuomote and Adeyinka (2013) studied the influence of

the factors on students‟ academic performance in financial accounting among senior
secondary school leavers in Oyo state. The objective of this research work was to
create an academic performance determinism of senior secondary school leavers in
financial accounting with respect to both national examination council and West
Africa examination as well as to exemplify its linkage to career interest choice
determinants and career interest choice among senior secondary school leavers in Oyo
state. The paper researched the main literature to emphasize on the effects of the
determinants of students‟ career choice and performance in the subject. It aimed at the
building of an analytical model of determinants of students‟ choice of subjects and its
consequence on the students‟ academic performance. From the results of this study, it
was concluded that the determinants of career interest choice investigated have
significant effects on career interest choice but not all determinants have positive
significant effect on academic performance and career choice. The data was gathered
through the use of seven point Likert scale from low effect to very high effect. The
mean and mode score for peer group influence were at variance. This has shown that
peer pressure either fairly low or moderately influences career interest choice in
studying financial accounting at secondary school level.

Amani (2013) examined how the influence of the occupational knowledge and
social pressure from significant others helps to predict intentions of undergraduate
students to join their careers when they will complete their studies in Tanzania. The
research was of quantitative nature so a cross-sectional survey design was adopted. A
sample of 100 first and final undergraduate students including 63 males, 37 females;
of the age group of 19 to 40 years were selected who participated in this study. The
convenient sampling method was used. The research has revealed that undergraduate
students' intentions to join their careers were highly determined by their level of
occupational knowledge and social influence from significant individuals which
consists of their parents, friends and lecturers.

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Ebifa (2014) investigated the career aspirations of students with visual

impairment in senior secondary schools in Enugu State. A survey design was adopted
for the study which was descriptive in nature. The sample included students from
three senior secondary schools which are known to cater for visual impaired students
in the state. The statistical techniques of mean and standard deviation were utilized to
analyze the data and t-test was used to test the hypotheses. Results have shown that
the career aspirations of visually impaired senior secondary students were in arts,
social sciences and education. The researcher noticed that peer pressure was not a
dominant factor affecting their career aspirations.

Naz, Saeed, Khan, Sheikh and Khan (2014) collected data with the help of
library method by searching the related books, journals, articles, newspapers and even
internet sources as well as the field information has been obtained by getting
completed questionnaire from 100 students. The random sampling method was used
for collection of data. All the gathered information has been critically analyzed,
debated and explained to generate theory for generalization while the field
information has been analyzed by using the statistical technique of chi-square. The
analysis and discussion have given the results that the parent primary gear has
transformed the behavior of the children in multiple ways. However, it was concluded
that the peer influence is an asset for development of career opportunities and
decision making among youngsters.

Dumas (2014) conducted a research to assess the factors that influence Black
and Latino high school students‟ enrolled in embedded agricultural education
programs to pursue careers in agriculture. The target population was high school
students in Miami-Dade, Florida. A three-Part questionnaire was derived and used to
collect data pertaining to the factors that influence career choice, agricultural literacy,
prospective barriers to pursue career in agriculture etc. Data was analyzed using chi-
squares and correlation respondents were typically female residing in urban areas
ranging from 14 to 19 years of age. Students sampled and enrolled in the embedded
program at William H-Turner Technical Arts High School related with agricultural
education, have a positive perception of agriculture are surrounded by peers who have
positive perceptions of agriculture and have parents that are supportive regardless of
their career aspirations and choices. The peers have a positive perception of
agriculture so we fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude students do not make
career decisions based on peer perceptions of agriculture.

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Li (2015) compared the impact of adult and peer support on educational and
occupational aspirations of high school students across the different racial groups by
utilizing data from Aldine Independent School District Students Survey (AISD). The
research has shown that the peer and teacher support have stronger effects on
educational aspirations for African American and non- Hispanic white students than
for Hispanic students. In case of occupational aspirations, the results have suggested
that peer support is more effective for African American students than for Asian
students.

Hashim and Embong (2015) investigated the extent to which the parents and
peers of Malaysian school students help them in selection their career choice as
accountants. This research has utilized a mixed approach which included both
qualitative and quantitative approaches. The sample consisted of 309 secondary
school students studying accounting principle or commerce subject who were taken as
respondents to this study. The results of the study have suggested that more students
stated that they took the subject of AP/Commerce due to their friends. This has
indicated that peers have an impact on the students who have opted for accounting
subjects.

Koech, Rutto, Joseph, Koth, Korir and Ngala (2016) examined the
determinants that have an impact on the career choices among students. The
determinants of interest included peer influence, gender, parental influence, job
opportunities and personal interest. The research has used the target population which
included second, third and fourth year undergraduate students at the University of
Eldora. The sampling technique of convenience sampling was utilized. A study
sample of 210 students was taken. The data collection was done through an
instrument which was a self-administered questionnaire that contained both open and
closed ended questions. The research adopted a descriptive research design. The
presentation of the data was in form of percentages, means and tables. The findings of
the study has shown that there is significantly positive correlation between career
choice and same career as your peer, which is based on friends‟ advice, friends‟
mentorship and friends‟ approval.

Getange and Sagwe (2016) found out the various determinants which have an
impact on senior secondary students' career choices in Manga sub country, Nyamira
country. The study was based on the theory of human capital. Descriptive survey

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method was adopted. The study targeted population involves 16 principals, 284 JSC
teachers, 101 form four students leaders and 16 PTA chair persons by using saturated
sampling. The study revealed that parental, peers and sibling influence also affected
students as they made their career choice. According to the analyzed data, 85.4% of
the respondents interviewed indicated that they were influenced by their peer group
members to choose certain careers.

On the basis of the review, the studies by Bojuwoye (2006), Christofides, Hoy
and Milla (2008) and Ngee (2011) showed that Peer Pressure is an important factor
which have an influence on the career choice of the adolescents whereas findings of
the studies conducted by Stuart (2000), Espero (2009), Edwards and Quinter (2011),
Patmalniece (2011), Adeleke, Olayinka, Binuomote and Adeyinka (2013) showed that
Peer Pressure is moderately related to the career aspirations of the adolescents. But
the studies by Dorji (2008), Johnson (2008), Ebifa (2014) and Yates (2013) found that
there is no significant relationship between career aspirations and Peer Pressure.

2.1.3 Career Aspirations and Parenting Style

The following research reviews can highlight the impact of the perceived
parenting styles on the career aspirations of the school students related with their
career. These students are those who study at the secondary school level. Preparing
one‟s child for the world of work is part of parenting-like a bird showing its off-spring
how to catch worms. Parent‟s efforts to help promote the child‟s career will be part of
parental legacy to him. They can have the greatest influence over their children‟s
career choices. How the parents earn their living; at what place they live; their
educational qualifications, their knowledge and expertise; how much they earn; and
how they utilize their time and money, all these factors have a lot of impact on their
career decisions. These reviews indicate that parenting style has a significant role to
play in the career development of adolescents. According to the authoritative
parenting style, parents are engaged in setting standards, promoting freedom,
providing affectionate family climate which leads to increased self-confidence,
consistency, social effectiveness, academic achievements and psychological
development. Ultimately, it results in more effective career exploration and higher
satisfaction from their respective career. Under authoritarian parenting style, parents
determine standards and make a choice of career for their children regardless of their

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child's interest. The child becomes dependent upon the parents and he will not be able
to get satisfaction from his work. According to permissive parenting style, parents
will give more independence and they will not get involve with their child's career
planning. Through proper planning and by making little efforts, the parents can
endorse an immeasurable impact on their child's future. They can also utilize their
roles to bring lots of benefits for the entire family.

Arulmani and Van (1995) interviewed 654 Indian people (age range from 25
to 28 years) and analyzed the relative significant influence that others had on career
choice. He found that, 46% of the sample had made career choices based exclusively
on what their parents (relatives and friends also playing a role) wanted them to do.
24% of the individuals reported that their decisions were depended upon their parental
feedback and their own personal aspirations. Only few individuals are there who had
made their career decisions on their own. He found that 36% individuals whose
decision was based totally on parental instructions wanted to change their career. On
the contrary, 18% of the individuals who had working along with their parents in
choice of their career, felt comfortable with their choices. So, percentage of the
individuals who had made decisions about their career choice exclusively on their
own remained uncertain.

Otto (2000) examined the perceptions of young people regarding the influence
of their parents on their career development. They asked young men and women
about particular attitudes and behaviors related with their career development that are
dependent upon their relations with their parents. The sample on which survey was
conducted included 362 juniors in the high school. The results have confirmed the
parental and youth values, aspirations and plans are compatible with each other. Out
of all the people on whom young students can depend for assistance for making their
career plans, most are dependent on their mothers. The results are applicable across
race to minority youth and majority - culture youth. The findings have highlighted the
significance of parents as friends and resources for career counselors to facilitate the
young generation for the development of their career.

O‟Brien (2001) studied career aspirations of eighth grade students.

The objective of this study was to make the comparison about the career aspirations of
students at Kemps Landing Magnet School who were studying in the eighth grade to
that of Bayside Middle school students. The study was a descriptive study with

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information on the population. The sample consisted of 97 eighth grade physical

science students. Survey method was used. The findings were that the parenting styles
have been associated with academic success and high career aspirations. It was
depicted that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles have been related with
poor academic success and low self-esteem of adolescents. Adolescents of the
authoritative parents have shown high level of academic performance and aspirations
as compared to those adolescents who were from authoritarian and permissive
parents.

Jodl, Michael, Malanchuk, Eccles and Sameroff (2001) examined the

relationship among dimensions of parenting and occupational aspirations of the
adolescents in two particular spheres namely, academics and sports. The sample
included 444 students of the seventh grade, with approximately same numbers of
African American and European American male and females, from two parent non
divorced families. Various measures were utilized to indicate the values and behaviors
of the parents‟, youths' values and beliefs and positive identification with parents and
adolescents' occupational aspirations. In the sphere of academics, parents' values have
predicted the youth values directly rather than indirectly through their behaviours. On
the contrary, fathers‟ behaviors mediated the relationship between parental and
youths' values in the sphere of sports. The positive identification was shown directly
related to adolescents' values specifically about academics. In the contrast, the
positive identification did not moderate the transmission of values from parent to
child in either sphere. The parental values predicted adolescents' occupational
aspirations via both direct and indirect pathways. Similar findings were secured for
African American and European American males and females. These results have
highlighted the key role of parents as socializers of achievement related values and
finally, the occupational visions of adolescents‟ about themselves in the future.

Turner and Lapan (2002) investigated the relative contributions made by both
proximal and distal supports to the career interests and vocational Self-Efficacy. A
multiethnic sample was selected which consisted of 139 school adolescents at the
middle level. In consistency with social cognitive career theory, it was highlighted
that (a) vocational self-efficacy and career planning/exploration efficacy constantly
predicted young adolescents career interests across Holland career themes (J.L.
Holland, D.R. Wuitney, N.S. Cole and J.M. Richards 1969) (b) gender and career

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gender typing have depicted interests in the realistic, investigative and social careers
and (c) perceived parent support was predicted at 29% to 43% of the total unique
variance in vocational Self-Efficacy for all Holland theme careers.

Bleeker (2002) studied the parental impact on the Career Plans of adolescents
related with math and science. In this study a cross poster session was presented at the
Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, New Oileans, LA. It
has examined the ways in which parents' gender stereotypes during early adolescence
affect the math/science self-concepts and career plans of their late adolescent children
and the actual occupational educational choices their children make during late
adolescence. This research was organized in 143- sixth grade math classrooms located
in 12 school districts in white middle and working class suburbs outside of a large
Midwestern City. Scales used by these analyses were created by averaging 2-3 items
(all alphas > .60). Sectional and short term longitudinal studies investigations have
depicted that powerful relations are there between parents' gender typed attitudes and
their children's beliefs and achievement.

Kniveton (2004) conducted a study to find out the various influences and
motivations on the basis of which the students make the choice of their career. The
sample consisted of 348 young people aged 14-18 years. Data was collected with the
help of a questionnaire that was completed by the respondents and they have also
participated in an interview concerning their choice of career. It was depicted that the
greatest impact presented on their career choice was of their parents, followed by that
of their teachers. There was also a proof of gender differences, with same sex parental
influences.

Whiston and Keller (2004) in their study conducted on finding the impact of
the family on career development have given the conclusion that throughout the
lifespan, both family structure variables such as parental occupations and their level
of education as well as family process variables such as warmth, support, attachment
and independence from parents were depicted to have an influence on a large number
of career constructs.

Ho (2006) conducted study by utilizing the data which was collected through a
program for International Student Assessment (PISA) that was developed by the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). This research
has focused on the social disparity of family involvement. Total of 4,405 students

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were selected from 140 secondary schools in Hong-Kong who have taken part in the
first cycle of PISA study that identified four types of family involvement: cultural
communication, social communication, homework supervision and cultural activity.
Multi-level analysis was conducted to discover the major family factors which were
related to these types of family involvement. In consistency with previous research, it
was found that the working-class, immigrant, and single-parent families tend to have
lower levels of parental involvement. The results also highlighted that it is not only
cooperation between home and school, but also connection between parents and their
children's peers that provides the necessary chemistry for success.

Bergen (2006) illustrated how family indirectly influences career-decisions.

He used the ideas from the theories of self–determination, attachment and career
development so as to construct a framework for better understanding of how families
influence young adult career development and aspirations. Instead of directly
influencing career decisions, it was perceived that the family will influence the
processes within individuals that will directly influence successful career
development. Results have also suggested that there should be assessment of family
functioning by the career counselors when they are helping young people in their
career development journey. It has been predicted that there is higher career salience
in the families where higher conflict is there in the relationship with mothers.

Awujo (2007) in his study named as „Child rearing patterns and career choice
among secondary school students: Empirical evidence from Rivers state of Nigeria‟
has emphasized on conducting research about the relationships existing between child
rearing pattern and choice of career of the students at the secondary school stage. The
sample was selected from 30 secondary schools of rivers state of Nigeria. Data was
collected from 410 SSII students of these schools. A simple random sampling
technique was applied for the selection of the sample. For the research process, there
was formulation and testing was done for three research questions and three
hypotheses. The findings of the analysis have shown that there exist a significant
relationship between parental child rearing patterns and choice of career of the
secondary school students. The results have highlighted that there is no significant
relationship between autocratic child rearing patterns, outdoor mechanical, scientific,
artistic and social service careers. It was also depicted that there is significant
relationship between autocratic, laissez-faire and democratic child rearing pattern with
outdoor, mechanical, scientific, artistic and social service careers.

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Jungen (2008) perceived that the career choice is considered to be an

individual decision but there are a number of factors which are likely to influence a
person‟s final career choice. One of such factors that have been seen to greatly
influence the career choice of the children is their parents. Few other factors including
work ethics, values imbibed by family members and stereotyped gender bias in a
family may have higher influence on career choice. This literature review disapproves
the illusion that children and adolescents disregard the values and expectations of
their parents regarding various career options.

Lerdpornkulrat, Koul, Sujivorakul (2012) conducted a research which was in

relation to the career aspiration of the students of the high school related with the
subjects like science, mathematics, engineering and related professional. The whole
paper was divided into following four sections. The beginning highlighted the
significance of "science" and science education in Thai context, secondly, the problem
of students' engagements in science, third section was related with the gender
differences in students' motivation for high earning science and related professions
and finally, the various factors that have an influence on the career aspirations of the
high school students particularly - teachers, peers and parents. The literature depicted
that the parenting styles play a crucial role in shaping students' career aspirations and
engagements in science learning.

Sumari (2009) conducted a study to examine the relationship between the

interactional patterns of the family and their impact on the career development of the
students studying in colleges. Sample consisted of 247 college students selected from
the colleges in Malaysia. Data was collected by using two instruments viz. the Family
Environment Scale (FES) and Career Decision Self-Efficacy scale (CDSE). No
gender differences were observed. Leaving the conflict and control subscales aside, it
was observed that positive correlations were there between other family environment
subscales and each Career Decision Making Self-Efficacy subscales. It was perceived
that college students who have presented a greater level of confidence to make an
exact self appraisal in locating occupational information, selecting career objective,
planning a career and solving problems related with career, have shown that their
families were more open for the expression of feelings, more involved with each
other, encouraged freedom, focused high achievement in school and work. This report
affirms clear management and structural set up for the family activities. On the

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contrary, negative correlations were measured between conflict and control subscales
on one hand and all career decision making self efficacy subscales on the other. In
other words, it seems that, those who reported low CDSE perceive their family
environments as the place to show anger, aggression and conflict frequently. They
also highlight that their family environment is a place where rules and procedures are
enforced by family members.

Onder, Kirdok and Isik (2010) investigated in his study the career decisions
taken by high school students with regard to their parenting styles (authoritative,
authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful) as well as the parental attachment levels. 382
Turkish high school students (200 females, 182 males) aged 14-18, completed Career
Decision Inventory. One way- ANOVA was performed to analyze the data. The
findings of this study have shown that the children of authoritative and authoritarian
parents were more decisive as compared to the children of neglectful and indulgent
parents. Students who had a medium degree of attachment with their parents were
seen to be more decisive than the ones who experienced low or high degree of
attachment. Thus, it was concluded that the parents have been found to have a great
impact on the career selection process of their children.

Devi (2010) has conducted a research for the comparison of the reports of
perceived parenting style of mothers and fathers from predominantly White –
American college students in the United States and Indian college students in India.
The sample included 276 white American college students from U.S.A. and 195
Indian college students from India. The research findings have shown that perceived
authoritative parenting was negatively related with interpersonal and academic
problems for Indian and US college students while perceived authoritarian parenting
was directly related with interpersonal and academic problems in both samples.

Roach (2010) studied the role played by the perceived parental influences on
the college students in regard to their career self-efficacy. The study has examined the
relationship between perceived parental influences and career-efficacy of college
students. A survey was conducted with the undergraduate college students for better
understanding of the role played by the parents in their career development. The data
was collected from a small public liberal arts college in the northeast region of US by
using a questionnaire. The sample included 60 students enrolled in health science

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courses. The questionnaire included three sections-demographic information, parent

career behaviour checklist and career decision self-efficacy scale short form. It was
found that the parental influences were directly correlated with students career Self-
Efficacy by utilizing Karl Pearson correlation and hierarchal multiple regression
analysis. It was also depicted that the general supportive parenting behavior proved to
be more important as compared to the particular parenting behavior.

Koumoundourou, Tsaousi and Kounenou (2011) in a study titled „Parental

influences on Greek adolescents‟ career decision-making difficulties: The mediating
role of core self-evaluation‟ have tried to examine the impact of various family
features including family function and parental authority styles as well as core self-
evaluations (CSE). This study has been conducted on a sample of 289 Greek students.
Survey method was used and data was collected using questionnaire. Results have
shown that in case of male students the permissive and authoritarian parenting styles
and the family cohesion contributed positively to the prediction of CDM difficulties.
On the contrary, for females‟ decision-making difficulties were influenced
insignificantly only by the authoritarian parental style.

Rujeko (2012) examined the association of parenting practices and styles on

the identification of goals and aspirations of grade 11 learners in secondary schools in
the Metro South region of the Western Cape. The objectives were to determine (1) the
content of the goals and aspirations of grade 11 learners (2) the perceived parental
styles and practices of their parents (3) the relationship between (1) and (2). A
quantitative research method with a cross-sectional correlation design was used. The
parental styles and Dimensions Questionnaire and the Aspiration Index were the
instruments for collecting the data. The final sample consisted of 257 participants of
which 155 were females. The results suggest that the maternal parenting was more
prevalent than paternal parenting. Both maternal and paternal authoritative parental
styles were positively related to both intrinsic as well as extrinsic goals and
aspirations where maternal and paternal permissive parental styles were significantly
related to only extrinsic goals. Maternal parenting was a significant predictor for both
intrinsic as well as extrinsic goals and aspirations and both parents predicted a
stronger association.

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Shumbal and Naong (2012) have undertaken a research study to find out
various factors that have an impact on the career choice and aspirations among
students in South Africa. A quantitative research design was used in this study. Data
was collected through survey method with the help of a structured questionnaire. A
sample consisted of 133 first and second year university students out of which 77
were females and 56 were males within the age group of 15 to 30 years. The Career
Aspirations Questionnaire was applied in this study which examined all the factors
that influence medical students‟ career choice and aspirations. Analysis was done by
using percentages and tables. The results depicted that the family, the capability of the
learner self to find out his/her preferred career choice and teachers were important
factors that have an influence on the career choice and aspirations of students.

Arab and Javadzade (2013) studied the relation between the factors namely
parenting styles and career aspirations as well as psychological well-being among the
female students of third year studying in high schools in the city of Khomeinishak,
Iran. A sample included 300 students who were selected through random sampling.
This research study has utilized the Baumrind‟s questionnaire on parenting style that
included 30 questions which equally measures all the three types of parenting styles
including authoritarian, indulgent and authoritative in Likert scale. The study has also
utilized Gottfredson‟s questionnaire to find out the occupational aspirations. The
study concluded with the help of chi-square technique that there exists a
meaningful relationship between parenting styles and different types of career
aspirations.

Brownson (2014) investigated how the parents‟ can influence the career
choice of their child in some selected schools in Ondo West Local Government Area
of Ondo state. The sample comprised of 256 students selected by random sampling. A
questionnaire was utilized for the collection of data. Data analysis was done with the
help of mean and t-test. The results have shown that the influence of parents on their
children‟s career choice was very low. They did not assist their children to study
another course from that which they have chosen. They gave only the advice to their
children on subjects to offer. On the basis of the research findings, the

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recommendations have been made for the parents to educate their children and always
try to meet their basic needs. The school counselors and teachers were motivated to
provide equal attention to male and female children to acquire knowledge regarding
career choice.

Sovet and Metz (2014) conducted a study to compare the relationship between
the parenting styles with the career decision - making of adolescents from a western
and eastern context. The sample included particularly 575 French high school students
and 613 South Korean high school students. They completed a questionnaire for the
assessment of perceived parenting style, career decision-making difficulties and
career decision self-efficacy. The results have shown that the Korean adolescents had
lower career decision self-efficacy beliefs and higher career decision-making
difficulties as compared to the French adolescents. It was also seen that the
authoritarian parenting style related with higher scores on career decision Self-
Efficacy and lower scores on a measure of career decision-making difficulties in the
Korean Sample whereas the authoritative parenting style was related with higher
scores on career decision self-efficacy and lower scores on a measure of career
decision-making difficulties in the French sample. The study has also shown that
there are significant effects for gender and parental style on the career decision-
making outcomes of both the samples.

Chan (2014) conducted a study to fill the gap in the present literature through
the exploration of the influence of perceived parenting styles on career maturity of
students in Malaysia. A correlation research design was utilized. The sample involved
228 form four students in Hulu Langat, Selangor. They were selected through
proportionate random sampling technique. The study has shown that there was a
significant interaction between effect of ethnicity and parents' parenting styles on
career maturity of the students. These results were derived by using two- way
ANOVA. The results obtained from the Pearson Correlation analysis found that it was
only authoritative parenting style and permissive parenting style which were
significantly correlated with career maturity.

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Isaac and Mopelola (2014) examined how the parents‟ can influence the career
choice of the adolescents‟ from secondary schools in Badagry Local Government
Area of Lagos state. The sample included 300 students. They were selected from ten
purposely selected secondary schools including 3 Model Colleges, 4 Non-Model
colleges and 3 private colleges through random sampling technique. The study has
utilized a questionnaire for data collection. It was administered to the respondents
personally by the researcher. The result has shown that parental influence will not
have significant effect on the career choice of adolescents in Badagry Local
Government. It has also shown that parental influence will have negative effect on
adolescents' career choice. It was also depicted that there is significant effect on
adolescents' career choice of parental influence. Moreover, the parental attitude to
work will have significant effect on adolescents' career choice based on type of
school.

Ghosh (2016) studied the personal determinants and impact of the influence of
parents and society for the choice of career of the students who want to become an
engineer. The sample of the study included a group of 120 students studying at the
higher secondary level under West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education as
well as a group of 30 professional who were employed in the profession of engineer.
The results have shown that the parental as well as social influence on the choice of
career have been at a moderate level. Suitable efforts should be taken by parents,
teachers, counselors and other well-wishers who are interested to help the students to
choose a specific career for the achievement of future prospects.

The above review of research literature has given this observation that apart
from the Self-Efficacy and Peer Pressure, the family and parents also have significant
influence on the aspirations of the students related with their career. Studies by
Arulmani and Van (1995), Kathleen, Michael and Manchuk (2001), Kniveton (2004),
Whiston and Keller (2004), Ho (2006), Awugo (2007), Bergen (2006) Shumba1 and
Naong (2012) Arab and Javadzade (2012) depicted that there exist a positive relation
between parental factors with the career aspirations of the students. The results of the
studies by O‟Brien (2001) Onder, Kirdok and Isik (2010), Koumoundourou, Tsaousi

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and Kounenou (2011), and Lerdpornkuliat and Koul (2010) showed that the parenting
styles have been associated with academic success and high career aspirations.
Adolescents from authoritative parents have higher academic performance and
aspirations than that of adolescents from authoritarian and permissive parents.

2.2 Emergence of the Problem

For all the people in the world, the development of their career is considered,
as a continuous process of engagement in the world of work by making a choice from
among the job opportunities which are available to them. Every person undertakes
this process which is influenced by various determinants that may include the context
in which they live, their own personal aptitudes as well as their educational attainment
(Bandura et.al. 2001). One of the main turning points in the life of the students is that
they have to make a choice about their career at the senior secondary level.
Immediately their family as well as the whole society perceives it as the first effort to
become ready for workplace. Moreover, the career related decision has the major role
to play in the career path of young students which opens or closes opportunities for
them in future. The years which the students spend in schools provide them a
significant time for exploring as well as developing themselves. During the school
years, the students are in the process of development of freedom, independent identity
and competence. They are at the beginning of formulating their own identity so that
they gain a higher sense of their selves. One of the major aspects that recognize the
development of their identity is decision related to their career. The institution that
provides students the opportunity to help them to develop and prepare for their careers
and future is the school. But it is quite evident that many school students have to face
difficulties in taking the challenging decisions related with their career development
when they are in school and thereafter. Young adulthood is specifically considered as
an important time for career decision-making and development (Whiston and Keller,
2004). At this time, there is a possibility that there are some factors and determinants
which may either increase or distract the college students‟ experience, especially with
regard to the development of their career. Therefore, it has become important to

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conduct research on the relational influences of the career factors of these individuals
(Schultheiss, 2003; Splete, and Freeman-George, 1985). Present study is selected after
the review of related literature. After reviewing the literature, it was found that most
of the studies are conducted by the foreign countries. Their social norms and cultural
values are different from our own country so the results achieved through these
studies cannot be really applied and used to explain the case of India. Till now a
number of researches have already been conducted on this phenomenon but still some
flaws are there so we cannot clearly understand as whether there is any consensus on
the relationship between these variables: Career Aspirations, Self-Efficacy, Peer
Pressure and Perceived Parental Style. Related research in this area revealed that
results of research studies are very divergent. The studies by Arulmani et Al (2001),
Bandura, et.al. (2001), Lael (2006), Ziebell (2010), Shumabal and Naong (2012),
Sandra (2012) showed that Self-Efficacy has a significant relationship with the career
aspirations of the students. Studies by Bojuwoye (2006), Christofides, Hoy and Milla
(2008) and Ngee (2011) showed that Peer Pressure has a positive impact on the career
choice of the adolescents whereas findings of the studies conducted by Stuart (2000),
Espero (2009), Edwards and Quinter (2011), Patmalniece (2011), Adeleke, Olayinka,
Binuomote and Adeyinka (2013) showed that Peer Pressure is moderatly related to the
career aspirations of the adolescents. But the studies by Dorji (2008), Johnson (2008),
Alika (2010) and Yates (2013) found that there has been no significant relation
between peer-pressure and career aspirations.

The review of related literature has revealed that apart from the Self-Efficacy
and Peer Pressure, family and parents also play a significant role in the career
aspirations of the students. Regarding these relational influences on career
development, establishing the influence of the family may be imperative for the better
understanding of the intricacies of career development (Vondracek, Lerner, and
Schulenberg, 1986). It has been observed that among the families particularly parents
play a significant role in the vocational and career aspirations of their children.
Studies by Arulmani and Van (1995), Kathleen, Michael and Manchuk (2001),
Kniveton (2004), Whiston and Keller (2004), Ho (2006), Awugo (2007), Bergen

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(2006) Shumba1 and Naong (2012) Arab and Javadzade (2012) showed that there
exist significant relationship between Parental factors and career aspirations of the
students. The results of the studies by O‟Brien (2001) Onder, Kirdok and Isik (2010),
Koumoundourou, Tsaousi and Kounenou (2011), and Lerdpornkuliat and Koul (2010)
showed that the parenting styles have been associated with academic success and high
career aspirations. Adolescents from authoritative parents have higher academic
performance and aspirations than that of adolescents from authoritarian and
permissive parents. Since there are very few studies studying the direct relationship
between Career Aspirations, Self-Efficacy, Peer Pressure and Parenting Style, it is
hoped that the present study can provide insights on this adequately studied issue.
Also in the modern days of technology when media is influencing its own role in the
lives of the adolescents the need arises to study the role of Self-Efficacy, Peer
Pressure and Parenting Style in the Career Aspirations of the adolescents. Hence the
investigator has selected the problem as under:

2.3 Statement of the Problem

A STUDY OF CAREER ASPIRATIONS OF GOVERNMENT AND

PRIVATE SCHOOL STUDENTS IN RELATION TO SELF-EFFICACY, PEER-
PRESSURE AND PERCEIVED PARENTING STYLE.

2.4 Objectives of the Study

The present study was intended to fulfill following objectives:

1. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of government

and private school students.

2. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of students

with different academic streams.

3. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of students

with high and low Self-Efficacy.

4. To study the interaction between

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(i) Type of school and Self-Efficacy.

(ii) Type of school and academic streams.
(iii) Academic streams and Self-Efficacy
with respect to Career Aspirations .
5. To study the interaction among type school, academic streams and Self-
Efficacy with respect to Career Aspirations.
6. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of school
students with high and low Peer-Pressure.
7. To study the interaction between
(i) Type of school and Peer-Pressure.
(ii) Type of school and academic streams.
(iii) Academic streams and Peer-Pressure
with respect to Career Aspirations.
8. To study the interaction among type of school, academic streams and Peer-
Pressure with respect to Career Aspirations.
9. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of school
students with different Perceived Parenting Style (mother).
10. To study the interaction between
(i) Type of school and Perceived Parenting Style (mother).
(ii) Type of school and academic streams.
(iii) Academic streams and Perceived Parenting Style (mother).
with respect to Career Aspirations.
11. To study the interaction among type of school, academic streams and
Perceived Parenting Style (father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
12. To find the significance difference between Career Aspirations of school
students with different Perceived Parenting Style (father).
13. To study the interaction between
(i) Type of school and Perceived Parenting Style (father).
(ii) Type of school and academic streams.
(iii) Academic streams and Perceived Parenting Style (father).
With respect to Career Aspirations.

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 Review of Related Literature

14. To study the interaction among type of school, academic streams and
Perceived Parenting Style (father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
15. To study the interaction among Self-Efficacy and Peer-Pressure with respect
to Career Aspirations.
16. To study the interaction among Self-Efficacy and Perceived Parenting Style
(mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
17. To study the interaction among Peer-Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style
(mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
18. To study the interaction among Self-Efficacy, Peer-Pressure and Perceived
Parenting Style (mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
19. To study the interaction among Self-Efficacy and Perceived Parenting Style
(father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
20. To study the interaction among Peer-Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style
(father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
21. To study the interaction among Self-Efficacy, Peer-Pressure and Perceived
Parenting Style (father) with respect to Career Aspirations.

2.5 Hypotheses of the Study

Directed towards the objectives of the study and on the basis of review of
related literature following hypotheses were formulated for verification:
Hypotheses related to mean scores on Career Aspirations in
relation to type of school, academic stream and Self-Efficacy.
H1 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of government and private school students.
H2 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of students of different academic streams viz:
Science/Mathematics and Social science/language
H3 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of students with high and low Self-Efficacy.

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Review of Related Literature

H4 There will be no significant interaction between type of school and

Academic Stream with respect to Career Aspirations.
H5 There will be no significant interaction between type of school and
Self-Efficacy with respect to Career Aspirations.
H6 There will be no significant interaction between academic streams and
Self-Efficacy with respect to Career Aspirations.
H7 There will be no significant interaction among type of school, Self-
Efficacy and academic streams with respect to Career Aspirations.
Hypotheses related to mean scores on Career Aspirations in
relation to type of school, academic stream and Peer-Pressure.
H8 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of students with high and low Peer-Pressure.
H9 There will be no significant interaction between type of school and
Peer-Pressure with respect to Career Aspirations.
H10 There will be no significant interaction between academic streams and
Peer-Pressure with respect to Career Aspirations.
H11 There will be no significant interaction among type of school,
academic stream and Peer-Pressure with respect to Career Aspirations.
Hypotheses related to mean scores on Career Aspirations in
relation to type of school, academic stream and Perceived
Parenting Style (Mother)
H12 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of students with different Perceived Parenting Style (Mother).
H13 There will be no significant interaction between type of school and
Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H14 There will be no significant interaction between academic streams and
Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H15 There will be no significant interaction among type of school,
academic stream and Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect
to Career Aspirations.

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 Review of Related Literature

Hypotheses related to mean scores on Career Aspirations in

relation to type of school, academic stream and Perceived
Parenting Style (Father)
H16 There will be no significant difference between Career Aspirations
scores of students with different Perceived Parenting Style (Father).
H17 There will be no significant interaction between type of school and
Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H18 There will be no significant interaction between academic streams and
Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H19 There will be no significant interaction among type of school,
academic stream and Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to
Career Aspirations.
Hypotheses related to scores on Career Aspirations in relation to
Self-Efficacy, Peer-Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style
(Mother).
H20 There will be no significant interaction between Self-Efficacy and
Peer-Pressure with respect to Career Aspirations.
H21 There will be no significant interaction between Self-Efficacy and
Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H22 There will be no significant interaction between Peer-Pressure and
Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H23 There will be no significant interaction between Self-Efficacy, Peer-
Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style (Mother) with respect to Career
Aspirations.
Hypotheses related to scores on Career Aspirations in relation to
Self-Efficacy, Peer-Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style
(Father).
H24 There will be no significant interaction between Self-Efficacy and
Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to Career Aspirations.
H25 There will be no significant interaction between Peer-Pressure and
Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to Career Aspirations.

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H26 There will be no significant interaction between Self-Efficacy, Peer-

Pressure and Perceived Parenting Style (Father) with respect to Career
Aspirations.

2.6 Delimitations of the Study

The study was delimited to students of class (10+1) of government and private
schools of Ludhiana district of Punjab. The schools undertaken for the present study
were affiliated to Punjab school education board.

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