INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE , FUNCTION AND RELATIONSHIPS OF BODY SYSTEMS

(PHYSIOLOGY)
Animal physiology can be defined as the study of the functions of animals and their constituent parts, i.e.,
functions of tissues and organs and how these functions are integrated.

Goal of the Subject - to understand in physical and chemical terms, the mechanisms that operate in living organs
in all levels ranging from sub cellular to the integrated whole animal – cell physiology – organ – organism,
environmental physiology, respiration, circulation, digestion, endocrine system, developmental neuroendocrine,
sensory reproduction, etc.
Physiology especially human body functions - cornerstone of scientific medical practice – our understanding of

functions and malfunction of living tissues. It becomes more effective to scientifically treat human illnesses.

A physician who understands body functions is better equipped to make intelligent and insightful diagnosis and
decisions for effective treatment.
Physiology is such a vast subject and is studied in different ways:
a) Cell physiology – this is the study of life activities of the cells, or cell biology in general.
b) General physiology – deals with the physiological principles that one is involved in the operation of life
machinery in different animals.
c) Comparative physiology – the main emphasis here is on analysis of general physiological principles in
different groups/classes of animals. This is the study of which is the concern of this unit.
d) Environmental physiology: - This is concerned with physiological function in relation to environment
e.g. adaptation especially in relation to body size.

Meaning of Physiology
- Animal physiology is the study of the function of animals and their constituent parts.
- Physiology is the study of the normal function of healthy animals and therefore provides essential,
background knowledge for the subsequent study and understanding of disease, which can be regarded as
disordered Physiology.
- In order to understand how a disease process disturbs normal function, it is essential you understand how the
normal animal functions in the first place. "Physiology deals with the functions of living organisms, i.e. how
they eat, breath, and what they do to keep alive.
- It is about food and feeding [digestion] respiration, transport of gases in the blood, circulation and function
of the heart, excretion and kidney, muscles and movements, reproduction etc- How living organisms adjust
to the adversities of the environment i.e. to obtain enough water to live or to avoid much water, escapes
freezing, dying from excessive heat. Moves about to find suitable surroundings, food and mates. How it
obtains information about environment through its senses [co-ordination].
- It deals with the regulation of all these functions, how they correlate and intergrate into a smooth function
organism.
- In physiology we do not only describe functions, we also ask "why"
- To understand how an animal functions, we must be familiar with the structural plan of the animal body.

The structural plan of the animal/human body as an organism involves a high degree of organization at five
principle levels of complexity i.e.
1. Atoms and molecules
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Systems
Atoms and Molecules compose the basic chemical substances of the body. These substances range from small
molecules of oxygen and water to protein molecules so large and complex that they will not dissolve in the blood.

Cells

Next level of animal body organization is formed by the combination of atoms and molecules. Cells form the
fundamental structural and functional units of life. They are the smallest units that show the characteristics of life.
They are made up of smaller units called cell organelles in which many of the chemical reactions of life take
place. Organelles have precise organizational patterns at chemical level.
Structure
Robert Hooke , using a primitive microscope, looked at plant tissue – cork and saw some cube like structure that
reminded him of long rows of monks room (or cells) at the monastery - so he named this structures CELLS. This
term has stuck to describe the unit or building blocks of all living things. The human body has millions of them.
Cell organization
Primarily made of 4 elements: C, O, H, Q, N others in smaller amounts are: Fe, Na, K. The four major elements
build much of the cell structure. This is largely proteins, the others lesser of trace are very important for cellular
function e.g. Ca is for blood clotting, Fe in making haemoglobin, I to make thyroxin, which controls metabolism,
carrying an electric charge in their Ionic forms: Na+, K+, Ca++
Living cells are approximately 60% H2O. Also, the cells are bathed in a dilute salt water solution coded interstitial
fluid. This is derived from blood – all exchanges between blood and cells are through this fluid. Cells are of
different shapes, sizes, number in the body, distribution, longevity (life) and function.
Length: range from 1/20,000th m (2 micrometers) 36 inch (1m) in nerve cells that cause you wiggle your toe.
Shape:
- some are disc- like: RBC
- Threadlike extension : nerve cells
- Tooth pick pointed e.g Smooth muscle cells
- cube like: some epithelial cells
Function: varied
 leucocytes: protect us from pathogens
 cleaning cells – filters in Kidneys
 enzymes/hormones product: glandular

Anatomy of the generalized cell

The basic parts and their functions common to all cells,
Generally have 3 main regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane

Tissues

The next higher level is made up of similar cells which are grouped together, the tissue. A tissue is a group of
similar cells that perform a certain function, e.g. glandular, muscular, vascular, nervous, protective tissues [skin-
integument, cuticle]. Glandular cells secrete mucus that traps dust particles, microbes and the other microbes that
come into the respiratory passages with each breath.
-Smooth muscles constrict or dilate the bronchial tubes under the direction of nerves.
Organs
Tissues are grouped into structurally and functionally integrated units called organs. Each organ in the body
performs specific functions. E.g. Lungs are organs of the respiratory system. They are responsible for the
exchange of oxygen and CO2 between the blood and the air sacs. However, lungs form only a section of the
respiratory system.

Systems
An animal body is organized into a number of Systems. A system is a group of organs
that work together to perform specific functions. E.g. the respiratory system which consists of the larynx, lungs,
trachea and bronchial tubes.
Respiratory system exchanges 02 and CO2 between blood and the atmosphere.
Circulatory system distributes O2, nutrients and other chemicals to parts of the body.
Skeletal system supports the body while the muscular system provides for movement.

The organ systems of the body are arranged into functional units that specialize in different activities e.g. support,
movement, internal transport, gaseous exchange and reproduction.
Cell structure and their functions.

Nucleus cellular organelles

Nucleus
Located near the centre of the cell, surrounded by semi-fluid cytoplasm which in turn is enclosed by the P
Membrane which forms the outer cell boundary.
This, the nucleus (N), is the control centre of the cell. It contains the genetic material, De-oxy ribonucleic acid
(DNA).
Specifically, DNA contains blue print instructions for building body proteins.
DNA is very necessary for cell production.
Shape of nucleus is normally conforms to the shape of its cell.
Nucleus has 3 distinct parts:
 Nuclear envelop
 Chromatin
 Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope double membrane, which at various areas they both meet creating pores. It is semi-permeable
i.e. but substance pass on it faster because of presence of the pores. The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike
fluid called nucleoplasm in the nucleoli and chromatin are suspended.

Nucleolus
- A spherical structure within the nucleus consisting of ribosomal RNA, which eventually migrate into
cytoplasm serving as sites of protein synthesis.
- Note: There may be more than one nucleolus in the nucleus.
- Nucleoli 3-10% RNA and same unit of DNA and 90% protein.
Chromatin material- When a cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined & proteins to form a loose network of
threadlike structure referred to as Chromatin, scattered out the nucleus. When cell is dividing, these threads coil
or condense to form dense, rod like bodies called Chromosomes.
- Proteins containing DNA
- Condense during cell division to become chromosomes
- Chromatin has a characteristic grainy appearance
- Consists of protein molecules and nucleic acid arranged in long slender fibrils bathed in nucleoplasm
- Nucleic acid portion of protein consists of DNA and RNA.
- DNA contains genetic information of the cell i.e. information used for the synthesis of enzymes and other
proteins that regulate the chemical activities of the cell [hereditary material]
- RNA molecules are made up from portions of DNA and travel into cytoplasm for protein synthesis
- Genes present in DNA on chromosome
Plasma membrane/Cell membrane - is a flexible and fragile transparent structure that contains cell content
separating them from the surrounding environment.
- Form a thin [7.5 - 10 nanometer] envelop around the cell.
- Consists of a double layer of lipid molecules into which proteins and glycoprotein molecules are embedded
- Membrane is differentially permeable i.e. discriminating the molecules that gain entry into and out of the
cell.
Nuclear membrane
- A double membrane envelop consisting of lipids with protein molecules embedded in it.
- Is porous and allows easy movement of molecules between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.

The Cytoplasm
- A colloidal solution between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
- It contains dissolved organic substances, large particles and organelles.
1. Mitochondria

- Bilayered spherical or elongated self-replicating structures containing DNA and-oxidative enzymes that are
found on the inner, involuted layer [cristae]
- Functions in the liberation of energy that is used to synthesize high energy molecules of ATP- ADP + P +
Energy [power house]
- This organelle plays the major role in converting chemical energy of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids into
forms that can be used more directly by the cell [ATP -Adenosine Triphosphate]
2. Ribosomes
- Consists of RNA molecules - sub-units
- Granule composed of RNA and proteins
- Serves as site for protein synthesis
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- network of vesicular structures composed of a double layer of protein that transverses the entire cell.
i. Rough or granular [ER]
 That part of the ER to which ribosomes are attached to the outer surface
 Functions in protein synthesis
ii. Smooth or agranular ER
 It's the part of the ER lacking ribosome attachment
 Function in lipid synthesis and other metabolic processes
4. Lysosomes – are oval or spherical membrane bound bodies formed by golgi apparatus
- Bilayered lipid covered structures containing hydrolytic enzymes which when released act to digest cellular
materials
5.Golgi apparatus
- Vesicular structure, continuous with the ER and located near the nucleus
- Contains membranes similar to smooth ER
- Functions in the synthesis, processing, and transportation of secretory products
 - Release of secretory products is through the plasma membrane in units called secretory granules or vesicles
6. Centosomes
-An organelle located near the nucleus with two centrioles [small structures necessary for the formation of
spindle fibres during cell division] - within the chromatin Inclusions of the cell Vacuoles.
-Structures in the cytoplasm which vary as to content, size, number and location. However, can fill with food
or waste products.
7.Microtubules and microfi laments
- Aggregates of protein molecules, which contribute to cell shape, support and function.
8. Micrivilli
- Minute, cytoplasmic protutions found in certain cells
- Serves to increase cellular absorptive capacity.

Cytoskeleton
This is an elaborate network of protein structures extending out the cytoplasm.
Acts as a cells bone and muscles’ by giving is an internal framework giving the cell
- its shape
- Its support for organelles
- Its machinery for intercellular transport
Made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments (eg Actin, myosin)
Basically contractile for movement, and in organization of the protein in the PM.
Centrioles are rod-like structures just outside the nucleus they are made of microtubules. During cell division,
they direct the formation of the mitotic spindle.
Cilia: move substances along the cell surface.
Flagella- when the projections formed by the centroiles are long, they are called flagella – e.g sperm cell- propels
the cell itself.

Tissues

Tissue - Group of cells with similar functions.

1. Cells that are similar in structure and function.
2. Extracellular structures.
3. Interstitial fluid.
Muscle-skeletal, cardiac, smooth
a. Function - Contraction and generation of force.

b. Characteristics.
1. Elongated.
2. Composed of contractile filaments.
3. Sometimes organized into dark and light bands (striations).
2. Nerve
a. Function - Initiation and conduction of electrical signals.
b. Characteristics.
1. Large cell body.
2. Branching processes (called axons and dendrites).
3. Epithelium -simple cuboidal, stratified squamous
a. Function - Selective secretion and absorption of molecules.
b. Characteristics.
1. Cells lie close to one another.
2. Arranged in single or multiple layers.
3. Covers body surface and lines hollow organs.
4. Connective tissue -elastic tissue, bone
a. Function - Connecting and supporting body structures.
b. Characteristic - Large amount of extracellular material.
 This is generally the most abundant animal tissue characteristically has a great deal of intercellular material
secreted by the cells usually in forms of fibres, gelatinous substance, or both. E.g bone, cartilage, adipose and
blood.
Here we have 3 different sub-types
Connective tissue proper: the soft or tough dense matrix’ conclusion the body connects muscles and born =
ligaments bone to bone=
- fluids, fat etc
- Provides access for immune system, supports, moves, shapes and provides vascular communications.\
- Bones cartilage of blood are specialized connective tissue and
- Messenclyme are most found in the embryo

Organs and Organ Systems

A. Organ = Two or more tissues joined in a structural unit to perform a
common function.
B. Organ system = Group of organs that work together to perform a
common function.
1. Homeostasis is essential for survival of cells.
2. Cells make up tissues, organs, and organ systems.
3. Organ systems maintain homeostasis.
Example of an Organ: Skin.
A. Functions.
1. Protection.
2. Thermoregulation.
3. Sensation
B. Two layers
1. Epidermis - outer layer.
a. Composed of flattened epithelial cells.
b. Protects body against water loss and disease-causing organisms.
1. Epidermal cells of terrestrial animals produce a water-insoluble
protein called keratin.
a. Outermost cells are dead and keratinized.
b. Adaptation to dry environment.
c. Scales in reptiles.
d. Feathers in birds.
2. Epidermis of fish and amphibians has little or no keratin.
c. Dying cells are constantly being replaced by new cells.
d. Skin color is determined by a pigment, melanin, in epidermal cells.
1. Albino lacks melanin
2. Melanin protects skin against harmful effects of ultraviolet
radiation.
3. Sun exposure is responsible for 90% of skin cancers.
a. Basal cell carcinoma damages small areas, will spread
if not removed
b. Malignant melanoma can be fatal.
2. Dermis - beneath epidermis.
a. Mostly connective tissue.
b. Structures.
1. Hair follicles in mammals.
2. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands for lubrication and cooling.
3. Sensory nerve endings specialized for touch, pressure, pain, etc.
4. Blood vessels for nourishment.
C. Hypodermis.
1. Layer of fat just below the dermis - not a part of the skin.
 CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The functional and structural units of the nervous systems are its neuron. They arise from ectodermally derived
cells called neuroblasts. Cells also derived from ectoderm called spongioblasts, give rise to several types of glial
cell that have supportive and nutritive functions.

Neurons

Neurons have a variety of shapes and sizes in different parts of the nervous system. They may be generally
divided into motor, sensor, and internuncial neurons.

A cell body is surrounded by a typical plasma membrane. The membrane encloses the neuroplasm or perikaryon,
the cytoplasm of the cell. The neuroplasm contains the usual cellular organelles (mitochondria, ER, Golgi bodies)
but appear several years after birth, to lose or develop a non-functioning cell center. This implies that after a
period of time, the cells lose their capacity to divide mitotically to replace lost cells. The neuroplasm has its ER
in the form or irregular masses of ribosome studded vesicles called Nissl bodies. Hollow neurotubules runs
through the cytoplasm and into the processes of the neuron, probably helping to maintain the form of the process.
The nucleus of the cell is surrounded by a membrane that encloses the karyoplasms of the nucleus.

The cell body gives rise to one or more elongated processes. In a multipolar (many processes) type of neuron,
there are clearly two morphologically distinct types of processes. Multiple, highly branched, short irregular
diameter, afferent (toward cell body) conducting processes are known as dendrites. The axon is a very long (upto
several feet) sparsely branched, regular diameter and efferent (away from cell body) conducting process that
commonly bears one or more sheath.

A lamellated fatty covering is called the myelin sheath. The breaks in the sheath are node of Ranvier, and the
segments between nodes are designated as internodes. Each internode appears to be the product of a glial cell
called a schwann cell (peripheral nervous system) or an oligodendrocytes (CNS). A neurilemma (schwann
sheath) lies externally to the myelin sheath and is important in the regeneration of damaged axons.

In the sensory neurone, one process exists from the cell body and divides into a peripheral and a central process
that are usually both constructed like a multi-polar axon – that is, of regular diameter and possessing sheaths.

Internuncial neurons are usually located between sensory and motor neurons, between two motor or two sensory
neurons in purely motor or purely sensory pathways. They are small mulitpolar cells and are the most abundant
type of neuron in the nervous system. They permit nerve impulses to take pathways other than directly from a
sensory to a motor neuron. They may also amplify nerve impulses and distribute them to a wider area than would
be possible in a two neuron path. They may also act as gates to block impulses, to pass them, or to excite or
inhibit the next neuron in the path. Thus a large degree of control over the pathways taken by impulses may be
exercised.

Glial Cells

Glial cells outnumber neurons by about five to one in the nervous system. They have processes but do not form
or conduct nerve impulses. They possess the capacity to divide throughout life. Included as types of glial cells
and their assigned functions are the following:

Astrocytes: Are of two types, depending on number and degree of branching of their processes. Fibrous
astrocytes have fewer and less branched processes. Protoplasmic (mossy) astrocytes have more and highly
branched processes. Both types of cells are believed to be the major force creating cohesion of the CNS tissue.
In other words, they hold things together and maintain the structural relationships of the cells and their vascular
supply.

Oligodendrocytes: Are myelin-forming cells of the CNS. An internode of CNS myelin is the product of a single
oligodendrocyte.

Ependymal cells: Act as an epithelial lining for the cavities within the CNS (ventricles of the brain and central
canal of the spinal cord). Very small amounts of cerebrospinal fluids are formed by secretions of these cells, and
they form a part of the choroids plexuses of the brain, wherein the vast bulk of cerebrospinal fluid is formed by
filtration and secretion from the blood vessels composing the plexuses.

Microglia: Are sometimes called brain macrophages. They seem to migrate into nerve tissue from the blood
stream, perhaps being derived from blood cells called monocytes. They come to lie around both neurons and
fibers, and remain quiescent until there is injury or inflammation in the CNS. They then become mobile and
phagocytic and assume a role in cleaning up the traumatized area. They are the only mesodermally derived cells
of the nervous system.
Satellite cells: Are found in peripheral ganglia and serve to support the cell bodies of neurons in these ganglia.

MEMBRANE POTENTIALS

All living cell membranes may be demonstrated to have electrical potentials across them. Measurements may be
made by placing a fine electrode inside a cell and one in the fluid around the cell and connecting the two through
a voltmeter. An electrical difference or potential can be recorded, which is usually referred to as resting potential
(one that exists when the membrane is not stimulated or active in transmitting a depolarization wave). In its
resting state, the membrane may also be said to be polarized. The value of the resting potential varies in different
cell from 5 to 100mv and the inside of the cell is electrically negative to its environment.

Origin of the resting potential

Animal tissues and fluids have no significant supply of free electrons, electrical charges being carried by ions of
dissolved dissociable substances. It makes sense, then to suggest that an equal distribution of charges and
development of an electrical difference on two sides of a membrane is the result of an unequal distribution of ions
on the two sides of the membrane.

Comparison of the species of ions between extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF) shows a marked
difference and shows that in both compartment, anion (negative charged) and cations (positively charged)
balance. There also is an obvious diffusion gradients for ions that have large differences in ECF and ICF.
Movement is largely prevented by the electrical attraction of positive for negative ions in spite of diffusion
tendencies. Thus, the diffusion gradient is balanced by a voltage gradient.

Measured potentials are about 90mv negative to the exterior CL_ is passively distributed and needs no other
mechanism than diffusion and voltage gradients to explain its distribution. Measured values for K+ suggests that
it may be responsible for the resting potential and is largely, if not wholly distributed by electrochemical process
only. The wide discrepancy between calculated and actual potential for Na+ discourages any attempt to explain
its distribution by diffusion or voltage. The variance has to suggest that the anomalous distribution of Na+ is the
result of an active process, since both voltage and diffusion must tend to move Na+ into the cell.

Low intracellular sodium is maintained by a sodium pump utilizing metabolic energy derived from ATP to
remove sodium actively from the cell against gradients. The small difference in K+ potential may be explained
by assuming K+ pumping into the cell. It would seem that the same pump removes Na+ from the cell also brings
K+ into the cell that is, there is coupled pump operating.
Development of Action Potential

During an action potential, the membrane potential nearly reverse itself. This suggests that there has been an
increase in membrane permeability to Na+ and that it moves into the cell to create a positive internal change.

An effective stimulus produces a 500- fold increase in membrane permeability to Na+ perhaps by shutting down
the Na+/K+ pump. About a 40 – fold increase in permeability to K+ also occurs but does not contribute much to
the potential change. With the removal of the stimulus, the pump resumes, and the original state is restored
(repolarization).

Transmission of an action potential

It is a statement of fact that, once formed and action potential is relentlessly conducted along a membrane until it
reaches some terminus. In nerve cell axon (fibers that do not have insulating myelin (fatty) sheaths, the process
occurs as follow; an area of depolarization (where an action potential has developed) lies next to a still polarized
area. Utilizing the ion – laden ECF and ICF, a local current flow develops from positive to negative areas. It is as
if two tiny batteries had been connected by ionic flow. Indeed, this phenomenon is sometimes called the battery
effect. The current flow is of sufficient strength to depolarize the next segment, which develops an action
potential that causes depolarization, current flow, depolarization of the next segment, and so on. Nerve cells are
normally stimulated at one end, so that the impulse is conducted in one direction. Repolarization occurs as the
impulse moves along the fiber membrane.

In a nerve fiber with myelin sheaths, the current flow can only occur where there are breaks in the sheath – that is
at the nodes. This results in the action potential being developed at the nodes that lie 2 to 3 mm apart. The
impulse will then cover a given distance in jumps rather than steps spreading its rate of passage along the fiber.
This type of conduction is called salutatory conduction.

THE SYNAPSE

The synapse is the junction between one nerve cell and another nerve cell, an effector such as a muscle or gland,
or a sensory receptor cell.

It’s essential components are the presynaptic terminal, the synaptic cleft and the post synaptic terminal.

A close relationship exists between a presynaptic terminal, which is formed by the end of a nerve cell, and the cell
with which it synapses.

The space separating the two cells is the synaptic cleft, and the membrane opposed to the presynaptic terminal is
the post synaptic terminal or post synaptic membrane.

An action potential in the presynaptic terminal can result in the production of an action potential in the
postsynaptic terminal.

The major cytoplasmic organelles within presynaptic terminals are mitochondria and numerous membrane –
bound synaptic vesicles, which contains neurotransmitter chemicals.

The neurotransmitter can be released from the presynaptic terminal to diffuse the short distance across the
synaptic cleft to the post synaptic terminal.

The post synaptic terminals have specific receptors that can bind to the neurotransmitter released by the
presynaptic terminal and this binding causes a response in the post synaptic terminal such as the production of an
action potential.
Each action potential arriving at the presynaptic terminal initiates a series of events that results in the release of
neurotransmitter substance.

In response to an action potential, calcium ion channels open, and Ca 2+ ions diffuse into the presynaptic terminal.

Ca2+ ions causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter by
exocytosis into the synaptic cleft.

Once the neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic terminal, it diffuses rapidly across the synaptic cleft
and binds in a reversible fashion to specific receptors in te post synaptic membrane.

In synapses in which acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter, acetylcholinerase, an enzyme that breaks acetylcholine
down to acetic acid and choline, is present. Choline is then transported back into the presynaptic terminal and is
used to resynthesize acetylcholine. Another example of a neurotransmitter is norepinephrine.

The combination of neurotransmitters with their specific receptors causes either depolarization or
hyperpolarization of the post synaptic terminal.

When depolarization occurs, the response is stimulatory and the local depolarization is an excitatory post synaptic
potential (ESSP). Neurons releasing EPSPs are excitatory neurons.

When the combination of a neurotransmitter with its receptor results in hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic
membrane, the response is inhibitory, and the local hyperpolarization is an inhibitory post synaptic potential
(IPSP). Neurons releasing neurotransmitter substances that cause IPSPs are inhibitory neurons.
LOCOMOTION
Movement is one of the basic characteristics of all living things. All animals can move and one of the
important attributes of the movement is contractility which may occur in various ways. A living cell
may show intracellular movements of its components, such as streaming movement of protoplasm
or migration of chromosomes during cell division. However, cells may undergo locomotion also,
which may be due to intrinsic behaviour of their specialized components.

In higher organisms, movement of body parts or as a whole is due to the unique property of
specialized tissues called the muscle tissue. Muscles are excitable tissues or effector organs which
may respond to various stimuli, such as pressure changes, heat, light, etc. The functions of various
systems, such as digestion, reproduction, excretion and the like, are also due to movements of
muscles with which they are made of. Muscles are therefore the tissues which accomplish the
movements in an organism. Much of animal physiology involves movement e.g.
a. Contractions of the heart that propels blood through the circulatory system
b. Movements of the stomach and intestines that push food through the digestive system or tract
c. Movement of limbs of the body as one moves from place to place.
- Movement is achieved through the action of muscles
- Muscles are- organs and tissues with ability to contract i.e. shorten in length

Muscles have the properties of contractility, extensibility and elasticity. In a vertebrate body, muscles have
two kinds of arrangements. Those muscles which move the appendages find their origins as well as
insertions on the endoskeletal structures, are called phasic muscles. Phasic muscles function on a lever
system and always occur in antagonistic pairs. Besides this, muscles occurring in soft organs like heart,
urinary bladder, digestive tract and the body wall are called tonic muscles. These muscles do not have
origins and insertions comparable to phasic muscles

The function of the muscles is closely related to the structure, and therefore a detailed structure of the different
types of muscles is necessary. In vertebrates, there are three distinct types of muscles which constitute about 60-
75 per cent of the total body weight and each has a distinctive appearance, structure, role and location: They
are
1) skeletal muscles
2) smooth muscles
3) cardiac muscles

Skeletal muscle
- It is the only voluntary muscle because it is under ones conscious control i.e. under control of will
- Cardiac [from the heart] and smooth muscles [lining many internal organs] are both involuntary i.e.
not under conscious control
- Skeletal muscle is responsible for bone movement
- It is also called striated muscles because it has striated or banded appearance when viewed under a
microscope
- Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons at each end
- Tendons are bundles of connective tissues that pull on the bones when a muscle contracts causing one
of the bones to pivot at its joints with another bone.
- Striated muscle is made up of a large number of parallel fibres
- Skeletal muscle has an outer membrane called sarcolemma. which encloses the sarcoplasm, which is
an equivalent of the cytoplasm of other cells
 - The fibre has an elaborate system of membranes, vesicles and tubules which comprise what is
called the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Folds of membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum divide the fibre into many long cylindrical 1
sub units called myoflbrils
- The myofibril is divided into units of equal length called sarcomeres
- On top of each sarcolemma each muscle fibre is enclosed in and attached to the fibrous tissue called
endomecium. Small bundles of fibres are enclosed in the epimysium.
-It is in the sarcomeres that reactions occur which are responsible for the contraction of the muscles as a
whole
- The sarcomeres are therefore considered_to_be the functional units of muscle contraction
- In an electron microscope, the sarcomere consists of a series of dark and light bands
- Each end of a sarcomere is marked by transverse lines called Z-lines which are characteristic cross
striations repeated at regular intervals
- Inside the Z lines at each end of the sarcomere are lighter regions called I-bands
- Between the I bands lies darken middle region called the A band
- The A band contains a lighter centre called the H band
- There is a dense line in the middle of the H zone called M line

- The light and dark bands in the sarcomere are produced by the overlapping of hundreds and thousands
of long, narrow filaments that lie oriented lengthwise throughout the interior of the sarcomere
- There are two kind of filaments:

I. Thick filaments which extend into the sarcomere -from each Z disk
II. Thick filaments which are suspended in the central part of the sarcomere overlapping the thin
filaments at each end
Therefore, the I zone contains thin filaments only while the H zone contains dark filaments only
- The A band [dark regions of the sarcomere] is where filaments overlap
Molecular organization of Filaments
Thin filaments consists of three proteins:
a. Actin
b. Tropomyosin
c. Troponin
- Are about 0.005 milli microns in diameter
- The thick filaments contain myosin sub units, which are long slender filaments with two globular heads
attached to one end.
- The filamentious portions of the myosin sub units lie alongside one another to form the backbone of the
filament, leaving the head sections projecting outward in a spiral path around the surface of the thick
filaments.
- The thick and thin filaments are linked together by a system of molecular cross linkages
- When the muscle contract and shortens, this cross linkages are rearranged so that the thick filaments
slide in between the thin filaments, reducing the distance between the Z lines.
- The cross bridges are formed where the heads of the myosin sub units combine with actin sub units of
the thin filaments.
Neither thick filaments nor thin filaments change in length during contraction but they move relative to
each other. This contraction is called isometric contraction.
Mechanism of contraction – sliding filament theory
- A thick filament consists of the protein myosin
- Each myosin molecule resembles a rod with a globular 'head'
- The myosin molecules are lined up with the heads facing in both directions away from the centre of
the filaments
- A bare zone is left in the middle and the heads protrude along the rest of the thick filaments
- The backbone of the thin filament is actin which is arranged in the filament as a twisted double strand
of heads
- Tropomyosin are long and thin molecules attached to each other, end to end forming thin threadlike
structure that lies in the grooves between the double helix of the actin molecules
- Troponin is attached to each tropomyosin molecule
- Troponin is a calcium binding protein and is a key to the contraction process
- When troponin binds calcium ions, it undergoes a conformational change that is essential for the
interaction between myosin heads of the thick filaments and the actin of the thin filaments.
- During contraction, the myosin head attach to the thin filaments at an angle, undergo conformational
change that makes the bridge swivel to a different angle, pulling the thin filament past the thick one
- The cross bridges on the opposite sides of the bare zone in the middle of the thick filaments swivel in
opposite directions pulling at the opposing end of the thin filaments shortening the distance between
the Z lines thereby decreasing the distance between the Z lines causing muscle shortening [contract]
- Energy required for the attachment is obtained from ATP [Adenosine Triphosphate] which is provided
by mitochondria found in the sarcoplasm
- In a resting muscle, actin sites are covered by tropomyosin molecules, making it impossible to form
cross bridges
- In an activated muscle, Ca released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum react with the tropomysin
molecules to shift position, exposing actin sites and allowing cross bridges to form.
- When not attached to an actin site, a myosin head combines with a molecule of ATP and cleaves into
inorganic phosphate.
- ADP remains attached to the head of the myosin until an actin site is available when the head binds to
the new site and releases ADP. These reactions cause a change in the angle of attachment of the
myosin head to the thick filaments. This change configuration of many myosin heads pulls the thin
filaments along the thick filaments and the sarcomere shortens
- The head binds with a new ATP and releases its attachment to the actin site immediately after which
ATP is cleaved to ADP and phosphate. The ADP phosphate remains attached to the now free head of
myosin which bends back to its original position [angle]
- If actin sites continue to available, the cycle is repeated.
- Troponin has high affinity for Ca ions, after stimulation of the muscle. Ca ions concentration rises and
binds to troponin which in turn undergoes conformational change that allows tropomyosm to move
out of its blocking position on the actin strands.
Summary of steps of muscle contraction and relaxation in skeletal muscle
1. Muscle contraction is initiated by a nerve impulse. A nerve impulse reaches the reaches end plate of a
nerve cell and causes the release of acetyl choline into the synaptic cleft
2. Acetyl choline diffuses across the synaptic cleft and combines with the muscle membrane, where it
may cause an impulse to be initiated to the muscles fibre. The acetyl choline is then destroyed by
cholinesterase
3. The impulse passes over the sarcolemma and down T-tubules into the cell, where it stimulates the
release of calcium ions stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The ions pass into the fluid that bathes
the thin and thick filaments
4. Calcium ions combine with the troponin - tropomyosin molecules present in the thin filaments,
causing the tropomyosin portion to move, exposing sites to which myosin heads from the thick
filaments can attach
5. ATP molecules attach to myosin heads and are split to ADP and inorganic phosphates [Pi]. The myosin
head releases the ADP and Pi as it attaches to the next available actin site. Attachment causes the head
to pivot on its neck, pulling the thin filament in the process. This action duplicated at hundreds or
thousands of myosin heads, causes the thin filaments to slide in from either end of the sarcomere,
pulling the end plates to which they are attached along with them. The sarcomere shortens.
6. Calcium ions are actively transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In the absence of calcium
ions, tropomyosin covers the binding sites of the thin filaments. Uptake of ATP by the myosin heads
causes them to detach from the actin sites and the filaments slide apart as the muscle relaxes.

SMOOTH MUSCLES

Smooth muscles are also called unstriated or involuntary muscles and are devoid of any cross striations.
Anatomically, they are composed of spindle-shaped cells with long tapering ends and a centrally placed
nucleus. They are generally found in the walls of the internal organs, such as digestive tract, respiratory
passages, urinary bladder, arteries and veins, etc. They are slow in contraction and are not under voluntary
control. Although these muscles contain actin and myosin, their mechanism of contraction is still not
completely understood.

CARDIAC MUSCLES
These muscles are found in the heart only. They are made up of striated multinucleate fibres, thus resembling
the skeletal muscles in many respects. The muscle fibres are arranged in a syncytial fashion, but do not appear
to be fused with each other. These muscles are specialized in the sense that stimulation of cardiac muscle causes all
the muscle fibres to respond initiating rhythmic beats of the heart. They are, however, involuntary in function and
are innervated by autonomic nerves.

JOINTS

Definition of Joint
A joint is the location at which two or more bones articulate or make contact. Some joints like those of the
skull are fixed and have no movement, some like those of the vertebrae can move slightly and some are
freely moveable like the joints of the limbs.

Classification of joints
1. Fibrous joints.
2. Cartilaginous joints.
3. Synovial joints.

IMMOVABLE JOINTS/FIBROUS JOINTS

Fibrous joints connect bones without allowing any movement. The bones of the skull and pelvis are held
together by fibrous joints. The union of the spinous processes and vertebrae, joints between the teeth and
maxilla and mandible are the examples of fibrous joints.

SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINTS/ CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS

Cartilaginous joints are joints in which the bones are attached by cartilage. In this type of joint, there is a
pad of fibro cartilage between the ends of bones which form joints, where only some movement is
required. Joints at the pubic symphysis, joint between the manubrium sterni and body of the sternum and
joints between the vertebral bodies are the examples of cartilaginous joint.

a) PRIMARY CARTILAGINOUS JOINT

It does not allow any movement. This type is characterized by having a plate of cartilage between the
epiphysis & diaphysis of the same bone. It is not a true permanent joint, but it is a temporary plate of
hyaline cartilage which disappears in adulthood by ossification. E.g. it is represented by the epiphysial
plate of cartilage intervening between the epiphysis and diaphysis of long bones.

b) SECONDARY CARTILAGINOUS JOINT

MOVABLE JOINTS/ SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of joint within the human
body. They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous structure) surrounding the
entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule) which secretes synovial fluid (a
lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends of the articulating bones.
There are 6 types of synovial joints which are classified by the shape of the joint and the movement

available.

 Gliding joints, such as the ones between the carpals of the wrist, are found where bones meet as flat
surfaces and allow for the bones to glide past one another in any direction.
 Hinge joints, such as the elbow and knee, limit movement in only one direction so that the angle
between bones can increase or decrease at the joint. The limited motion at hinge joints provides for
more strength and reinforcement from the bones, muscles, and ligaments that make up the joint.
 Saddle joints, such as the one between the first metacarpal and trapezium bone, permit 360 degree
motion by allowing the bones to pivot along two axes.
 The shoulder and hip joints form the only ball and socket joints in the body. These joints have the
freest range of motion of any joint in the body – they are the only joints that can move in a full circle
and rotate around their axis. However, the drawback to the ball and socket joint is that its free range
of motion makes it more susceptible to dislocation than less mobile joints.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (GLANDS)

INTRODUCTION
The overall metabolism of organisms is under the control of endocrine or ductless glands which discharge
their internal secretions into the peripheral circulation. These exert physiological effects on distant tissues
and organs. Every activity, viz. growth, differentiation, reproduction response, behaviour, and maintenance
consists of exceedingly complex integrated biochemical reactions. Integration and regulation of all these
activities within the organism are essential for the functioning and survival of the individual and are
controlled by the internal secretions or hormones.
The internal state of the organism is maintained in a steady state by homeostatic mechanisms. Any
disturbances in the external environment are communicated to the organism which affect the behaviour or
functioning of various parts of the body. Coordination in the internal state and the external environment is
also necessary. The nervous system and the endocrine system are two important coordinating systems
which help in the function of integration.
The endocrine system communicates with the distant tissues and organs of the body through the
circulatory system which helps in distributing the hormones−or chemical messengers. The whole
endocrine system consists of a number of glands located in different parts of the body that have no
anatomical continuity. However, the whole system forms a functional unit having a direct or reciprocal
relationship.
The endocrine system is under the control of nervous system. The neuroendocrine relationships have been
studied in a number of vertebrates. An intimate relation on endocrine system with the autonomic and
central nervous systems via hypothalamus has been revealed. The hypothalamus serves as a relay station.
Hormones also influence the nerve activities in many ways.

Hormones do not form any special class of chemical compounds. Some hormones are polypeptides in their
chemical nature, such as hormones of the posterior pituitary. Some hormones have the nature of amino
acids (e.g. epinephrine). Another group of hormones is steroid in nature which usually consists of three
hydrated benzene rings and one cyclopentane ring. The whole ring system is called cyclopentano-
phenanthrene ring.
Generally hormones are not “species specific”. However, they are specific in origin and are also specific in
their activity. For this reason, hormones extracted from animals when administered in human, body are
found to be quite effective.
Some of the principal endocrine functions may be enumerated below:
1. Hormones have the capacity to modify the metabolic processes by generally altering the rate of
reactions.

2. Specific secretory stimuli are necessary for the secretion of hormones. However, the amount of
secretion depends upon the nature and intensity of stimulus.

3. Hormones are generally secreted independent of each other.

4. Hormones are present in very minute quantities in blood and in many cases are bound to specific
protein molecules which serve as carrier molecules.

5. When not required, the hormones in blood and tissues are rendered inactive by enzymatic
mechanisms and then excreted from the body.
Hormones have a high degree of action specificity. The target glands secrete variable amounts of hormones
which are responsible for producing, differential sensitivity in the end-organs. Certain tissues respond
unusually to it particular hormone, whereas the same hormone is unable to evoke any response in other
tissues. This shows that hormones have a high degree of target specificity.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS

PITUITARY GLANDS

The pituitary gland or the hypophysis, as it is called, is a composite gland which is situated at the base of
the brain. It is lodged in the cavity of the sphenoid bone, called sella turcica.
Anatomically, the pituitary is divided into three parts, namely the anterior lobe, posterior lobe and the
intermediate lobe.

The anterior lobe of the pituitary is also called adenohypophysis. It is highly secretory in activity and
consists of cords of epithelial cells surrounded by many large sinusoidal areas. Histologically, three
different types of cells are distinguishable: (1) acidophils, (2) basophils, and (3) chromophobes. The
following six hormones have so far been isolated:
1. Growth hormone or somatotrophic hormone (STH).
2. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH).
6. Luteotrophic hormone (LTH) or prolactin.
Out of these, the last five hormones are trophic hormones which act on other endocrine glands as their
target organs.
GROWTH HORMONE: Growth hormone or somatotrophic hormone stimulates tissue growth. It is
proteinaceous in nature and secreted by acidophils of adenohypophysis. Excessive secretion of the growth
hormone, before the union of epiphyses causes gigantism due to acceleration of bone growth. If the
epiphyses are closed, the bones do not grow in length but thickening takes place. Growth hormone has
striking effects on the bones, muscles, kidney, adipose tissue and liver. In addition to growth function,
somatotrophic hormone has other functions also.
Somatotropin facilitates protein synthesis and retards amino acid catabolism. It also promotes transfer of
blood amino acids into muscle cells resulting in a positive nitrogen balance. Administration of this
hormone in young rate brings about accumulation of tissue proteins.
It also has some diabetogenic (anti-insulin) action. Administration of this growth hormone elevates blood-
sugar level, which if prolonged, causes destruction of islets of Langerhans. This causes diabetes mellitus
disease. Although the exact mechanism of its action on carbohydrate metabolism is not clearly understood,
it, however, appears to slow down the rate of glucose utilization.
Lipid metabolism is also affected to a considerable degree. The hormone helps in mobilization of lipid to
the liver and increased amounts of hormone may produce ketonemia and ketonuria. In females, full breast
development is influenced by somatotropin.
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE: It is a long chain polypeptide containing 39 amino acid units. The
hormone controls the function of adrenal cortex by adjusting the glucocorticoid output of the adrenal
cortex. The adrenal cortex atrophies in the absence of ACTH, and administration of ACTH stimulates the
release of cortical hormones, viz. cortisol, corticosterone, aldosterone, etc. ACTH also acts on adipose tissue
and increases fatty acid concentration in the blood. It also regulates the ACTH secretion from the
hypophysis. Larger doses of ACTH would inhibit its production from the adenohypophysis. ACTH is also
associated with melanophore-regulating action.
ACTH secretion is regulated in two ways: There is evidence to show that the neurosecretory cells of the
posterior part of the hypothalamus and median eminence secrete into the hypophysial portal system some
neurohumoral substances which reach the sinusoids of adenohypophysis and stimulate the cells to
produce hormones. These neurohumoral chemical substances are releasing factors which are probably
small polypeptide chains. One such factor that has been obtained in a highly purified form is called
corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). Another way which controls the ACTH secretion is through
glucocorticoids level in the plasma. Secretion of trophic hormones appears to be regulated by a feedback
mechanism.
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH): Extirpation of anterior pituitary causes atrophy of the
thyroid gland. The thyroid stimulating hormone controls thyroid function by stimulating formation of
thyroxine and its release from the thyroid gland and the synthesis of thyroxine.
he concentration of thyroid hormone is maintained at a constant level by circulating TSH. However, the
secretion of TSH is controlled by a thyroid releasing factor (TRF) from the hypothalamus.
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH): Follicle stimulating hormone is one of the three
gonadotropins. In females, it leads to growth and maturation of graffian follicles with estrogen production.
In males, it induces development of the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. Removal of
hypophysis leads to degeneration or atrophy of gonads.
FSH has been prepared is a purified form from the hypophysis of sheep and swine. It is a protein in nature
whose molecular weight varies depending on the source. The hypothalamus secretes a follicle stimulating
hormone releasing factor (FSHRF) which regulates the FSH levels.
LUTEIMZING HORMONE (LH): This hormone is known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). In
females, it promotes formation of corpus luteum which secretes progesterone. In the male, it stimulates the
interstitial cells of the testis to produce testosterone.
LH is a protein whose molecular weight varies from 30,000 to 100,000 depending upon the source. Purified
LH preparations have been obtained from the sheep and swine hypophysial glands. Regulation of LH is
controlled by the blood level of gonadal hormones and luteinizing hormone releasing factors (LHRF).
LUTEOTROPHIC HORMONE (LTH) OR PROLACTIN: LTH or prolactin, also sometimes called lactogenic
hormone, is responsible for maintaining corpus luteum of pregnancy. In rats the role of LTH has been fully
established. However, in primates its function has not been demonstrated. It promotes development of
mammary glands and the formation and secretion of milk during post-natal period. Its action in males is
not known.
Prolactin is a protein with a molecular weight of about 25,000-30,000 containing glucose.
The trophic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) are regulated by the blood
level of the concerning hormone (such as thyroxine blood level controls TSH). With the exception of
prolactin, all hormones are secreted under the stimulus of specific releasing factors from the
hypothalamus. These factors may be secreted under various stimuli which could be either nervous or
chemical. Releasing factors are carried by the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system which stimulate the
adenohypophysis to release specific hormones.
Little or no secretion of adenohypophysis leads to a condition called hypopituitarism. This may bring about
atrophy of the thyroid gland causing dwarfism or infantilism, and Simmond’s disease

POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

The neurohypophysis is an ectodermal derivative and originates as an outgrowth of the primitive brain,
infundibulum, from the floor of the brain. Histologically it consists of nerve fibres and cells called pituicytes
closely resembling nerve cells. Anatomically it is intimately associated with the hypothalamus via the
hypothalamo-hypophysial fibre tracts, thus forming a component of the hypothalamic neurosecretory
system.The hormones are actually secreted from the hypothalamus from where they are transported and
stored in the posterior lobe along the fibre-tracts for release

Crude extracts of the posterior lobe reveal the presence of at least two important hormones which are octapeptides
in nature (composed of eight amino acids).
OXYTOCIN: It is composed of 8 amino acids with a disulphide ring having a molecular weight of about 1,025.
The hormone has a stimulating effect on the musculature of the uterus and promotes labour. Physicians
sometimes use it during child birth. It also stimulates secretion of milk from the breasts and the stimulus is
obtained from the suckling of the baby.
VASOPRESSIN: This hormone is also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and is composed of 8 amino acids
with a disulphide ring. The hormone promotes water retention in the kidneys, hence the name antidiuretic
hormone. Secretion or inhibition of the antidiuretic hormone is controlled by “Osmoreceptors” present in
the hypothalamus. Excessive intake of water would inhibit the secretion of ADH resulting in diuresis, whereas
diminished quantity of body fluid would stimulate the secretion of the hormone. Removal of the posterior
pituitary causes polyuria with symptoms of excessive thirst (polydipsia) but without glycosuria as in diabetes
mellitus. Generally lesions of the posterior lobe and the adjacent hypothalamic parts cause this condition. The
disease may have hereditary character; males generally suffer more than the females. The disease is commonly
called diabetes insipidus and may be relieved by the administration of ADH suppressing the urine output.
The pressor action of the antidiuretic hormone is more pronounced by the increased secretion which elevates
the arterial blood pressure by constriction of the arterioles and the capillaries. It also causes constriction of
coronary arteries and possibly that of pulmonary vessels too. Its role in regulation of blood circulation is,
however, doubtful

THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland consists of two lateral lobes situated on either side of the trachea just below the larynx,
being connected with a narrow isthamus. In man, both the lobes weigh about 25 gm. The gland is supplied
with right and left superior thyroid arteries. There are a large number of small closed vessels in the gland which
are composed of columnar or cuboidal cells. The lumen of the vesicles is filled with the epithelial secretion
which is colloidal in nature. The gland is innervated by the two branches of the autonomic nervous system.
The postganglionic fibres come from the superior and inferior cervical ganglia, while the parasympathetic
fibres come from the vagus. The innervation is responsible for the blood flow and not the secretions from the
gland.
THYROID HORMONE: The exact nature of thyroid hormone is still obscure. It is, however, believed to contain at
least four types of secretions, all of which are iodothyronines. These are: thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine),
3,5,3'—triiodothyronine, 3,3',5—triiodothyronine and 3,3'—diiodothyronine. Out of these four hormones,
thyroxine is the principal hormone. However, 3,5,3'— triiodothyronine is most active and about 5 times more
powerful than thyroxine. Iodine is the most essential component of thyroid hormones which is accumulated by the
thyroid gland. Thyroglobulin, a mucoprotein, is hydrolyzed in the thyroid gland by a proteolytic enzyme
releasing the hormone in the blood stream

Thyroid function: Thyroid hormone, mostly in the form of thyroxine circulates in the body generally bound to
protein. Various functions are as follows:
1. Thyroxine is essential for normal growth, skeletal maturation and mental development. Inadequate
thyroid secretion retards growth and mental development. In tadpoles, it hastens metamorphosis.
Children suffering from its deficiency have weak musculature, stunted growth and abnormal abdomen.
2. Thyroxine stimulates oxygen consumption of the body cells, except brain, testis, uterus, spleen, lymph
nodes, etc.
3. Thyroxine increases basal metabolic rate (BMR). Extirpation of the gland causes decrease in the BMR
which can be recovered by administration of thyroxine.
4. Thyroxine increases protein synthesis and helps in regulating lipid metabolism. It stimulates cholesterol
synthesis.
5. Thyroxine influences the cardiac output. Decreased amounts of the hormone decrease the heart rate and the
force of contraction. Hyperthyroidism causes increased cardiac output which sometimes results in the
cardiac failure.
6. Thyroxine enhances the rate of glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Hyperthyroidism
causes blood sugar level to rise.
7. Deficiency in thyroid secretion retards the normal formation of myelin sheath and also reduces the number
and size of the neurons.
Thyroid regulation: The thyrotropic hormone (TSH) secreted by the anterior pituitary regulates the thyroid
function, TSH stimulates thyroid gland and elevates the thyroid hormones in the circulation. It may have
the following functions:
1. The size of the gland may increase.
2. Secretion of thyroglobin may be accelerated.
3. Convert the thyroglobin to thyroid hormones.
4. Thyroid hormones may be secreted in enhanced quantities

PARATHYROID GLANDS
There are four parathyroids, two on each side placed over the thyroids. Their position varies in different
animals. These are consisting of solid masses or columns of epithelial cells with vascular channels. The
glandular cells are differentiated into two types: non-granular cells with large nuclei and clear cytoplasm,
and the eosinophilic cells with distinct nuclei which appear after puberty. Non- granular cells are the chief
secretory cells. Parathyroid glands are intimately involved in calcium and phosphorus metabolism of the
body.
PARATHYROID HORMONES: Two hormones are now believed to be produced by these glands, which are
parathormone (PTH) and calcitonin.
Parathormone: This hormone has now been purified and is known to contain about 83 amino acids in a
single polypeptide chain with molecular weight of about 9,500. The polypeptide chain contains about 15.5
per cent nitrogen and traces of iron, sulphur and phosphorus. The secretion of the hormone is inversely
proportional to the calcium concentration in the plasma. The level of ionized calcium acts directly on the
glands to regulate parathormone secretion.
Calcitonin: This hormone has a hypocalcemic function. Whether it is secreted by the thyroid or parathyroid
or by both is yet not decided. Its chemical nature is a polypeptide which is quite similar to thyrocalcitonin.
Functions of parathormone: Excessive secretion of the hormone is perhaps due to continued diuresis
which causes hyperparathyroidism. In small doses, the hormone is responsible for calcification of bones by
stimulating osteoblastic activity.
Parathormone is important in regulating the calcium concentration of the blood and a proper balance
between Ca++ and Mg++ on one hand and Na+ and K+ on the other hand is maintained. About 10 mg of
calcium per 100 ml of plasma is normally present, half of which is in the ionized form and
the rest is bound to plasma proteins. Fall in the blood-calcium increases irritability, nervousness and
spasmic activity. Major effects of parathormone can be elaborated as follows:
(1) Parathormone enhances calcium absorption by the gut. (2) Its major function is to cause
demineralization of bone. Enhanced secretion mobilizes both calcium and phosphorus from the
bones either by increasing the osteoclastic activity or by inhibiting osteoblastic activity. Thus the
hormone increases the number as well as the activity of the osteoclasts. On the basis of is O topic
studies it has been suggested that parathormone influences the removal of calcium from bones.
(3) Increased parathormone activity diminishes the phosphate resorption by the kidneys. Thus plasma
phosphate concentration is reduced causing an increase in urinary phosphates. Removal of
parathyroids reduces urinary phosphate levels.
(4) Parathormone increases the glomerular filtration rate.
(5) Demineralization of the bone material takes place with a consequent increase of blood calcium
when large quantities of the hormone are administered. However, small doses help mineral deposits
in the bone
(6) Recent studies have demonstrated that the level of serum lipid is increased by parathormone
 administration, thus increasing total cholesterol.
Calcitonin: This hormone lowers blood calcium. This is probably achieved by increasing incorporation of
calcium into bone

IN SUMMARY,
- It compliments the nervous system
- It is therefore the second of the two major systems responsible for controlling the
- body's response to internal and external stimuli
- Unlike the nervous system which communicates via action potentials sent through the
- neurons, the endocrine system acts through chemicals that are distributed throughout
- the body by the circulatory system
- Action potentials are same throughout the nervous system and so are impulses sent along precise
pathways to specific direction
- However, each endocrine gland releases specific chemicals (the hormones) that affect
- particular target tissues or organs
- Nervous system responds rapidly to stimuli whereas the endocrine system causes
- slow long lasting changes in affected tissues
- Hormones are regulatory chemicals that affect target organs and tissues
- They consist of amino acid derivatives, peptides, giycoproteins, proteins or steroids
- Hormones are produced in endocrine (ductless) glands
- Exocrine glands are ducted and do not produce hormones
- Some hormone producing glands are heterocrine. have both endocrine and exocrine function e.g. the
pancreas
- Hormone production is induced by nerve impulses, chemical environment or other hormones
- Result of a hormone's action is the stimulus to reduce production or release of hormone referred to as
negative feedback

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland

- Hypothalamus forms part of the brain
- Pituitary gland is suspended from the hypothalamus and consist of a posterior and anterior lobe
- Hypothalamus controls many phenomena including hormone release by the pituitary gland.

Hormones of the posterior pituitary glands

I- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
II- Oxytocin
- Are produced in the hypothalamus and travel to pituitary
- ADH increases water recovery from urine
- ADH is released when solute are in urine diminishes
- Oxytocin stimulates ejection of milk from mammalian glands contraction of uterus during labor
(positive feedback)

Hormones of anterior pituitary gland

- Hypothalamus produces releasing and release inhibiting hormones carried to anterior pituitary gland,
where they induce or inhibit the synthesis and release of anterior pituitary hormones.
- Hypothalamic hormones include:-
 I. Thyrotrophin - releasing hormones
II. Corticotrophin - releasing factor
III. Growth hormone release inhibitory hormone
IV. Gonadrophin - releasing hormone
V. Prolactic - releasing factors
- Prolactin stimulates milk synthesis and breast development
- Growth hormone (or human growth hormone HCG) primarily regulates growth of skeleton
- Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) controls cortiscosteroid production by adrenal glands (controls
the level of various mineral ions in the body fluid, regulates metabolism of fat, protein and
carbohydrates)
- Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) regulates the activity of the thyroid gland
- Gonodrophins stimulate production of sex hormones by ovaries and testes which include follicle -
stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH)
- FSH causes ovaries to develop in female and sperm in males
- LH causes continued development of follicle and production of corpus luteum after ovulation
- In Males, LH stimulates proliferation of cells that produce testosterone.
Thyroid and the Thyroid gland
- Thyroid gland is situated on either side of the trachea and larynx
Thyroid hormones include triiodothyronine (T3) Number of iodine .atoms and Thyroxine (T4) both
formed by iodination of tyrosine
- Thyroid hormones stimulation metabolisms, respiration, protein synthesis, fat.
metabolism and mineral balance
- Calcitonin hormone stimulates uptake of Ca+ and phosphate by bones
- Parathyroid glands are found in the posterior surface of the thyroid glands
- Produce parathyroid hormone which causes Ca+ to be released from bones Also, Ca" absorption in the
intestine and inhibits Ca' excretion by kidneys

Adrenal gland
Are located at superior end of each kidney and surrounded by fatty tissue and fibrous capsule
- Adrenal cortex produces aldosterone which regulates sodium and potassium level by
- controlling their release from the kidney (minerals corticoids)
- Glucocorticoids regulate carbohydrates metabolism
- Gonadocorticoids are sex hormones
- Adrenal medulla produce Epinephrine which stimulates metabolism and delivery of the blood to the
tissues
- Norepinephrine controls blood pressure

Pancreas
- Is a heterocrine gland
- Hormone secreting cells (alpha, beta and delta) are localized in Islets of Langerhans
- Insulin avails glucose, to cells by stimulating glucose transport across the cell membrane
- Stimulates incorporation of glucose into glycogen in the liver by (B- cells)
- Glucagon increases the level of the glucose in the blood by inducing glycogen breakdown and
conversion of amino acids to carbohydrates (by alpha cells)
- Somatostatin inhibits secretion of several hormones, glucose absorption in small intestine, HCL
secretion in stomach, bicarbonate and enzyme secretion from the pancreas (by delta cells)
Other Endocrine glands

Gonads
- Includes ovaries and testes
- Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone which stimulate development of sexual
characteristics
- Testes produce testosterone causes development of male sexual characteristics

Thymus gland
- Situated in the superior portion of the thoracic region, posterior to the sternum
- Produce hormones that cause cells, differential into forms capable of producing chemicals used to
destroy invading organism (thymosins)
- Produces hormones called thymosins that stimulate lymphocytes differentiation (in thoracic
region)
Pineal gland
- Found in the fore brain
- Hormone melatonin in humans produced between 11 pm and 7am
- Its production is inhibited by bright light
- Affects pigmentation in lower animals e.g. frogs and other amphibians
- In humans it inhibits the release of gonadotropin by the pituitary gland and gonadotropin releasing
hormones by the hypothalamus

Sources of additional hormones

- Secondary hormone glands include:
Placenta
- Produces the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which helps stimulate the ovary to
produce progesterone during pregnancy
- Placenta also secretes estrogen and progesterone as HCG decreases, placental corticotrophin, and
placenta! thyrotropin and somatomammotropin, all of which helps maintain mothers body during
pregnancy
Digestive System
- Secretin
- Cholecytokinin
- Gastrin
- Somatostatin - grinding in digestion

Clinical implication related to the endocrine system

I. Growth Abnormalities
- Excess or insufficient production of human growth hormone in the pituitary leads to abnormal
growth
- Deficiency of HCG pituitary -dwarfism (short stature with normal body proportions)
- Excess HCG -gigantism or acromegaly (massive enlargement of bone extremeties (hands and feet0,
mandibles and forehead).
- Excessive growth before puberty and also lager internal organs
II Aldosteronism
- Inappropriate production of aldosterone by adrenal glands
- Excessive production mainly due to an adrenal tumor and is difficult to regulate by feedback control
system
- Leads to excessive re-absorption of sodium leading to excessive retention of water
- Leading to increased blood pressure
- Treatment may require removal of adrenal gland

Addison's disease
- Hypo-functioning of the gland leads to less sodium, potassium, too much Na+ is lost and too much
potassium retained Heads to mineral imbalances-interfering with water retention leading to
dehydrogenation (add adrenal hormone injection)
Cushing's Syndrome :
- Form overactive adrenal cortex
- Excess cortisols (ACTH) - accumulation of fat in the neck, face and truck, weak muscles, thin skin.
menstrual difficulties, stunted growth in children if caused by tumors removal is needed.
- If by glands then glands to be removed

Disorders of Endocrine System

I. Adrenal Virilism
- Syndrome resulting from excessive production of adrenal androgens
- In females leads to musculinization as in facial hair, baldness, increased muscle development.
- Suppression of normal female characteristics i.e., menstruation, uterus atrophy, decreasing breasts.
Treatment - by removal of glands

II. Phaechromocytoma
- A tumor of the adrenal medulla Causes secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrme
uncontrollably
- They cause vasoconstriction - increased blood pressure
- Very high hypertension i.e. 200/150 and 300/175
- Severe headache, irregular heart beat, too fast heart beat and sweating
- Emotional instability, depression, flushes, dilated pupils, kidney disease
Treatment – removal of tumor

III. Hyperinsulinism
- Increased insulin production due to benign tumors of the islets of Langerhans - rarely
malignant
- Excessive insulin may require administration of large amounts of glucose Anxiety, nervousness, sweats
and trembles Convulsions (with sugar levels in blood) - coma may follow
- Give large quantities of glucose and give glucogen to stimulate glycogenolysis by the liver to increase
blood sugar

IV. Diabetes mellitus

- Total or partial lack of the pancreatic hormone insulin
- Affects carbohydrate metabolism, fat and protein metabolism
Types A - insulin dependent, diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
Type B - non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)

IDDM
- Onset before age 30
- Often is an adolescent of normal built
- Affects 5 in1000 people
- Little Normal hereditary factor compared to NDDM - mumps, rubella and CoxSackie virus
- Viruses may destroy the beta cells or induce changes in the islet cells so that they are recognized as
foreign by own immune system and are attacked
- Lack of insulin leads to hyperglycemia (increased blood sugar level) because sugar is not being taken
up by cells.
- Liver overproduces sugar through glycogenolysis and glycogenesis
- Synthesis of protein, ATP, DNA, RNA and fat is impaired
- Protein and fat degradation for use instead of glucose is enhanced
- Fatty acids accumulate in blood leading to diabetic ketosis
- Excessive acidity in the body fluid follows Acid spill into urine with sugar
- Excessive water is eliminated due to osmotic effects of sugar in urine resulting in hydration

NIDDM
- Persons over 30 years
- Usually over weight
- Exercise very little
- Show no viral infection
- Hereditary plays a role showing 95% concordance In twins; (1-5%) of population
- Is a disorder of insulin reception by peripheral target cells
- Diabetic induced ketosis is rare
- No enough insulin to prevent hypergiycemia
- Both types causes secondary disorders
- Cause damage in kidneys of diabetics (retinopathy)
- Also damages the large vessels (macro angiopathy) in both types
- Antheroscierosis in heart and large vessels of diabetics is accelerated
- Leads to heart attack and stroke
- Kidney failure due to Nephropathy
- NIDDM people develop macroangiopathies e.g. heart diseases as cause of death
- Treatment involves special controlled diet with restricted amounts of fat and carbohydrates depending
on age and activity.
- Regulated amounts of exogenous insulin
-
NIDDM
- Lose weight
- Increase exercise
- Occasionally given insulin
- Patient participation in self care is important
- Self testing of urine and / blood
- Self injection of insulin
- Careful control of diet
- Exercise program
- Motivation
- Will power
- Support of doctor and family
DIGESTION

The Digestive System

- The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal also called the gastrointestinal tract [GI-tract] and
accessory organs.
- Alimentary canal consists of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine and anus.
-Accessory organs include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

Mouth
- Is the entrance to the alimentary canal
- Its formed by the lips anteriorly, cheeks laterally and floor of the mouth and tongue [palate]
- The volume enclosed by these organs is the buccal [oral] cavity
- The tongue covers most of the floor of the oral cavity-
- There are three pairs of salivary glands:
1. Parotid - lies just below and in front of the ears
2 Sub-mandibular - below the mandibles [teeth]
3.Sublingual glands - below the tongue

Parotid glands are the largest salivary glands and empty into the mouth through the parotid duct.

Sub mandibular or sub maxillary glands lie along the rear interior surface of the mandible. It empties into the
floor of the mouth through sub mandibular ducts.

Sublingual glands lie in the floor of the mouth under the tongue.
- Are the smallest salivary glands and empty into the floor of the mouth through several small ducts.
Together with buccal glands [numerous and small] salivary glands produce saliva.

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

- In the mouth, there is mastication [chewing] which breaks down food
- Saliva secreted by the saliva glands is mixed with the food to create a semi-fluid mass more easily
swallowed.
- |Food grinding into smaller particles increases its surface area and subsequent chemical | digestions more
efficient.
- Saliva consists of about 99.5% water, 0-5% protein and ions of sodium, potassium, calcium,
bicarbonate, chloride and phosphates.
- Its pH is between 6.0 and 7.0
- Most salivary protein is mucus [lubricates food]
- There is salivary amylase. an enzyme digesting starch
Functions_ of saliva
- Makes swallowing easier
- Has a lubricating effect that makes speech easier by decreasing friction between tongue and lips
- Forms a solvent for components of food that stimulate taste buds
- Enzymatic action of amylase dislodges food particles from the teeth
- Enzyme lysozyme's presence helps to control the bacterial population and minimizes the effect of micro -
organisms in the teeth and gums.
- Only starch is chemically digested in the mouth. It is cleaved into maltose by salivary amylase - extent of
starch digestion depends on
i. Amount
ii. time of exposure to amylase
- Usually food is swallowed quickly and so action of amylase is very limited
- Once food is swallowed into the stomach, the acidic conditions quickly denature the amylase and stops its
action.
- The pharynx lies between the nasal and oral cavity and the larynx and oesophagus. It serves as a passage way
for food going to the stomach and air to the lungs.
- The oesophagus is a flattened tube leading from the buccal cavity
- Mucus secreting glands lie in the walls .of the oesophagus and their secretions lubricate the wall.
- The wall of the lower region forms the oesophangeal sphincter - a constriction that prevents back flow of
stomach contents.

Swallowing or Deglutition
Involves muscular contractions that forces the mixture of food and saliva into the stomach. Process involves three
stages:

1. Buccal Stage - voluntary food pushed into posterior region of oral cavity into the pharynx.
2. Pharyngeal Stage [involuntary] - Initiated by nerve impulses from swallowing receptor areas around the
opening of the pharynx. Impulses from here are passed to the swallowing centre in the medulla oblongata.
Swallowing center responds by sending signals through nerves to the pharyngeal wall, to start a series of
movements that forces the bolus into the oesophagus.
3. Oesophangeal Stage - Muscular contraction of the pharyngeal walls forces the bolus into the oesophagus.
Entry of food forces the oesophageal wall to contract and the bolus further forced downwards by a peristaltic
wave [ a coordinated involuntary contraction of circular muscles just above the bolus and of longitudinal
muscle just below it.
- The waves are stimulated by distension of the oesophagus due to the bolus.
* If stomach is irritated by spicy foods, infection or nervousness, pressure develops and overcomes the
oesophageal sphincter and this forces the stomach contents back into the oesophagus whose acidic contents
irritate the oesophageal wall and leads to pyrosis or heartburn. If it occurs too often may lead to
oesophangeal ulcers.

*There is no digestion in the oesophagus and no absorption of food is known to occur.

THE STOMACH
- It is formed by the enlargement of the GI at the lower end of the oesophagus
- Usually T shaped organ
- Variable in shape and size depending on;
a. how full it is.
b. the extent to which the muscle in its wall is contracting.
- Opening at the base of the lower oesophangeal sphincter is the cardiac orifice and at the outer end is the
pyloric orifice guarded by pyloric sphincter
- The lumen of the stomach-is divide into three regions:
a. the fungus which bridge to the left of the oesophagus and above the cardiac orifice
b. the central body
c. the terminal region that narrows to form the pylorus [or pyloric antrum]

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

-Upon entry of food in the stomach, the stomach stretches and initiates a series of contractions called mixing
waves. The waves combine the bolus with secretions of the stomach wall, i.e. the gastric juice, and converts the
semi solid food into a milky fluid called chyme. The mixing wave also force the digesting bolus towards the
pylorus
Gastric juice is produced by gastric pits, which are depressions in the inner wall of the stomach.
Glands of the Stomach
There are cardiac and gastric glands in the gastric pits.
A. Cardiac glands - are restricted to the cardiac region and secrete mucus-
B. Gastric glands - are found in the fundus and body of the stomach where cells are differentiated into two i.e.
a. Parietal cells - which produce HCL, which is pumped into stomach interior. Parietal cells also produce a
glycoprotein [intrinsic factor] that combines with vitamin Bi2, the only form in which the vitamin is absorbed.
Absence of PC due to surgery -removal of large portion of the stomach leads to pernicious anaemia [insufficient
RBC, hormonal abnormalities] - deficiency of vitamin B12.
b. Chief cells or Zymogenic cells
- Smaller than parietal cells
- Produce pepsinogen an inactive enzyme which converted to pepsin by the stomach acid
- Pepsin cleaves protein into polypeptide chains by attacking the peptide bonds | adjacent to ammo acids.
- Pepsin splits proteins into fragments of four to ten amino acids
- Hardly are there free amino acids released in the stomach
- Peptic ulcer disease is caused when the tract is exposed to gastric juices [irritates]due to absence of mucus
and epithelial cells [compact]
- Can occur in lower oesophagus, stomach or duodenum - increased excretion of acid

C. Pyloric glands
- Located in the pyloric antrum [pylorus] and pyloric canal
- Secretes mucus .
- Some of their cells secrete gastrin – a polypeptic hormone that has a number of effects on the digestive tract
e.g.
1. Increased secretion of HCL, intrinsic factor [glycoprotein] and pepsinogen by gastric glands. Increase
secretion of digestive chemicals
2. Increased secretion of insulin by pancreas and calcitonin by thyroid gland, a hormone which stimulates
intake of Ca 2+ and phosphate by bones-
3. Increased muscular tone in the lower oesophangeal sphincter and walls of stomach and intestine - all
factors which increase the efficiency of digestion.

Gastric gland secretion is under hormonal and nervous control mechanisms that operate
in three phases of digestion.

1. Cephalic phase - characterized by neural activities that result from sight, smell and taste of food. Nervous
impulses from the eyes, tongue and nose are delivered to the brain and signals are sent to the nerves of the
stomach wall [mysenteric plexus]. The impulses stimulate glands in the cardiac, gastric and pyloric pits
causing them to secrete their respective products- Preparing the stomach for digestion before food arrives.
2. Gastric phase - begins when food enters the stomach. The stomach distention causes a reflex arc in which
nerve impulses are delivered to the gastric glands and cause them to increase their rate of secretion.
3. Intestinal phase - the peptides in chyme as it passes from the stomach to small intestine induces the secretion
of gastrin [hormone] by the mucosal cells of the upper portion of the duodenum. Intestinal gastrin is carried
by blood to gastric glands which increases the production of HCL and pepsinogen

SMALL INTESTINE
- It extends from the pyloric sphincter to the caecum of large intestine
- It consists of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum in that order
- It is lined by finger like projections called villi [numerous]
- In addition the inner wall [mucosa and sub mucosa] is modified into circular folds extending into the lumen
- These increase the surface area of the small intestine facilitating absorption of nutrients
- The small intestine has a good supply of capillary network
- The epithelial cells consists of two types of cells
a. A surface of columnar cells interspersed by globlet cells
i. Columnar cells absorb nutrients from the intestinal lumen
ii. Goblet cells secrete mucus that lubricates the intestinal surface
 iii. Simple tubular intestinal glands called crypts of Lieberkuhn secrete digestive - enzyme into
the spaces between the villi
- Duodenum receives secretions from the liver and pancreas through the bile duct and pancreatic ducts.

DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

- Completes digestion of macromolecules in the chyme

- Most digestion is enhanced by segmentation, contractions of the small intestine. The contraction mixes the
chyme with intestinal secretions
- Weak [peristaltic] contractions starting at various points of the intestine travel a short distance and subside
resulting in a slow movement of chyme through the intestine taking even ten hours [given enough time for
digestion]
- When chyme enters the duodenum, it is highly acidic
- Presence of chyme in duodenum and HCL causes release of secretin from the duodenal mucosa which is rich
protein digesting enzymes
- Secretin from the duodenal mucosa is a polypeptide hormone stored in an active form
- Secretin is carried to the pancreas where it stimulates the pancreatic ducts cells to release bicarbonate ions
- The bicarbonate ions are carried to the duodenum where they react with the hydrogen ions in chyme to
produce carbonic acid H+HCO3,- = H2C03
- Absorption of H+ causes the pH to rise to 7 or 8 and the chyme is neutralized.

Pancreatic enzymes
- Release of these enzymes is triggered hormonally by hormone called Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin
[CCK-PZ] from duodenal mucosa. It also causes contraction of gall bladder chyme i.e. polypeptides cause
the release of CCK-PZ into blood and is carried by blood to the pancreas and causes the pancreatic acinar
cells to release the enzymes.

FAT LIPID AND NUCLEIC ACID DIGESTION

- Pancreatic lipase is released in response to CCK-PZ attacks neutral fats [tryglycerides] free fatty acids and
glycero! and to glycerides [molecules ofglycerol to which one or two fatty acids are attached)
- Intestinal lipase hydrolyzes fats that escaped pancreatic lipase digestion
- There are also nucleases and phosphatases [work on ATP and Nucleic acid] that I complete hydrolysis
of DNA and RNA
- No enzymatic activities in the large intestine
- Has numerous goblet cells in its pits to produce mucus for lubrication
- No villi present
- Absorption of minerals and other substances from the fluid takes place.
- This action is made efficient by bile salts released into the duodenum by gall bladder
Bile
- Is produced by the liver [a yellowish fluid]
- Aids in lipid digestion
- Is a mixture of bile salts, bile pigments, e.g. bilirubin [a product of haemoglobin breakdown] and lecithin [a
phospholipid], cholesterol, sodium chloride and bicarbonate ions
- About a litre of bile is produced per day and is stored in the gall bladder.
- Bile is concentrated by absorption of electrolytes from gal! bladder.
- As minerals are removed water flows out by osmosis reducing the volume of GB by 90%
- When chyme enters the small intestine, it triggers the release of CCK-PZ and secretin which causes muscles
of the gall bladder to contract forcing bile into the J duodenum.
- Bile salts are emulsifying agents that disperse fat droplets in the chyme into smaller | droplets For effective
hydrolysis by lipase since surface area is increased. j ^ -Sometimes bile becomes so concentrated in the gall
bladder [by absorption of j electrolytes from the gall bladder as minerals are removed] Cholestrol
precipitates and forms gall stones, condition called Cholelithiasis [nausea and digestion pain in the
abdomen]
- Cause unknown but associated with obesity not very problematic - worsen after eating a meal rich in fat, if a
stone leaves the gall bladder and gets stuck in the bile duct, it blocks the flow of bile to small intestine
causing jaundice [yellowing of the eyes, skin due to excess bile]
- Severe pain accompanies the obstruction of the duct and is known as biliary colic removed by surgery - the
whole of gall bladder is removed.
 Digestion of fats is similar in vertebrates and invertebrates
Ordinary fats whether of plants or animals consist of esters between one molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of long-chain fatty acids.
They are highly insoluble in water hence are not easily hydrolyzed by enzymes.
In Vertebrates - pancreas secretes a fat-hydrolyzing enzyme, lipase, which act on intestinal rumen and substrates
are emulsified by bile salts. Fatty acids and monoglycerides are released from the substrates, which are absorbed
by epithelial cells in intestine.
In invertebrates:
- Simple esterases seem to be predominant in lipid digestion in invertebrates
- Crustaceans - mid-gut has been found to be rich in esterases and some lipid activity
- Insects - digestive esterases have been widely found
- Bivalve molluscs - both intracellular and extracellular digestive esterases occur

PROTEIN DIGESTION
Proteins are polymers consisting of amino acids bound together by peptide bonds. An amino acid is relatively
simple organic acid that has carbon atom acid group (carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino acid (-NH2). A
peptide bond is formed by removal of water between the carboxyl of one amino acid and the amino group of
another
 The short chains of AA that remain are broken down by aminopeptidase and dipeptidase in the small
intestine
- Dipeptidases cleaves the peptide bonds remaining between pairs of AA completing the catabolism of
proteins to free AA
Proteins have high molecular weight with numerous amino acids united with peptide bonds
During digestion, peptide bonds are broken down and hydrolyzed to amino acids singly or in groups by help of
protein enzymes called proteinases
- They are divided into two categories according to where the protein molecule they act
Exopeptidases - hydrolyze a terminal peptide bond in a long peptide chain
Endopeptidases - act in the interior of the peptide chain (attack internal peptide bonds)
Pepsin is secreted in stomach as pepsinogen (inactive precursor)
- Breaks down the protein molecules
- Hcl acid is also secreted by stomach, which provides low pH for the action of pepsin
- All vertebrates except the cyclostomes secretes pepsinogen and this is catalytically broken down to pepsin
(active form which is protease pepsin)
Renin is another enzyme, which is a milk-clotting protease only found in sucking ruminants
Trypsin is secreted by pancreas in an inactive form trypsinogen. Are two forms in vertebrates -
chemotrypsinogen and trypsinogen.
- Trypsin is the first enzyme to be released in an inactive form called trypsinogen
- Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase. an enzyme in the intestinal mucosa that catalyzes activation as
trypsinogen enters the duodenum
- Trypsin activates other trypsinogen molecules and two other proteins [enzymes],
Chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase which are converted into chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase
respectively.
- Trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase digest peptides in the chyme. No free AA are released because
they only cleave specific peptide bonds. [Only an occasional release of AA.
 Protein digestion in invertebrates whether extracellular or intracellular, in principle proceeds as in vertebrate
except that invertebrates generally have no pepsin-like enzymes that act in acid solution. Otherwise their action is
similar.
Though a maggot of the ordinary housefly, Musca domestica secretes a protease that is active in pH range of 1.5
- 3.5 with optimum at 2.4
Examples
In carnivorous fresh water flatworms (tubelleria) they have a muscular pharynx to suck out body contents in
their food. Food receives preliminary extracellular digestion by acid enzyme of optimum pH 5 e.g. pepsin,
trypsin, chemotrypsin. This is followed by phagocytosis of the partially digested food and hydrolysis is completed
within food vacuoles that become progressively more alkaline with further digestion
Linus ruber - inter-tidal carnivorous flatworm swallows its food alive, holds it for some time in fore-gut as acid
HCL secretes devoid of enzymes, kill the prey then phagocytosis as above

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
Enzymes - maltase, lactase, sucrase and dextrinase - hydrolyze maltose, lactose, sucrose
and dextrins respectively.
- Maltose by action of amylase on starch
- Lactose - milk sugar
- Sucrose - common table sugar
- Cleavage of lactose and sucrose gives monosaccharide molecules which are absorbed
- Dextrinase cleaves dextrins to glucose
- Pancreatic amylase is released by pancreatic acinar cells [similar to salivary amylase] for starch digestion in
the duodenum to produce maltose and maltotriose [a carbohydrate fragment consisting of three glucose units]
and dextrins, A short chain of simple sugars, Most starch remains undigested when it reaches small intestine
since salivary amylase is inactivated in the stomach. Starch digestion resumes in less acidic environment of
duodenum,

- There are no great difference between vertebrates and invertebrates on how digestion of carbohydrates is done
- There are two types /categories of polysaccharides
1. Structural polysaccharides - cellulose, lignin, chitin. They are indigestible by
vertebrates
2. Digestible polysaccharides - digestible by vertebrates
- Carbohydrases e.g. alpha and beta amylase digest carbohydrates
- Acts on starch and yield on oligosaccharides and disaccharides.

 In crustaceans these enzymes are secreted by mid-gut and are mainly alpha amylases
 In insects salivary amylases occur in some but not all. Also there is chloride activated alpha amylase, which
are secreted by mid-gut.
 Lactase enzyme is generally absent in invertebrates but a few exceptions occur e.g. a few insects e.g. honey
bee larvae, cockroaches and locusts.

CELLULOSE DIGESTION
Symbiotic digestion of cellulose
 Cellulose is digested by cellulases
They are absent from digestive secretions of vertebrates and yet many vertebrates digest it and depend on it as a
source of energy e.g. from the intestinal tract of several invertebrates that feed on wood and wood products e.g.
termites.
 In many cases, cellulose digestion is carried out by symbiotic microorganisms that are in line along the
digestive tract of their hosts.

Invertebrate cellulose digestion

Snails e.g. gender snail- Helix pomatia
-A careful examination of snail's extracts from snail's digestive gland and intestinal wall has failed to show any
cellulase activity although cellulase is readily demonstrated in the intestinal contents. This seems to indicate the
role of intestinal microorganisms. The fact that an extract of digestive organs does not reveal the enzyme does not
necessarily exclude the possibility that the animal may produce the enzyme
The shipworm (wood boring bivalve mollusc) is able to digest cellulose and true cellulase has been found in the
gut wall. Hence in this group there's no cellulose digesting microorganisms which include bacteria and protozoan
(Greenfield and Lane 1953)
Silver fish (ctenolepisma lineate) digests cellulose and can survive on a diet of cellulose alone, although this is not
satisfactory for prolonged feeding
- A cellulase has been demonstrated in extracts of the mid-gut that confirms that silver fish do produce cellulase.
Termites especially those that live on wood have cellulose digesting microorganisms. Digestive system is full of
flagellates and bacteria, which digest cellulose symbiotically. The symbiotic flagellates and bacteria are obligate
anaerobes (live only in the absence of free O2) hence play a great role in cellulose digestion. They also have
bacteria in the intestine to digest cellulose

Vertebrate cellulose digestion

Many mammals are herbivores and most of them live on diets, which need cellulose digestion. The ruminants e.g.
sheep, goats, cattle have specialized digestive tracts highly adapted to symbiotic cellulose digestion. However,
many non-ruminant mammals also depend on symbiotic microorganisms of cellulose digestion.

Ruminants
The stomach of ruminants consists of several chambers
1st compartment - is the rumen where food goes. It serve as large fermentation chamber in which food mixed with
saliva undergoes fermentation.
Bacteria and protozoa are found here in large numbers. They break down cellulose and make it available for
further digestion.
The fermentation products e.g. acetic, propionic and butyric acids are absorbed and utilized, CO2 and CH4
(methane) formed in fermentation process are permitted to escape by belching.
2nd compartment - Reticulum (honey comb)
3rd compartment - Omasum
4th compartment - Abomasum - where enzymes are secreted and gastric juice production
Rumination /Chewing cud
Is regurgitation and remastication of undigested fibrous material, which is then swallowed again (rumi-ants)
The ruminants chew their food to moisten them and form into masses for swallowing. The food goes into the
rumen through a slit known as esophageal groove, which opens from the gullet into rumen and the reticulum
On satisfaction they ruminate i.e. a mass of solid food and liquids is carried from the rumen and reticulum into
gullet then back to mouth where it is chewed again, swallowed back to the rumen and reticulum.
There is heavy fermentation in the rumen and the products are the main source of energy. About 70% of energy
requirement are made from organic acids i.e. acetic, propionic and butyric acid.
 The saliva of ruminants contains NaHCO3, which, serves as buffer for proper fermentation medium from
microorganism
The amount of saliva secreted is enormous e.g. cattle 100-190 liters of saliva, which is a third of body weight
The protozoans in the rumen include alliates, which are obligate anaerobes.

Non-ruminants
Microorganisms also aid cellulose digestion in many non-ruminant herbivorous mammals
Fermentation here is very slow and much space is required for the fermentation to take place
 In some animals with several compartments like ruminants the stomach is large, fermentation takes place in the
caecum e.g. horse where its caecum is greatly enlarged part of colon. There is microbial fermentation taking place
in caecum, which is similar to that in the rumen of ruminants. However rumen fermentation has 3 advantages
over caecum fermentation

1. Rumen fermentation takes place in the anterior part of gastro-intestinal tract so that product of digestion can
pass through long intestine for further digestion and absorption

2. There is mechanical breakdown of food, coarse and undigested particles are broken down during regurgitation
and mastication for the second time
3. The anterior portion of the gastro-intestinal tract gives an opportunity to recycle the urea nitrogen that would
otherwise be excreted. This is important for ruminants that eat low-grade animals

Ruminants e.g. kangaroos and wallabies there is microbial fermentation taking place anterior to the digestive
stomach, utilize the same mechanism. When nitrogen content in vegetation declines at the beginning of the dry
season, wallabies begin to recycle urea and continue to do so throughout the prolonged dry season, thus gaining a
relative independence of the low quality of the available feed.

Coprophagy
Many rodents e.g. rats, rabbits, hares, have their cellulose fermentation in the posterior part of the intestinal tract
They form feces from the content of caecum, which is re-ingested so as to pass through the entire digestive tract
a second time
 There are two kinds of feces i.e. well-known ordinary, firm dark fecal pellets and softer, larger and lighter feces
that are not dropped by animals but are eaten directly anus i.e. ingested back
Coprophagy comes from the Greek word copros -excrement and phagein - to eat.
Common in rodents and is of great nutritional importance i.e. if its prevented, rats require supplementary dietary
sources of vitamin K and biotin. If rats are provided with a variety of dietary supplements their growth rate is
nevertheless depressed by about 15-25%.
In rabbits prevention of coprophagy leads to a decrease in the ability to digest food and proteins utilization and
nitrogen retention. When it is permitted again, there is a corresponding increase in the ability to digest cellulose
The re-ingested fecal material is not masticated and mixed with the other food but lodge separately in the fundus
The re-ingested soft feces are covered by a membrane and continue to ferment in stomach for many hours. In
this lactic acid is one of fermentation products. In this way the fundus can be compared to rumen of sheep and
cattle and it provides additional advantage to the animal because of fermentation
In stomach of rabbit, the ingested food is located in the pyloric part containing digestive enzymes, which
breakdown the food into simpler compounds
CIRCULATION

- The main role of circulation is to provide rapid transport of materials in the body
- 02 and C02 are among important materials
- The cardiovascular system consists of 3 major components - blood, heart and blood vessels
- The heart functions as a pump
- Vertebrate blood is carried by blood vessels which include arteries, capillaries and veins
- Blood circulates and returns to the heart without leaving this system of tubes and so vertebrate circulation is
referred to as a closed circulation as opposed to the open circulation in the invertebrates e.g. insects and
crustaceans and molluscs, where blood flows-freely between tissues before returning to the heart.
Vertebrate circulation
Blood vessels
- Have elastic walls, a layer of smooth muscle within their walls which enables them to change diameter
- There are characteristic differences among the arteries, capillaries and veins
- Arteries conduct large quantities of blood from the heart
- They branch to give rise to arterioles which are smaller arteries, These arterioles branch into microscopic
capillaries which connect arteries and veins
- Capillaries distribute blood to the tissues and their cells
- Capillaries then fuse to form venules which in turn fuse to form veins
- Veins collect blood from the tissues and return it to the heart

Arteries

-
Have thick walls
-
Range in size from 0,5mm-2.5cm in diameter
-
Wall is composed of tunics
-
Innermost Tunica intima lines the cavity or lumen of artery also called Tunica interna
-
Tunica interna is composed of a thin layer of endothelial cells which is in contact with blood
-
Tunica media
i. Forms a cylinder external to the tunica intima
ii. Is relatively thick and consists of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissues
-Tunica externa is Nearly as thick as T,media but consists of fibrous connective tissues and small number of
smooth muscle fibre
Capillaries
- Are smallest of blood vessels
- Measure approximately 0.01mm in diameter
- Usually numerous in active tissues e.g. skeletal muscles, liver, kidney, nervous system
- Wall consists of an endothelial layer only one cell thick
- Highly branched
- Have circular smooth muscle at entrance of each capillary that controls the amount of blood flowing through
them
Veins
- Have thin walls consisting of T.interna media and externa
- Major difference between veins and arteries lie in the thickness of the tunics
- T.media and T, externa are much thinner in vein than artery and so walls of veins bulge under pressure than
those of arteries
- Veins have valves - distinctive feature which are folds of T intima
- Valves allow blood to flow only in one direction towards the heart. A drop in pressure in & veins on the side
of the valves distal to the heart causes the valve to fill and close
 - Blood volume in vertebrates is between 5% - 10% of body weight
- Teleost fish have blood volume of 2-3% volume of body weight
- Air breathing vertebrates [amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals] have 5-10% volume body weight
- Each group [class] of vertebrates have a uniform type of circulation
- Circulation becomes more complex with changing life from aquatic to terrestrial
- In mammalian circulation, blood flow through the heart must equal the flow through the entire remaining
part of the body [except for minute transcient variations that can be caused by slight changes in heart volume
during one or few strokes]
- Secondly, since both valves of the heart contract simultaneously as blood is ejected from the heart, the entire
ejected volume must be taken up by changes in the volume of the elastic blood vessels
- Fish and mammals represent two extremes in vertebrate circulation whereby there is gradual separation of
the heart into two separate pumps as the vertebrates progress from aquatic to terrestrial respiration.
- In fish [teleosts] heart consists of two chambers in series, an atrium
- On the venous side the heart is proceeded by an enlarged chamber or sinus on the vein, the sinus venosus
which assumes a continuous blood flow to the heart
- On the arterial side, the teleost heart has a thickened muscular part the, bulbus arteriosus
- The rigid* chamber produces negative pressure which facilitates filling by sunction of the atrium from the
large sinus venosus

- During contraction of the ventricle, the heart decreases in volume, a decrease which causes negative pressure
to develop in the chamber

- The atrium fills with blood

Body Fluids

- 2 types of body fluids:

i) Intracellular fluids – present in the cell and are responsible for metabolic reactions
ii) Extracellular fluids- appear outside cells and within tissues, they provide nourishment to the cells and
serve to eliminate waste products.

Types of extracellular fluids

a) Coelomic fluid
- Found in many pseudocoelomates like nematodes.
- It is a watery fluid which supplies nourishment to different parts of the body. It is responsible for removing
wastes but has no role in respiration

b) Haemolymph
- Is an extracellular fluid found in mollusks and anthropods.
- It circulates in open channels, contain some pigments and serves for nutrition and respiration. It is also rich in
proteins.

c) Lymph
 Colourles fluid found in all vertebrates except cyclostomes and elasmobrancus.

It circulates in a well developed network of lymph channels which are extremely thin walled with a true

endothelial lining.

- Lymph is similar to plasma of blood in composition and contains lymphocytes and granulocytes.
- The lymphatic system has many functions.
o Lymph conveys proteins to blood plasma
o Lymphocytes produced in lymph nodes are responsible for destruction of foreign bodies and harmful
bacteria.
o Lymph also conveys lipids from the intestines to the blood stream.

Blood

Blood is a liquid tissue which flows through a network of closed circulating channels.

The chief components is blood plasma containing blood cells.

Functions of blood

1) Respiration
Transportation of CO2 and O2 is the fundamental function of blood. It transports O2 from the lungs to different

tissue and CO2 from tissues to the lungs.

2) Transport of food materials

Blood is the only medium by which the absorbed food materials are transported to various parts of the body.

3) Excretion
Metabolic wastes like Urea, Uric acid, Creatine, H2O, CO2 etc are transported by blood to kidneys, lungs, skin

and intestines for removal.

4) Regulation of body temperatures

Blood regulates body temperature by distributing heat throughout the body. This heat is generated in the

muscles by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats.

5) Maintenance of acid base balance.

Blood has a buffering capacity and maintains normal acid base balance in the body
6) Regulation of H2O balance
Blood serves to maintain water balance in the body by exchanging water between blood and tissues

7) Defence
Blood affords protection against infection through antibodies and leucocyts.

8) Serves in transportation and distribution of hormones to various parts of the body.

9) Blood is responsible for the supply of chemicals and essential metabolites.

Composition of blood

Plasma

- Is a homogenous fluid, pale yellow in colour and alkaline in reaction. Under normal condition plasma forms
55-60% of the total volume of blood.
- It is composed of 91% H2O and 9%solid materials, out of which 7% are proteins only.
- Plasma proteins include: Albumins, clobulius, Fibrinogen, Mucoprotein, and Haptogiobins.
- Plasma also contains carbohydrates and fats, inorganic ions and other substances like gases (O2 and CO2),
hormones and enzymes.

Formed elements of blood

- They include erythrocytes (RBC), leucocytes (WBC) and thrombocytes (blood platelets).

a) Red blood cells

- In mammals, the have a circular shape and are biconcave in nature.
- They are 7.6 m in thickness and 8.8 m in diameter.
- The most important constituent of the red blood cells is haemoglobin, the principal function of which are O2
and CO2 transports and prevention of too much of acidity in blood.

b) White blood cells

- They are slightly larger than the red blood cells, they are colourless or transparent.
- They are amoebic in shape and can move about with pseudopodia.
- They posses 1 or 2 nuclei
- They are 5 classes of white blood cells
-

1. Neutrophilis
 Constitute 59% of the total leucocyte population
 They have a phagocytic function.
 are the most plentiful leukocytes in the bloodstream
 Most plentiful leucocytes in the blood stream
 Motile and phagocytic and will destroy damaged tissue
 Usually the first to respond to an invader (bacteria and viruses)
  Signal other cells to respond to the invasion scene
 They are the primary cells present in pus.

2. Eosinophils
 Constitute 2.5% of the total leucocyte population
 They stain red when microscopic slides of them are dyed with acidic stains like eosin, and their
size is similar to that of the neutrophil.
 Numbers of these cells in the blood increase in the presence of allergens (substances which cause
allergies) or parasites.
3. Basophils

 Constitute 0.5% of the total leucocyte population

 Least plentiful leukocytes in the bloodstream,
 They stain when treated with basic stains.
 Involved in beginning the process of inflammation,
 One of the body's ways of responding to injury or irritation that's characterized by redness,
warmth, swelling, and pain in one specific place. During this process, basophils can migrate from
the bloodstream to the site of inflammation.

4. Monocytes
 Constitute 4 % of the total leucocyte population they are the third most common type of WBC in
the blood stream.
 Monocytes are mononuclear leukocytes that typically have a horseshoe or kidney-shaped nucleus,
and are the largest type of white blood cell.
 Monocytes help devour microorganisms that don't belong in the body by surrounding them and
digesting them.
 They also devour and digest body cells that have died or are old, and also help remove other
unneeded cellular material from the body.

5. Lymphocytes
 Constitute 34% of the total leucocyte population second most common leucocyte in the blood
stream
 Smaller than other types of leukocytes.
 Lymphocytes use the blood to travel around the body, but can wander freely in other types of
tissues and return to the blood using the lymphatic channels vessels that are part of the lymphatic
system.
MAMMALIAN CIRCULATION
- As the atrium later contracts, the now relaxed ventricle becomes filled with blood from the atrium - back flow
into the sinus being prevented by valves
- The amphibian [frogs, toads, salamanders] heart has two separate atria and one undivided ventricle
- Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and right atrium receives venous blood from the general
systemic circulation [tissues]
- The two kinds of blood do not mix
- Oxygenated blood enters the general circulation and oxygen poor blood flows separately into the pulmonary
circulation , -Pulmonary artery [carries oxygenated blood to the lungs in mammals] sends branches to the
skin, as the moist amphibian skin is a major site of 02 uptake
- In birds and mammals the division of the heart and separation of the pulmonary and systemic circulation
are complete
- This means that pressure in the pulmonary [lungs] and systemic circulation differs unlike in fishes and
amphibians
- Mammalian heart has four chambers, two atria which receives blood. from the vein's and two ventricles for
pumping blood into arteries
- There are aterioventricular valves which allow blood to flow from the atria into ventricles
- Right atrium receives blood from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus
- Right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium to through the tricuspid aterio ventricular valves
- Blood leaves the right ventricle through pulmonary trunk
- Pulmonary semi-lunar valve prevents blood from flowing backwards
- Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
- Blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle through bicuspid atrioventricular valve
- Blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta
- Aortic semi-lunar valve prevents back flow of blood
- During muscular activity as in exercise, demand for oxygen increases and the amount of oxygen the heart
must deliver increases, so the volume of blood pumped by the heart increases [cardiac output] or the amount
oxygen delivered by each volume of blood is increased - more of the arterial oxygen is extracted [increased]
in every volume of blood
Pulmonary circulation [deoxygenated blood]

- Blood from right ventricle to pulmonary trunk to lungs to left auricle via pulmonary veins.
Systemic circulation [oxygenated blood]

- Blood from left ventricle to tissues to right auricle [this blood supplies oxygen and nutrients to the body]

RESPIRATION

-Respiration System [air respiration] Respiration is the up take of oxygen and release of CO2
- Most animals satisfy their energy requirements by oxidation of food materials
- Oxidation of carbohydrates and fats yield CO2 and H2O as the end products
- Oxidation of proteins yields C02,H20 and other end products
- The acquisition of O2 and elimination of CO2 is accompanied by the respiratory system/tract
- This is a system of passageways that leads from the nose and mouth to the lungs
- Oxygen diffuses into the blood from the lungs and is carried to the rest of the body as blood is pumped
through the circulatory system
- As 02 diffuses into blood CO2 carried by blood from respiring tissues diffuses into the lungs
- The respiratory system also serves to maintain the pH of the blood as a result of the regulation of the level of
C02 in the blood
- Animals take up oxygen from the medium in which they live and give up CO2 to it
- Aquatic animals take up oxygen from the gas dissolved in water
- Terrestrial animals from the atmospheric air
- A number of small animals take up oxygen through the general body surface
- Majority of animals have a respiratory system for oxygen uptake
- Cells utilize the oxygen for the oxidation of food stuff
- Concentration gradient provide the fundamental driving force in the movement of the respiratory gases
- Respiratory system in higher animals consists of an upper respiratory tract and a lower respiratory tract
- Upper respiratory tract consists of nose, nasal cavity, larynx, and mouth
- Lower respiratory tract consists of a network of tubes and tubules that leads to a system of sacs where gas
exchange occurs
- These include trachea - a tube leading from the larynx
- Trachea branches into bronchi branch into trancheoles
- Trancheoles terminate in the alveoli blind sacs in the lungs
- The tubules and alveoli comprise lungs
- The lungs are located in the chamber of the chest formed by the ribs, vertebral column, sternum and
diaphragm [the thoracic cavity]
- Blood is delivered to the lungs by the pulmonary arteries which branch within the lungs following the
branching pattern of the bronchi
- In the alveolar walls, the blood vessels are reduced to capillaries which collect oxygen and loss C02
- The oxygenated blood is carried back to the heart by pulmonary veins
- This blood is then pumped into the systemic circulatory system [tissues]
- As blood passes through the systemic capillaries, it losses oxygen and gains CO2 produced by the respiring
tissues
- This deoxygenated blood is then carried back to the heart from where it is pumped to the lungs completing
one circuit of the circulatory system
Temperature Control (Regulation)
- Active animals life is restricted to temperatures between approximately -1 C and 50°C as in arctic waters
and hot springs respectively
- This is a narrow range compared to existing temperature
- Animals fall into 2 groups relation to temperature:
I. Cold - blooded (poikilothermic animals)
II. Warm - blooded (homoeothermic/homeotherm animals), maintains stable internal body temperature
regardless of external influence.
 Endotherm an animal that is capable of the internal generation of heat. Such as birds and mammals which
use metabolic rate to maintain a stable internal temperature usually different from the environment.

Poikilothermic
- Have about same temperature as the surrounding e.g. earthworm, fish.
- Their temperature changes with that of surrounding

Homoithermic [mammals and birds)

- They maintain a constant body temperature in spite of wide variations in their surroundings i.e. a tropical
polar bear and a desert mammal have same body temperature of 38°C, how is this?
- Within this temperature range that permits an active and normal life for a poikilothermic animal, temperature
change has effect on metabolic processes
- Outside the temperature limit at lower temperature animals will still survive in an inactive condition
- Some animals tolerate high temperature e.g. bacterial spores are tolerant to temperature above 120 oc.
- Homoithermic animals maintain a constant body temperature by temperature regulation
- Therefore they remain active in cold or hot surroundings
- Some animals (mammals and birds) hibernate to escape effects of seasonal colds and food shortages e.g.
water

Temperature effects on metabolic rate

- Poikilothermic animals control their temperatures by seeking warm or cold spots in the environment (escape)
- They lack physiological mechanisms employed by homoitherms to maintain a virtually constant body
temperature
- Within temperature range that can be tolerated by a poikilotherm, rate of metabolism (and other processes)
increase with increasing temperature in a regular manner
- Enzymatic activity is accelerated by temperature increase to some extent
- Highest temperature animals can tolerate varies
- Many birds, mammals, reptiles and insects have a lethal limit of about 45°C
- Highest temperature tolerance is seen in animals living in hot springs where protozoan and mosquito larvae
live at 50°C
- Generally, aquatic animals have lower tolerance than terrestrial ones- Many die at 35°C-30°C
- Some arctic animals may die at 20°C, used to freezing temperatures
- Lethal temperature does not only depend on temperature but also on duration of exposure
- Some factors leading to heat death are understood but its actual cause is not known
- Protein coagulate and become denatured at high temperature about 50°C and higher
- Enzymes (are proteins) are inactivated at this temperature
- Inactivation of enzymes begins at 40°C and proceeds rapidly with increasing temperature
- Inactivation of enzymes depends on time of exposure, high exposure is less well tolerated than a
short exposure
- Thermal destruction of proteins and enzymes is .irreversible

Effects of cold
- Decrease of an organisms temperature diminishes the speed of physiological processes
- Oxygen consumption therefore goes down, movements are slower and animals become torpid
(inactive)
 - Poikilothermic animals pass the winter in this state
- Tolerance of low temperature varies from one animal to another

Temperature regulation in poikilotherms

- By seeking out environments with certain temperatures (escape) e.g. snakes and lizards are also
found basking in the sun in the early morning hours. Radiation from the sun makes their temperature arise
above that of the surrounding
- On a hot day, they hide under rocks or cool burrows
- At room temperature of25°C snakes maintain their body temperature about 5°C higher by spasmodic muscle
contractions reminiscent to shivering (pythons) for brooding pythons (egg laying - coil their tail around egg -
shiver to provide heat)
- Extra metabolic activity decreases with increasing temperature
- In insects, if temperature is too low, its muscles cannot contract fast enough to carry it in flight, it can increase
the temperature of muscles by contractions similar to shivering in man (vibrates wings, seen in moths and
butterflies)

Temperature regulation in homoitherms

- Mammals and birds maintain an almost constant body temperature
- In man, normal body temperature is about 37°C with slight decreases at night and slight increase
during the day - amounting to chemical change at I°C
- If temperature is a few degrees higher, it results in a serious fever and if a few degrees lower, body
suffers a dangerous degree of cooling
- Variation of body temperature in mammals (from species to species) is not much e.g. mouse has
normal temperature - 36.5°C, horse 37.7°C, elephant - 36.2°C
- Body temperature of birds is higher, between 40 and 43°C
- If a naked man is subjected to varying temperatures in the range of 27- 31 °C high, body loses heat at the rate
in which it is produced and so feels comfortable
- If the room is cooler than 27°C, his body loses heat faster than it is produced and so
- he has to produce more heat to maintain his body temperature
- This is achieved by:
I. Involuntary muscle contraction called shivering

- If temperature is higher than 31°C, the air around him is not sufficiently cool to remove the heat produced in
metabolism and so he keeps the body temperature from rising by evaporation of water through sweating
- The hotter the room the more he sweats
- Therefore man has a narrow thermoneutral range of 27-31°C. This range does not hold when clothes are worn
- Clothes servers insulation in cold and are cut down when hot

II. Towards the lower end of thermoneutrality, they body cuts down the heat loss by reducing the amount of blood
circulating to the skin and towards the upper end of thermomentality much blood as possible is sent to the skin
to become cooled by losing heat.
- Inside the range, the change in blood flow to the skin suffices to adjust them rate of heat loss to heat
production
- Outside the range, shivering or sweating occurs
III. In other mammals, varying amounts of fur permits ranges of thermoneutrality different from that of man
- This insulation is important to arctic animals to complement for increased metabolism which cuts down
the cost in food

IV. Decreasing temperature

- Tropical mammals usually have a critical temperature at about 25 -30°C below which they begin to increase
their metabolic rates
 - Arctic mammals have a much lower critical temperature

V. Increased fat layer (adipose tissue) is another way arctic mammals deal with the problem

Temperature regulation centre in man

Body temperature regulation is controlled by the hypothalamus (temperature regulation center)
If the body needs more heat, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to the muscle causing contractions
and shivering
If body temperature has to be lowered, impulses to the sweat glands induce sweating-Shivering starts if
only the hypothalamus is cooled
VI. Panting - for the animals that do not sweat e.g. dogs, water is evaporated through the tongue and upper
respiratory tract
- The evaporation is facilitated by rapid rate of respiration called panting
- Panting increases the passage of air over the wet surface
- Normal rate of respiration in a dog is 15-30 breaths/minute, this increases to 300 in panting
- Cattle and sheep sweat and pant but not as effectively as man and dog
VII. Kangaroos, rabbits, rats and cats cool their bodies by wetting down the fur of the limbs and belly by licking
them and are thus cooled by evaporation of the moisture. Less effective compared to sweating and panting
VIII. Small animals e.g. rodents have no true sweat glands and they do not pant because cooling by evaporation
dehydrates the body and with the large relative surface area, the cost of heat regulation will be too much. So
they hide in underground burrows(escape)
IX. Bird have no sweat glands, when exposed to high temperature they increase respiratory tract evaporation (pant)

Hibernation
- It is a state in which the body temperature is greatly lowered and the metabolism, respiration, heart rate etc.
are correspondingly reduced
- Animals that hibernate e.g. in water are torpid during this time
- Mammals that hibernate belong to 3 categories :
Insectivores (bears)
Bats and
Rodents (hamsters, squirrels)
- Some birds are known to hibernate, e.g. desert poor will, humming birds
- Animals differ in the range of temperatures they can tolerate
- Temperature of most animals follows passively, that of the environment (poikilothermic most invertebrates)
- However, there are those that keep their body temperature more or less independent of the environmental
temperature. These are homoitherms e.g. birds and mammals have body temperatures that fluctuate no more
than a few degrees

Body temperature
- Animal body temperature varies with time of the day, among and between species
- In homoitherms, different parts of the body exhibits different temperatures
- There is therefore no single body temperature e.g. in humans, the organs of the chest and abdomen produce
56% of the total heat
- Brain also produces about 16% of the body heat equaling a total of 72% for very little body mass about 8%
- Representative temperatures usually are those of deep body tissues measured through a convenient orifice
e.g. rectum or cloaca.
Examples of body temperatures
Homoitherms maintain their temperature as follows:
Monotremes-31 - 32°C
Marsupials (with pouch. Kangaroo) 36 -38°C
Eutherian animals – 36- 40°C
Birds 39-43°C

Response to cold/Adaptation to cold

Birds
- Body temperature of most birds is slightly higher than those of mammals (40 -42°C)
- Common response of birds to cold is to migrate to favorable environment. If they do not migrate, they employ
a range of adaptations. E.g. seek protective niches in the environment such as caves or hollow trees. Increase
fat deposition for insulation and energy store.
- Small birds may have somewhat higher body temperature than large birds but in mammals there is no clear
relationship between body size and body temperature.
- Some species develop a heavier plumage with down like feathers that trap air more effectively.
- Increased metabolic rate(heat production)
- Or entry into torpor, during torpor although most birds e.g. the roadrunner may reduce their metabolic rate
and heart rate; they maintain constant body temperatures
- Although birds employ torpor (inactivity), they do not hibernate.
- The large emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri), a classic example of birds survival in cold areas not only
Antarctic winters but also breeds in mid winter.
- The female lays a large egg out of their normal marine habitat may be 100km away in the middle of winter.
The male incubates the egg as the female returns to open sea to feed.
- Meanwhile the male endures very low temperatures of-30°C to -40°C and losses about 40% of body weight.
- Female returns after two months to feed the hatched chick by regurgitating her stomach's contents and male
goes to feed

How does the male penguin survive the cold temperature?

a) Has excellent insulation which ensures a low critical temperature below zero (-10°C)
b) Employ countercurrent /heat exchange in his leg to minimize heat loss through the feet and at the same
time releases enough heat to incubate the eggs.

Counter current heat exchange

- In cold environments birds are at risk of losing metabolic heat rapidly through their I in-insulating legs and
feet
- Countercurrent heat exchanges in their legs perform the important function of conserving body heat, which
would otherwise be lost.
- Huddling, this way the birds reduce their surface area exposed to steep temperature gradient and chilling
winds. (Individual penguins will lose up to 0.2 kg of body mass per day, double the rate when huddling).
- Shivering - when birds shiver in response to cold, heat produced keep it warm Shivering is the involuntary
muscle contraction. Heat is also produced by non-shivering thermo genesis, an increased metabolic rate that
takes place without noticeable muscle contractions.

Response to heat/compensation for increased heat

Locomotion
1. Escape - seek other appropriate environments e.g. tall trees example, elf owls, Gila wood peckers and rock
wrens shelter in cavities in. the desert
2. Restricting activities
3. Flight - when hot, birds can fly to higher altitudes where ambient temperatures are much lower
4. Fly long distances to reach water which allows for evaporative cooling under conditions of heat stress
5. Plumage - acts as a barrier to radiation as well as thermal panting to cope with excess heat.
- Plumage - tips of feathers of some birds e.g. desert raven can reach temperature of 80°C reversing the thermal
gradient towards the environment - acts as a barrier to radiation
- Convective cooling takes place mainly in various regions of the head e.g. eyes and upper respiratory duct
- In certain bird, bare patches on the head cools the venous blood entering the rete
- Heat exchange m the rete cools the arterial blood destined for the brain
- These physiological and behavioral adaptations have enabled birds to inhabit almost all habitats e.g. the
ravens in the middle East deserts and Lee fields of the arctic
- Except small birds e.g. humming birds are restricted to the temperate and tropical;
- environments due to their surface area to mass ratio.
- Large birds e.g. ostrich (Struthio cameius) does well in deserts and open grasslands because:
- Has a high thermal inertia (stores huge amounts of heat in the body)
- Can manipulate its plumage to facilitate thermal regulation i.e.A) Feathers are long and sparsely distributed in
the in the body surface
- B) In high ambient temperatures, they erect the feathers on the back therefore increasing the thickness of
thermal shield between the incident radiation and the skin
- C) Sparse distribution of feathers allows lateral air .movement between the feathers cooling it
3. The birds oxirotate towards the sun and move their wings downwards and away from the thorax. This shades
and exposes the thorax, which, because of its naked surface acts as a thermal window of heat loss-Use of
feathers to reduce radiant heat load is an important water- saving adaptation in the desert.
4. On still hot days the birds are forced to resort to rapid shallow thermal panting.

Heat conservation at night

- At night when ambient temperatures drops, the birds have to conserve heat which, they do by folding their
wings close to the thorax, interlocking the dorsal feathers and tacking their legs beneath them as they huddle
close to the ground
- Plumage then serves as insulation, trapping an insulating layer of air around the skin and the temperature of
air space between the skin and feathers rises to a uniformly high level.

Eggs
- In the desert birds face the problem of keeping their eggs cold e.g. ostrich lays eggs in a shallow scrape on the
surface and uses the methods described earlier to keep them cool, i.e. sitting on them during the day with
feathers erected and panting
- If there is breeze, they raise their bodies and continue shading the eggs as the breeze cools them.
- Communal nests on acacia trees by sociable weavers in the desert of Kalahari, the insulation provided by the
elaborate nest dampens the thermal consequences of the widely fluctuating ambient temperature. The birds are
protected from extreme heart during the day and cold during the night.

Mammals
Small mammaIs
- Small body size exposes small mammals to difficulties both in the Cold and heat stress
- In the cold, amount of fur and fat tissue is limited due to weight, which could make
- movement impossible
- They lose heat rapidly due to their high relative surface area
- They therefore, rely on behavioral escape to protected nests and burrows
- Here, they roll into spherical shapes or huddle and engage in torpor or hibernation
- Small mammals poorly adapts to cold and extreme heat due to their unfavorable
- surface area ratio
- Can't afford to evaporate water to maintain body temperature since they could lose much water in the process,
so rely on behavioral escape to burrow in crevices etc. when very hot.
- Escape behavior may be; a) permanent, e.g. mole, rats, b) diurnal e.g. kangaroos, arts and gerbils c) few
hours at midday (e-g. hyrax) d) periodically throughout the day to relieve transient episodes of hyperthermia
(e.g. ground squirrel) - accompanied with circadian torpor or long period aestivation.

Note: Mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber) with no fur are not able to regulate their body temperature, so they live
in warm underground burrows in hot arid regions in Kenya. Therefore, their body temperature corresponds
to that of the environment and are poikilothermic mammals

Large mammals
- Have a relatively small surface area for either losing or absorbing heat
- Larger size provides them with a greater thermal inertia (which reduces the variations in body temperature
during storage or loss of heat)
- Large size gives them efficient locomotion to find favorable habitats or obtain water for evaporative cooling
- Being large means that they are further from the hot surface if the deserts and are exposed to much lower
temperatures than small animals.

Adaptation to cold
- Increased insulation - there is seasonal growth of a thick winter pelage (fur)
- Environmental stimulus for the growth of the winter pelage is provided by the photo period, which alters the
function of the anterior pituitary gland
- Pelage reduces conductance - pelage can be a disadvantage because it makes it difficult for escape from
enemies - when sprinting, resulting metabolic heat cannot be dissipated.

How do they cope?

E.g. a reindeer needs a thick pelage to survive the arctic cold and yet has to run to escape from enemies
a) Has a sophisticated nasal heat exchange
- Employ a carotid rete to keep the brain cool
- Have a countercurrent blood supply to the turbinate (spiral coiled shaped like an inverted cone) bones from
which they evaporate water into inspired air
- When they need to conserve heat, they implement the countercurrent flow which causes the outer parts of the
respiratory tract to drop their temperature near freezing so that all heat and water added to air in the lower
tract is retrieved.
- When they run, and if they pant, the countercurrent system is by passed, the outer turbinate warm up and heat
loss is maximized.
- Avoid exercise if body temperature rises slightly
- Are susceptible to heat stress when they have their winter pelage or blubber (excessive fat).
- Arctic wolves have no efficient brain cooling system but they pant effectively.
- May eat snow to cool their body temperature and reduce thirst.
- Aquatic mammals e.g. seals, in cold environment reduce their conductance with a sub-cutaneous layers of fat
or which is a poor conductor of heat
- Increase blood flow to the surface of the body to increase heat, loss to the surrounding

- When vaso constriction reduces blood flow to the surface; the skin's superficial layers become cold while
deeper layers remain warm and heat is retained
- Heat loss to extremities is reduced by operation of the countercurrent heat exchange proximal to the flippers
(limbs adapted for swimming)
- During strenuous swimming, the heat exchangers are bypassed by arterial vaso dilations and the return of cool
blood by alternative venous routes
- If seals are forced to exercise on the land, their heat transfer to air is too low and they overheat and may die
because the high rate of convection to the water ensures that heat is effectively reserved and this is absent on
land
- Presence of fur - those with fur trap stagnant water layer close to the skin which reduces convective heat loss
effectively (from insulation)

Responses to heat (e.g. Savannah)

- The larger the mammal, the more difficult it is to lose heat through the body surface-
- This is compensated for by their thermal inertia (state of rest) They have reduced fur (reduced pelage - fu)
Reduced activity to prevent heat stress
- Seeking a cool surface (behavioral) here vasodilation of superficial blood vessels increases the rate of heat
loss as does wallowing in mud (e.g. hippopotamus and pigs)
- Pigs have no functional sweat glands
- Adapting a spread eagle posture
- Seek dull tops e.g. rhinos in African Savannah
- Desert oryx moves to crest of dunes during heat of the day
- Large mammals employ conduction and convection to dissipate metabolic and radiant heat provided their
thermal environments are within their thermal neutral zone (TZ)
- If TZ is exceeded animals either stores the heat or resorts to evaporative cooling in form of sweating or
panting
- Sweating requires less energy while panting employs the intersocal muscles which again produce heat but is
efficient in animals where panting occurs
- Panting may cause excessive ventilation of the lungs (may be restricted to respiratory dead space in small
animals)
- Humans do not pant but sweat excessively
- In large mammals, panting has an advantage of cooling the mucosal surfaces of the nasal sinuses and
consequently the turbinate (head) bones
- Blood passing via the carotid rete (situated beneath the brain cools the warm arterial blood destined for the
brain
- Important during exercise when there is rapid rise in body temperature - important in animals with thick fur,
cannot sweat and have to sprint.
Summary Cool by:
i) Evaporative cooling
ii) Storing heat adaptive hyperthermia e.g. camel and oryx allow body temperature to fluctuate on diurnal!
basis. Saves loss of water - used in evaporation

- Loss of myelin causes cessation of slowing of the action potential transmission

- In multiple sclerosis disease, sclerotic plagues due to viral infection destroys myelin and alter transmission
along the neuron
- This disorder is manifested by periods of active destruction of myelin interspersed with periods of no
destruction
- Patients suffers weakness, lack of coordination, areas and of diminished sensation, speech and vision
problems
- Disease is relapsing
EXCRETION
The removal of waste products of metabolism from the body tissues to the outside.
These products are majorly CO2, H2O and nitrogenous compounds.

Types of Excretory Products

The end product of metabolism fall under two major categories
(i) CO2
(ii) Compounds containing nitrogen
Besides these products water forms an important product which requires to be eliminated is found in excess and
also it forms a vehicle for the transport of waste products to the exterior.

Nitrogenous Wastes
In living organisms nitrogen is never eliminated in the form of free nitrogen but results in the formations of
nitrogenous end products, proteins are the main nitrogen containing compounds which are metabolized to form
end products like ammonia, urea and uric acid. These end products are derived from the degradation of proteins,
amino acids, pyrimidines and purines.

1) Ammonia
- It is the chief breakdown product of amino acids and is removed by oxidative deamination process.
Deamination chiefly occurs in the liver but the kidney also helps in the process.
- Ammonia is a toxic substance and is constantly being produced in the tissues by deamination of aa. It is
removed very rapidly from the body by one of the following reactions.
(i) Amination of keto acids
(ii) Amidation of glutamic acid.
(iii) Formation of urea in the liver
- Mammals cannot withstand ammonia in their blood in concentrations more than 0.0001- 0.0003 mg/100ml
however amphibians, reptiles and fishes can withstand a higher concentration of ammonia (up to 0.1 mg/
100ml).
- Ammonia is highly soluble in H2O and in majority of aquatic animals it is lost by diffusion in the
surrounding water.

2) Urea
Urea is derived from organic compounds like aa and purines and the liver is the chief organ capable of making it.
It is highly soluble in water and less toxic than ammonia.
The human body contains 18-38 mg/100ml.
-Ornithine, citrulline and arginine are the three amino acids which participate in the formation of urea.
-The liver contains an enzyme arginase which hydrolyses arginine to ornithine and urea is formed as a by product
in a cycle known as Ornithine cycle.

3) Uric Acid
Is most important nitrogenous waste in the urine of birds.
It is an adaptation for conservation of water since its elimination requires very little water
Uric acid is formed in the liver of birds and in insects it is made in the malpighian tubule. It is formed either as an
end produce or purine metabolism or as a product of waste nitrogen derived from the protein.
In man uric acid is the end product of purine metabolism

Other Nitrogenous Constituents

i) Guanine
Main nitrogenous excretory product in some anthropods (spiders) but is conspicuously absent in insect. It is
faintly soluble in water and its mode of formation is rather unknown.

ii) Xanthine and Hypoxanthine

These are nitrogenous excretory products in most insects.
 iii) Trimethylamine oxide
Marine teleost fishes which have a diet rich in trimethylamine excrete trimethylamine oxide.
iv) Hippuric acid and Ornithuric acid
Hippuric acid formed in mammals whose diet contains traces of benzoic acid which is a toxic substance. The
benzoic acid combines with aminoacid glycine to form less toxic substance hippuric acid. In birds, dietary
benzoic acid combines with ornithine and is excreted as ornithuric acid.

v) Creatine and Creatinine.

vi) Pterydines

PATTERNS OF EXCRETION
Based upon the type of nitrogenous compounds excreted animals have been classified into several broad
categories:

a) Ammonotelic animals. - Animals in which ammonia is the chief metabolic waste e.g. crustaceans,
echinoderms fresh water fishes protozoas etc

b) Ureotelic animals - These excrete most of their nitrogen in form of urea. Mostly amphibians.

c) Uricotelic animals – excrete most of their nitrogen in form of uric acid. Mostly terrestrial animals like
lizards, snakes, insects and birds.

d) Guanotelic animals – Guanine is a predominant excretory product in some anthropods.

EXCRETORY DEVICES IN INVERTERBRATES

Excretory devices met with in the organisms essentially the adaptive capabilities evolved in relations to their
habitat:

1) Protozoans
- Protozoans do not have specialized excretory organs and the wastes are discharged through cellular
membranes \. Several mechanisms like osmosis diffusion etc are responsible for waste elimination through
the membrane. However in a number of species contractile vacuoles serve as excretory organelles.

2) Coelenterates
Do not possess specialized excretory organs and processes like diffusion, osmosis and active transport are
used to regulate fluids in the body.
3) Plateyhelmithes (flat worms – tape worms)
- Use flame all system
Flame cell is a large cell blinded at one end and bearing many cytoplasmic processes. There are a series of
such cells which open in an excretory duct.
- Excretory products enter flame cells in a fluid state from parenchymatous cells by diffusion and excess
water along with metabolic wastes are thus discharged by the flame cells.

4) Annelids (round worms)

- Excretory organs are tubular and coiled structures called nephridia are often at both ends hence known as
metanephridia they received fluid waste from blood and the coelomic fluid and eliminate urine rich in urea
and ammonia.

5) Mollusca
Excretory organs are in the form of kidneys and pericardial gland.

6 )Arthropoda
 Excretory organs in arthropods are of several types and these include:-
- Nephridia, coxal gland, green gland, shell gland and malpighian tubules.
- Malpigian tubules collect and transport solution from the haemolymph into the hindgut.
- These tubules open into the lumen of the intestine through their proximal end and their distal end remains
suspended within the haemocoelomic spaces.

EXCRETORY DEVICES IN VERTEBRATES

Anatomy of the mammalian kidney

-The kidney is the chief organs for excretion in vertebrates.

- The organs occur in pairs
- They lie on the posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of the vertebral column behind the peritoneum
and below the diaphragm.
- Kidneys are bean shaped organs abut 11cm long and 3 cm thick (about 1% of the total body weight in
humans). They receive remarkably large amounts of blood about 20-25% of the total cardiac output.
- Surrounding the hollow pelvis is the medulla which sends papillae projecting into the pelvis. The outer
functional layer, the cortex is covered by a tough capsule, of connective tissues.
- The pelvis gives rise to Ureters which empty into the urinary bladder.

Functions of the kidney

1. To eliminate certain non-volatile waste products of the body like urea.

2. Regulate hydrogen ion concentration of blood.

3. To remove excess of certain nutrients such as sugar and aa when their concentrations increase in blood.

4. To remove foreign or injurious substances from blood such as drugs, iodides etc.

5. Maintenance of osmotic pressure of blood by regulation of the excretion of H20 and inorganic salts, thus
keeping constant, the volume of circulating blood.

6. Kidneys regulate arterial blood pressure by secreting the hormone renin.

The Nephron
 - The Nephron is the functional unit of the mammalian kidney.
- It consists of a tubule closed at one end and the other end opening into a connecting tubule. The
closed/blind end is indented to form the cup-shaped glomenular capsule (Bowman’s Capsule) which
almost completely encloses a network of arterial capillaries; the glomerulus.
- Continuing from the glomerular capsule, the remainder of the nephron is about 3 cm long and is described
in 3 parts:-

i) The proximal convoluted tubule

ii) Medullary loop (loop of Henle) comprises of the descending and ascending limb.

iii) Distal convoluted tubule leads to the due serving several nephrons leading to the collecting tubule.

URINE FORMATION

- Urine is a titrate of blood which gives into the tubules as a dilute fluid resembling the plasma deficient in
colloids. The dilute portion is concentrated in the tubular region by reabsorption of the fluid and certain
salts are substances may also be secreted by tubular epithelium into the urine.

- 3 processes contribute to the ultimate composition of urine:-

1. Glomenular filtration.
2. tubular reabsorption
3. selective secretion

1. Glomerular filtration
Structure of Bownman’s capsule.
 - After entering the kidney the renal artery divides into smaller arteries and arterioles

- The afferent arteriole enters each glomenular capsule, then divides into cluster of capillaries forming the
glomerulus. The blood vessel leading away from the glomerula is the efferent arteriole. It breaks up into
a second capillary network to supply 02 and nutritional materials to the rest of the nephron.

- Blood pressure in glomerulus is higher than in other capillaries because the diameter of the afferent
arteriole is greater than that of the efferent arteriole.

- The walls of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule consists of a single layer of flattened epithetical cells
thus more permeable than those of other capillaries.

- Initial stage of urine formation is the filtration of plasma and accumulation of the ultrafiltrate in the lumen
of Bowman’s capsule.

- Glomerular filtrate contains all the constituents of the blood except for the blood cells and proteins of high
molecular weight such as Casein (200,000) serum globulin (160,000) and serum albumin (72,000)
semipermeable membranes exert osmotic pressure to effect filtration.

- Hydrostatic pressure of blood in the glomerulus force water from the blood into the tubules.

- Glomerular filtrate contains some essential substance like water, glucose aa, chlorides, sodium ions and
other wastes like urea, creatine and uric acid.

- About 1 l of blood is filtered per minute by both kidneys when the net filtration pressure is about 25 mm
Hg, about 120 ml glomerular filtrate is formed at the Bownman’s Capsule.

Therefore GFR = UV
P
Where U = mg of filtered substance per ml of urine
V = Vol of urine per minute
P = mg of filtered substance per ml of plasma

2) Tubular reabsorption

- Certain substances which appear in normal quantities are reabsorbed completely but appear in urine when
normal levels are exceeded. Such substances are known as (threshold substances e.g. aa, glucose).

a) Glucose reabsorbtion.

- Reabsorption of glucose takes place in the proximal part of the tubule by active transport mechanisms
associated with phosphorylation.

- In man the maximum rate of which glucose can be reabsorbed by the tubules is 350 mg/minute. This is
known as tubular maximum for glucose (TMG)

- In woman TMG = 300 mg/minute sometimes considerable amounts of glucose are found in urine, a
condition called glycosuria.
b) Re-absorption of Inorganic salts

- Sodium chloride and bicarbornate ions are selectively reabsorbed in the proximal tubular portion. The re-
absorption of NaCl helps in the return of H20.
 - Re-absorption of Sodium is aided by the adrenal cortical hormone (Aldosterone).

- K present in glomerular filtrate is in small quantities and normally all the K is reabsorbed at the proximal
tubule.

3) Selective secretion
- Tubular secretion is accomplished through active transport in nearly all substances such as drugs. This is
responsible in regulating blood concentrations. Cleaning substances from the blood other tan retaining
them. Potassium (K+), Hydrogen ions (H+), Ammonia ions (NH4), Creatine, Urea, Some hormones, Some
drugs (Penicillin)

COMPOSITION OF URINE

- Volume and composition of urine varied remarkably and such variations are governed by the type of food
consumed and volume of food intake.
- In normal adults approx 1 – 1.52 of urine is formed daily.
- In warm climates urine volume is less since a good amount of water is lost through perspiration.
- Normal urine is transparent and pale. The pale yellow color is due to the presence of a pigment called
Urochrome. From breakdown of heme.
- The concentration of the constituents in urine varies with individuals. It consists of a number of solids,
half of which is urea.
- Constituents of urine may be broadly classified into 3 categories:
 Nitrogenous wastes
 Nitrogen free organic compounds
 Inorganic salts

EXCRETORY ORGANS

Excretory role of SKIN

The skin plays an important role in excretion in mammals, using sweat glands
i) Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are highly vascular, simple coiled, tubular glands.
They separate a number of wastes from the blood and discharge them out in the form of sweat.
Sweat is mainly formed of water (99%) inorganic salts (chiefly sodium chloride), lactic acid,
some urea and C02. Lactic acid is mainly present during heavy exercise.

Sweat performs two functions:

1) Excretion of excess of salts and water; and
2) Evaporation of sweat causing cooling effect and helps in homeothermy.

ii) Sebaceous glands

Sebaceous glands are branched glands opening in hair follicles. These secrete an oily secretion
called sebum formed of lipids like waxes, sterols, a number of hydrocarbons and fatty acids.

Excretory role of Lungs

Primary function of lungs is to expel foul air (with CO2) during expiration. It also helps in expelling some water.
Air travels to the lungs through a series of air tubes and passages. It enters the body through the nostrils or ah,
passing down the throat to the larynx, or voice box, and then to the trachea, or windpipe. In the chest cavity the
trachea divides into two branches, called the right and left bronchi or bronchial tubes that enter the lungs. It then
picks up water vapours which are expelled during expiration.

Excretory role of Liver

Liver is a multipurpose largest gland in the vertebrates. It helps in excretion in the following ways:

a) Formation of bile pigments (Urochrome) from the haemoglobin of dead RBCs.

b) Changing the excessive and harmful amino acids into urea by deamination and detoxification by urea or
Ornithine cycle.
c) Excretion of cholesterol, inactivated products of steroid hormones, certain vitamins (e.g: Vitamin C) and
many toxic drugs,

Large intestine
-The epithelial cells of colon remove certain salts like calcium phosphate from the blood and expel them out with
feaces.
-The caecum of the large intestine is a swollen sac located in the lower right-hand portion of the abdominal
cavity; it is very large in herbivorous animals.
-The two important parts of the cecum in humans are the vestigial vermiform appendix, which often becomes
diseased; and the ileocecal valve, a membranous structure between the caecum and the small intestine that
regulates the passage of food material from the small intestine to the large intestine and also prevents the passage
of toxic waste products from the large intestine back into the small intestine.
 REPRODUCTION

 it is the process of formation of new individuals from pre-existing ones

 necessary for propagation of new species

I. Reproductive Stratagies - Sexual vs. Asexual

A. Asexual Reproduction - no fusion
1. Budding - (hydra, Cnidaria)-unequal division of nucleus and part of cytoplasm-outgrowths from
old one (exogenous or endogenous)
2. Fragmentation / Regeneration - (starfish, sponges)- fragmentation of body followed by
regeneration of missing parts-tips of brances break off, produce cell masses that grow to whole
individuals.
3. Fission - Planeria (flat worm and hydra)-binary (equal division)/multiple (no cytokinesis, only
karyokinesis-nuclear division) then growth and differentiation.
4. Parthenogenesis - (insects eg wasps)-adult development from unfertilized egg.

5. Gynogenesis- spermatozoon activates an egg but doesn’t contribute any genetic material to it.
Eg ticks, mites,beetles, teleost fish

Advantages-involves a single parent hence no wastage of time and energy looking for mates

-identical individuals produced

-efficient and rapid resulting to many spp

Disadvantages - no genetic diversity, no vigour/improved qualities/resistance to diseases

- two compatible individuals of opposite sex must be present

Genetic benefits of sexual reproduction?

B. Sexual Reproduction
1. Requires Fusion of Sperm and Egg
a. dioecious - male individual, female individual
b. monoecious - individual with both male and female reproductive organs
- hermaphrodites
- polychaeates (earth worms)

c. Requirement: get sperm and egg together

d. if eggs are laid immediately after ovulation- oviparity

e. the young emerge from eggs at about the time of egg deposition- ovoviviparity
f. if development involves young borne and not hatching of eggs- viviparity
Differences
Oviparity  few eggs released
 many eggs are released  little or no yolk present
 eggs have plenty of yolk  extraembyonic membranes
 eggs devoid of protective present
coverings  parents interact in courtship
 interaction between parents and mating
may or not occur  parental care shown
 little or no parental care  internal or external
fertilization
Oviparity
 only internal fertilization
occurs
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION-man
A. Male Gonad: Testis / Sperm Formation
1. Anatomy
a. Testis -- Seminiferous Tubule
b. Epididymis
c. Vas Deferens
d. Urethra
e. Penis
f. Seminal Fluids : Exocrine Glands into Urethra
- Seminal Vesicle
- Prostrate gland
- Bulb urethral glands

2. Sperm formation
a. Spermatogenesis occurs in Seminiferous Tubules
b. Two Cell Types:
- Sperm forming cells
- Sertoli Cells (supply nutrients; substrate, stimulating
factors)
c. Development
- Primordial Germ Cell - meiosis
- Spermatogonium (2N) - divides to form
-- Spermatogonium (2N - diploid)
-- Primary Spermatocyte (2N)
- Primary Spermatocyte - Meiosis 1
-- Two Secondary Spermatocytes - Meiosis II
-- Four Spermatids (N) - Differentiate
-- Four Sperm Cells (N - haploid)
d. Sperm cells migrate to epididymis, where they acquire
motility
e. semen: sperm + fluids + etc. (sugar, enzymes, mucus, amino
acids)
f. spermatogonia to motile sperm, humans:
several hundred million sperm per day per day
time to motility: 65-75 days
human ejaculate: several ml, 107 sperm/ml
 3. Hormonal Regulation
a. Hypothalamus > GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone)
b. GnRH > Anterior Pituitary > LH and FSH release
c. LH > interstititial cells in testes > testosterone
d. testosterone + FSH > Sertoli Cells and Spermatogonium >
>> Sperm formation
e. Testosterone - negative feedback on GnRH, LH and FSH cells
f. Testerone also modulates...
- Secondary Sexual Traits (facial hair, breasts, etc)
- behavior and intercourse

B. Female Gonad: Ovaries / Egg Formation

1. Anatomy
a. Ovary
b. Oviduct - likely site of fertilization
c Uterus - embryogenesis
d. Vagina - sperm transfer

2. Egg Formation-Oogenesis
a. Human embryo : primary germ cell > mitosis > oogonia (2N)
- finite number - ca. 400,000
b. Each oogonium develops into primary oocyte - latent until
puberty
- arrest in mid meiosis I (prophase)
- Follicle:
each oocyte is surrounded by follicle cells
entirety is termed Follicle
human females: ca. 400,000 Follicles (eggs)
- one follicle will mature per month, puberty > menopause
c. Primary oocyte completes meiosis I (one per month)
 - TO: Secondary oocyte (large) + first polar body
(small)
-- first polar body (may divide, eventually
degenerates)
-- meiosis II does not occur until AFTER
fertilization
-- in mammals, on fertilization, second meiosis
completes
yielding egg and 2nd polar body

3. MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 - Regulation of endometrial lining of uterus

- During Follicular Phase

-- estrogen > endometrial thickening
-- at ovulation, endometria is prepared for embryo
- During Luteal Phase
-- estrogen AND progesterone maintain endometrial
dev.
--- enlargement of uteran arteries
--- dev. of endometrial glands - embryonic
nutrients
-- androgen crash > arterial spasms > no blood to
endometrium
-- endometrium degenerates : menstruation

f. If fertilization is successful...
- embryo embeds in endometrium
- release of chorionic gonadotropin (from placenta)
- Corpus Luteum rescued,
secrete estrogen/progesterone for 2-3 months
placenta starts producing estrogen/progesterone