SRM Institute of Science and Technology

Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICSENGINEERING

Unit-2 Analog and Digital Electronics

Overview of Semiconductors, Diodes and Transistors, Introduction to JFET and MOSFET. Construction and
working of power devices-SCR, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT -Switching Characteristics of SCR- Types of power
converters- Natural and force commutation, Linear voltage Regulator, SMPS.
Realize the logic expression using basic logic gates, Combinational logic design-Sum of Product form (SOP)
and Product of Sum (POS) form, Minterm and Maxterm, Karnaugh Map (K-Map) representation of logical
functions, Two variables K-Map, Three variables K-Map, Four variables K-Map. Introduction to FPGA
Practice on realization of logical expression, combinational circuits, PCB design, soldering and testing

Overview of Semiconductors:
Depending on their conductivity, materials can be classified into three types as conductors, semiconductors
and insulators. Conductor is a good conductor of electricity. Insulator is a poor conductor of electricity.
Semiconductor has its conductivity lying between these two extremes.

Energy Band of Semiconductor:

In terms of energy band shown in Fig., the valence band is almost filled (partially filled) and conduction band
is almost empty.

A comparatively smaller electric field (smaller than required for insulator) is required to push the electrons
from the valence band to conduction band. At low temperatures, the valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is completely empty. Therefore a semiconductor virtually behaves as an insulator at low
temperature. However even at room temperature some electrons crossover to the conduction band giving
conductivity to the semiconductor. As temperature increases, the number of electrons crossing over to the
conduction band increases and hence electrical conductivity increases. Hence a semiconductor has negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.

Classifications of Semiconductors: Semiconductor is divided into two parts:

(i) Intrinsic Semiconductor:

(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor:

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Intrinsic Semiconductor: A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductor: Due to the poor conduction at room temperature, the intrinsic semiconductor, as
such, is not useful in the electronic devices. Hence the current conduction capability of the intrinsic
semiconductor should be increased. This can be achieved by adding a small amount of impurity to the
intrinsic semiconductor, so that it becomes impurity semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor. This process
of adding impurity is known as doping.

N-type Semiconductor: A small amount of pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorus
is added to the pure semiconductor (germanium or silicon crystal) to get N-type semiconductor. Thus, the
addition of pentavalent impurity (antimony) increases the number of electrons in the conduction band thereby
increasing the conductivity of N-type semiconductor. As a result of doping, the number of free electrons far
exceeds the number of holes in an N-type semiconductor. So electrons are called majority carriers and holes
are called minority carriers

P-type Semiconductor: A small amount of trivalent impurities such as aluminum or boron is added to the
pure semiconductor to get the P-type semiconductor. The number of holes is very much greater than the
number of free electrons in a P-type material; holes are termed as majority carriers and electrons as minority
carriers.

DIODE

THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:

In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by P-type impurity and the other half is doped by N-
type impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN junction. As
shown in Fig., the N-type material has high concentration of free electrons while P-type material has high
concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse over to
the P-side and holes to the N-side. This process is called diffusion.

As the free electrons move across the junction from N-type to P-type, the donor ions become positively
charged. Hence a positive charge is built. on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons that cross the
junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore a net negative charge is
established on the P-side of the junction. This net negative charge on the P-side prevents further diffusion of
electrons into the P-side. Similarly, the net positive charge on the N-side repels the holes crossing from P-side
to N-side. Thus a barrier is set up near the junction who prevents further movement of charge carriers, i.e.
electrons and holes.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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This is called potential barrier or junction barrier V0. V0 is 0.3 V for germanium and 0.72 V for silicon. The
electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-type region tends to drive the holes
away from the junction and negatively charged P-type region tends to drive the electrons away from the
junction. Thus the junction region is depleted to mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer.

Under Forward Bias Condition:

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminal to the N-type of the PN
junction diode, the bias applied is known as forward bias. Under the forward bias condition, the applied
positive potential repels the holes in P-type region so that the holes move towards the junction and the applied
negative potential repels the electrons in the N-type region and the electrons move towards the junction.
Eventually when the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential, the depletion region and
internal potential barrier disappear.

V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Forward Bias:

For VF > V0, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence, the holes cross the junction
from P-type to N-type and the electrons cross the junction in the opposite direction, resulting in relatively
large current flow in the external circuit.

Under Reverse Bias Condition:

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the N-type of the PN junction, the bias applied is known as reverse bias. Under applied reverse
bias, holes which form the majority carriers of the P-side move towards the negative terminal of the battery
and electrons which form the majority carrier of the N-side are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery. Hence the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers increases. Thus
the electric field produced by applied reverse bias, is in the same direction as the electric field of the potential
barrier. Hence, the resultant potential barrier is increased, which prevents the flow of majority carriers in both
directions. Therefore, theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit. But in practice, a very small
current of the order of a few microamperes flows under reverse bias.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Reverse Bias:

For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type moving towards the positive terminal of the
battery acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valence electrons from
semiconductor atoms in the crystal. These newly liberated electrons, in turn, acquire sufficient energy to
dislodge other parent electrons. Thus, a large number of free electrons are formed which is commonly called
as an avalanche of free electrons. This leads to the breakdown of the junction leading to very large reverse
current. The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as breakdown voltage.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR [BJT]:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the operation depends
on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name Bipolar. It is used in amplifier
and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and
other modern communication systems.

TRANSISTOR BIASING:
Usually the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased. Due to the
forward bias on the emitter-base junction an emitter current flows through the base into the collector. Though,
the collector-base junction is reverse biased, almost the entire emitter current flows through the collector
circuit.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR:

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

MOSFET:

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IGBT:

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Power Converters:

AC to DC Converters:

1 A-Diode Rectifiers: This rectifier circuit changes applied ac input voltage into a fixed dc voltage. Either a
single-phase or three-phase ac signal is applied at the input. These are mainly used in electric traction and in
electrochemical processes like electroplating along with in battery charging and power supply. These are also
used in welding and UPS related services.

1 B-Phase Controlled Rectifiers: Unlike diode rectifiers, phase-controlled rectifiers are designed to convert
a fixed value of ac signal voltage into a variable dc voltage. Here line voltage operates the rectifier hence
these are sometimes known as line commutated ac to dc converters. Similar to diode rectifiers, here also the
applied ac signal can be a single-phase or three-phase ac signal. Its major applications are in dc drives, HVDC
systems, and compensators, metallurgical and chemical industries as well as in excitation systems for
synchronous machines.

DC to DC Converters:
The converters that convert the dc signal of fixed frequency present at the input into a variable dc signal at the
output are also known as choppers. Here the achieved output dc voltage may have different amplitude than
the source voltage. Generally, power transistors, MOSFETs, and thyristors are the semiconductor devices
used for their fabrication. The output is controlled by a low power signal that controls these semiconductor
devices from a control unit.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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DC to AC Converters:
The devices that are designed to convert the dc signal into ac signal are known as inverters. The applied
input is a fixed dc voltage that can be obtained from batteries but the output obtained is variable ac voltage.
The voltage and frequency of the signal obtained are of variable nature. Here the semiconductor device i.e.,
the thyristors is turned off by using either line, load, or forced commutation.
Thus, it can be said that by the use of inverters, a fixed dc voltage is changed into an ac voltage of variable
frequency. Generally, the semiconductor devices used for its fabrication are power transistors, MOSFETs,
IGBT, GTO, thyristors, etc.
Inverters mainly find applications in induction motor and synchronous motor drives along with UPS, aircraft,
and space power supplies. In high voltage dc transmission system, induction heating supplies as well as low
power systems of mobile nature like flashlight discharge system in photography camera to very high power
industrial system.
Like choppers, in inverters also conventional thyristors are used in high power applications and power
transistors are used in low power applications

AC to AC Converters
An ac to ac converter is designed to change the ac signal of fixed frequency into a variable ac output voltage.

There are two classifications of ac to ac converters which are as follows:

4A-Cycloconverters: A Cycloconverter is a device used for changing ac supply of fixed voltage and single
frequency into an ac output voltage of variable voltage as well as different frequency. However, here they
obtained variable ac signal frequency is lower than the frequency of the applied ac input signal. It adopts
single-stage conversion. Generally, line commutation is mostly used in Cycloconverter however forced or
load commutated Cycloconverter are also used in various applications.
These mainly find applications in slow-speed large AC traction drives such as a rotary kiln, multi MW ac
motor drives, etc.

4B-AC Voltage Controllers (AC voltage regulators): The converters designed to change the applied ac
signal of fixed voltage into a variable ac voltage signal of the same frequency as that of input. For the
operation of these controllers, two thyristors in an anti parallel arrangement are used. Line commutation is
used for turning off both the devices. It offers the controlling of the output voltage by changing the firing
angle delay.
The major applications of ac voltage controllers are in lighting control, electronic tap changers, speed control
of large fans and pumps as well.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Commutation:
Commutation is the process of turning off a conducting thyristors.

There are two methods for commutation viz. natural commutation and forced commutation.

Natural Commutation:
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the SCR is
connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode current naturally becomes zero
(due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the current in the circuit goes through the natural zero, a
reverse voltage is applied immediately across the SCR (due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn
OFF the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line Commutation or Class F
Commutation. This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo
converters and AC voltage regulators because the supply is the AC source in all these converters.

Forced Commutation:
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits, forward current
must be forced to zero with an external circuit (known as Commutating Circuit) to commutate the SCR.
Hence the name, Forced Commutation

This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors and they are called
Commutating Components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR
that immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.

Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR and the arrangement of the commutating
components, Forced Commutation is classified into different types.

They are:
Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class C – Complementary Commutation
Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
Class E – Pulse Commutation
This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Linear Voltage Regulator:

Electronic systems usually receive a power-supply voltage that is higher than the voltage required by the
system’s circuitry. For example, a 9 V battery might be used to power an amplifier that needs an input range
of 0 to 5 V, In such case, we need to regulate the input power using a component that accepts a higher voltage
and produces a lower voltage. One very common way to achieve this type of regulation is to incorporate a
linear voltage regulator.
The simplest regulators are called 3-pin regulators, which output a stable fixed voltage just by inserting an
input capacitor (CIN) between the VIN and the GND pins, and an output capacitor (COUT) between the
VOUT and the GND pins.
The figure below illustrates that the controlling circuit supervises the output voltage and regulates the
resistance value of the variable resistor so that the IC can output the set fixed voltage. For instance, if the
input voltage (VIN) is fixed, a linear regulator can maintain a stable output voltage by keeping the ratio
between the variable resistance value and the load resistance value fixed according to the changing rate of the
load resistance value. The input voltage is divided by the two resistors, so linear regulators generate a lower
output voltage than their input voltage. The difference between the higher input voltage and lower output
voltage will generate heat which is called waste heat. The current flowing inside the load resistor goes on to
flow to the variable resistor, where the electricity is consumed with some heat generated.

SMPS-Switched Mode Power Supply:

SMPS is an electronic power supply system that makes use of a switching regulator to transfer electrical
power effectively. It is a PSU (power supply unit) and is usually used in computers to change the voltage to
the appropriate range for the computer.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Realize the logic expression using basic logic gates:

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Realization [Implementation] of logic expression [Boolean Function] using basic logic gates:

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SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] AND PRODUCT OF SUMS [POS]:

Logical functions (Boolean expression) are generally expressed in terms of logical variables (inputs) in
following forms. (Each input variable can have the value, either 0 or 1 only)

• SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] Ex: AB’+ BC+C’D

•
• PRODUCT OF SUMS [POS] Ex: (A’+B’) (B’+C) (C’+D)

MINTERMS:
A product term containing all the inputs of the functions in either complemented or uncomplemented form is
called MINTERMS.
Let us consider 3 variable (input) functions.
It has 23 all possible combinations. [‘n’ variable (input) function has 2n all possible combinations].
Let the inputs are A, B, C and output is Y.

• In minterms, 0 are assigned with bar letter and 1 are assigned with unbar letter.
• Within the row, all are multiplied (Product)
• Choose only the output 1.
• Add the minterms which having 1 output.
• In this example, we get Y= A’BC’ + A’BC+ AB’C’+ ABC’. This expression is called canonical SOP form.
[Standard SOP form]
• Each input is assigned with it equivalent decimal value. In the truth table, only the output Y= 1 is chosen, it
corresponding input’s decimal values are stated as below.

Y= ∑m (2, 3, 4, 6)

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MAXTERMS:
A sum term containing all the inputs of the functions in either complemented or uncomplemented form is
called MAXTERMS.

Let us consider the same truth table.

• In maxterms, 1 are assigned with bar letter and 0 are assigned with unbar letter.
• Within the row, all are summed (Added)
• Choose only the output 0.
• Product the maxterms which having 0 output.
• In this example, we get Y= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A’+B+C’) (A’+B’+C’). This expression is called canonical
POS form. [Standard POS form]
• Each input is assigned with it equivalent decimal value. In the truth table, only the output Y= 0 is chosen, it
corresponding input’s decimal values are stated as below.

Y= ∏M (0, 1, 5, 7)

Note: Minterms and Maxterms are complement with each other.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
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Karnaugh maps/ K-Map:

If the number of input variables is more than 2, it’s very difficult to minimize the Boolean function by
Boolean algebra. Karnaugh maps/ K map overcomes this difficulty.

Karnaugh maps/ K map:

• A visual way to simplify logic expressions
• It gives the most simplified form of the expression
• K-Maps are a graphical technique used to simplify a logic equation.
• K-Maps can be used for any number of input variables, BUT are only practical for two, three, and four
variables.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
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Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
 SRM Institute of Science and Technology
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Procedure to minimize Boolean expression by K-map:

1. We have to cheek, number of variables (Inputs).

(i) If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤3, it is 2 variable functions.
(ii) If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤7, it is 3 variable functions.
(iii) If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤15, it is 4 variable functions.

Note: Some times, in the question itself, inputs will be given. Ex: Y (A, B, C) = ∑ (0, 4, 5, 7)

2. Check the given question is Minterms or Maxterms.

 If ∑ is given, it is Minterms.
 In K-map, for the given decimal location, we have to enter 1.
 In remaining location, we have to enter 0.
 If ∏ is given, it is Maxterms.
 In K-map, for the given decimal location, we have to enter 0.
 In remaining location, we have to enter 1.
3. Draw the K-map and fill it. (Use step 1 & 2)

4 (a) Solution Procedure for SOP method:

(i) We have box ALL the 1.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are minimization problem, we have chosen larger box.
(iii) The number of 1’s inside the box must be 2n. [i.e. we have to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have
to try boxing 8, if not possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have to try boxing 2, if not
possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must be square or rectangular
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged input.

For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom to top. The unchanged input within the box
should be product. The product of one box should be sum with next box.
[In input, 0 are assigned with bar letter and 1 are assigned with unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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4 (b) Solution Procedure for POS methods:

(i) We have box ALL the 0.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are minimization problem, we have chosen larger box.
(iii) The number of 0’s inside the box must be 2n. [i.e. we have to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have
to try boxing 8, if not possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have to try boxing 2, if
not possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must be square or rectangular.
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged inputs.
For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom to top. The unchanged input within the box
should be summed. The sum of one box should be product with next box. [In input, 1 are assigned with bar
letter and 0 are assigned with unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

K-MAP-SOP METHOD:

Q1.

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Q2.

Q3.

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Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad
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Four-Variable K-Maps Examples:

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3, 4-Variable K-Maps Examples:

K-MAP-POS METHOD:

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3, 4-Variable K-Maps Examples [POS]:

END OF UNIT-2

Dr. Jitendra Kumar, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of EEE, SRMIST Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad