Block Schematics of cs of Measus Hi eens ring Systems: Performance characteristics Static characteristics, Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, heat Root sum squares formula, Dynamic characteristic, Repeatability, Reproducibility Fidelity, = fees DE voltmeters, D'Arsonval movement, D.C current meters, A.C voltmeters and current Meters, ‘Ohmmeters, Multimeters, Meter 8, Meter protection, Extension of range, Tie RMS responding voltmeters, Specifications of instruments LEARNING OBJECTIVES T Performance, static and dynamic characteristics of measurng system 9 Types of errors PF Repeatability, reproduceabil cond fidelity

——x100 = 40.1% QS. Define static character! istic: Define statis S and dynamic Ans: Static Characteristics: The characteristics which describe the performance of measuring instruments or medical instruments when subjected to low frequency inputs or D.C inputs are referred to as static characteristics, Dynamic Characteristics: The characteristics ofan instrument which are considered while measuring.a quantity that varies with time (.e, measurand is time-variant) are known as dynamic characteristies. The dynamic characteristics are determined from the mathematical model of the system ice, a differential equa- tion of first order or secohd order with constant coefficients Q6. Define accuracy with suitable examples. Ans: Accuracy: The closeness of the measured value with respect to the true value is called as accuracy. Accuracy is influenced by the affects of disturbing inputs such as temperature, humidity and also by the limits of intrinsic errors and instability of natural zero. Under certain operating conditions accuracy can also be determined by calibrating. ‘The accuracy of the whole system depends upon the accuracies of each individual instruments in that system, Generally, the accuracy of the instrument depends upon the natural limitations of the instrument as well as on the shortcomings in the measurement process. Example: Consider the measurement of known diameter of 20 mm with a micrometer. The micrometer is said to be an accurate device if its output closely reaches true diameter ic, 20.01 or 19.99. ‘The micrometer is said to be an inaccurate device if its ‘output indicates a value which is far from true diameter ie.; 20.4 or 19.5. Q7. Define preci Ans Precision: The instruments ability to reproduce a certain group of readings within a given accuracy is known as precision, i.e., if'a number of measurements are made on the same true value, then the degree of closeness of these measurements is called precision. Precision of an instrument depends upon the random errors. It refers to the ability of an instrument to give its read- QB. Define static error and static correction. An: Static Error: Static error is defined as the algebraic numerical difference between the value obtained by measurement of the (quantity and the true value of the same quantity. Itis also known as absolute static error of quantity 4. 2 BA=4,-A, Where, 4, = Measured value of quantity ‘4,"= True value of same quantity Static Correction: It is defined as the algebraic numerical difference between the true value of the quantity and the value obtained by the measurement of the same quantity. 2 8C=4,-A, Where, 5C = Static Correction =~ 84 What is meant by relative error? as. Ans Relative Error: The relative error is defined as the ratio of the static error to the true quantity. Relative error is also known as fractional error. ue 4 Where, €, “Relative error 84=4,,—4,= Static error 4,= True quantity 2. Relative error, €, Q10. Define the following terins: (i) Absolute error (ii) Percentage error. Ans: (@ Absolute Error: Iti defined as the difference between the measured value and true.value of the measurand. Absolute error is denoted by €, and is given by the following equation, : €,=3,-, Where, x, = Measured value x, = True value or expected-value ‘The absolute error € can be either positive or negative. Percentage Error: Percentage error is givens follows, Percentage error =% €,=€, * 100 Gi) Scanned with CamScannerAr Sal Where, isthe relative error and is equal tothe fatio of absolute error to the true value, ie, Hence, Peres nina (5) ‘The percentage error represents the amount of error with Tespect to true value of the measurand. QI. Define the following terms: (i) Percentage of Accuracy ' (i) Average deviation. i ft ied as the G) Percentage of Accuracy: Accuracy is defi ® closeness of the measured value to the true value stahe iy beng measured, Usa the astray of an iBorumetiexesedin ems of er Matenateals ecucy given, ‘Accuracy = 1 ~ (Relative error) acing, 4x 100=(1-€,)* 100 w The average deviation of a set of readings is defined as the ratio of sum of absolute values, of individual deviations tothe total number of readings. [dil] ds 1+] [4.0.1 dy | Average deviation, DD = ‘Where, [dj Id]. are absolute values of deviations jy d,... = Total number of readings. ‘The precision of a measuring device may be determined from the average deviation of a set of readings obtained from the samé measuring device. The precision of the instrument is inversely related to average deviation ic, low value of average deviation indicates that the instrument is highly precise. ine repeatability and give its importance. Repeatability: Repeatability can be defined as the closeness of agreement between successive or group of measurement for the same input quantity using same instrument under the same operating conditions over a short period of time. Itean also be stated as variation of scale reading and is random in nature. Importance: Repeatability is one of the most desired characteristics of any instrument or transducer. I describes the performance standard ofthe transducer, As the transducers are _ being employed in continuous control operations, repeatability of the transducer is very important than the accuracy of the transducer in order to obtain consistency in the quality ofthe product. Q13. Define reproduci Ans Reproducibility: It can be defined as the degrée of closeness with which a given value of variable is repeatedly measured lity and give its importance. WARNING: Xerox/hotocopying of this book sa CRIMINAL act ‘Anyone found quty is LIABLE to face LEGAL pro ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-HYDE; under ore operat cl Git oraments ilerent operons et Importance: Reproducibility is one ofthe ge characteristics every instrument Should ave, gad reproducibility characteristic ensures interchanged of transducers and instruments It aso Helps to chy consistency over prolonged periods of time at different aa sensitiviy. Model Papert oy itivity of voltmeter rmeter Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a bie ‘elec of the full-scale deflection curent trasie movement. Its denoted by the symbol ‘S* and ex in QN. ity, = ‘Voltmeter sensit Ta Where, J, is the amount of current required td the pointer of basic meter to its full-scale position ‘Voltmeter sensitivity is also known as ohms-pq rating ofthe volimeter It ean also be expressed 25 the rag total resistance ofthe circuit (tothe voltage range (Hef voltmeter. ie, R Pe Where, R,~ Internal resistance of moversent R= Multiplier resistance ‘The above expression of voltmeter sensitivity used to determine the resistance of the multiplier resistor ina voltmeter circuit to extend the range of the voltmeter, , (o R=R +R Model Paper ap) In many multirange meters an Ayrton shunt is wed replace the function of a make-before-break sith 2. tis used along with galvanometer in comparison of D.C resistance measurement. 3. __ In Ayrton shunt method of resistance measurément ‘contact resistance doesn’t affect the accuracy aft meter. ‘i Therefore, it ean be used in those applicatins wd require highly accurate resistance values, a O46. What are the advantages and disadvantagesd Series type ohmmeter? i Ans: Model Paper Advantages 1. The circuit design is very simple i 2. The measuring range can be extended by emp proper shunts. " 3 Can be used widely for general service work: Disadvantage: The voltage of internal voltage source duc to aging effect. Because of this, 1, decreases and th P™ deflection will not indicate 0 © thGugh R. = 0 or the coe terminals X and Y are shoited. Therefore, to overcome the problem resulting voltage drop of voltage source, resicine, R, should be varied adjusted. (ill the pointer deflection indicate 0 9 on te1,1 BLOCK SCHEMATICS OF MEASURING SYSTEMS ra *) Draw the bloc! ta' proce) imentat tom he Ea k schematic of a data process instrumentation system and explain the same. oc, Set, an) the function of each stage of this system. sper Q2(a) Modo! Measuring System{ Me objective of me ef E apes ‘may be défined as the process of determining the magnitude ‘ofan unknown quantityThe main, ores EAB e betng aera or ster inert it plovide ‘numerical value, which is proportional to the quantity ofthe vag g being measured Therefore, ameasurenet system contains various elements ‘through which the measuring process fagram representation of a measuring system or measuring process is shown in figure. Data storage| and playback ‘element a" Physical parameter to, Variable Variable Data Data be measured 7] conversion >| manipulation |» transmissiony>| presentation (easurand) element element element element Funetions AC Primary Sensing Element{t i the fist element in any instrumentation 5 the first element in any instrumentation and measurement system. The function of this clement is o sense the measured (physical parameter to be measured) and produce an it rameter o be measured) and produce an output that correspon ant of applied input) ® pees esr PS Tay fw Variable Convérsion Element{ The variable conversion element is nothing but transduce iit accepts the output of primary sensing element and converts ini an electrical quantity without changing the actual sigral (value of the measured) 3 Variable Manipulation Element{ The cla ouput of variable conversion clement can be a fequney, vats aaneamior apy other electrical paraner of low magnitude and sometimes it may not be suitable for further operations in ana therefore, the variable manipulation elements used to manipulate (modify) the ouput of variable conversion element stictrthat it can be accepted by other ‘elements? . (one of the examples of variable manipulation clement is an electrical ampli amptifes the signa applied io, jin yee ensa i inereases the electrical signal of low magnitude to high magne si Not only the amplification but also the operations like addition, substraction, integration, differentiation, attenuation et., are done by this element. ‘This element and variable conversion ‘element v Element4{The function ofthis elment i to transmit the measured signal from one place fo another, measured signal from ‘the field to control statior 5, Data Présentation Element:(Data presentation element is used £6 present (display) the value of the measured, quantity to the operator.)Mherefore, itis possible for an opersior to monitor, control and analyze the data. Simple examples of data presentation élements are, () Movement of pointer aver a calibrated scale, 1 together are called as data conditioning'or signal conditioning element. Data Transmissior ice., to transfer the Gi) Recording of movement of pointer on the graph sheet. cased to record and store the information about the measured 6. Data Storage and Playback Element: {this clement is ; {quantity Alo it provides the reorded information 10 the operator whenever required.) ©) SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Scanned with CamScanner‘The meairement sandr ater compere Sandi the measurement igual boro for anaining eter seu. ‘These re widely found mse goverment Incustl an univers abort Secondary surdard awed check and talbte working sada ‘Those sandr really aed standards wed nist nbortoee Mighty acre 219. Compare analog and digital instruments in all respects. vw as ener : se = He HE ——— me (ee. {Ee wit rary standard are ou Second “These re the basi reference andr sd fo ‘These are cncked sunt oer faeces ustAUMENTATION | ig atandards? LUNIT-1 Block Schama of Measuring Syst az Ganction of # tlemetty Trametes The main enti OFA Ser (rorsiter ist tans ‘ia et ere, —o rand tat 6 wd 1 eompa nearing deviees, ce check reais of rasa cal SOF MANECTEiagy casted gana exer laboratory ing -rese cla re rss bee 960° i neds apptetons. ing andro 0 80 WE ay tne edn arto. ees «| eves dS cree ag acer ae ery ped "\asie 0 ry Stems: Arthename ide, sesame gampcsedai owe nacre ad 80 {commntcatonpurpove. In Poeumatic tlemety ‘Socem ea ued a a source dependent upon {Seana being mesure. The changes opt i prenarechses te vrarion nh parameters The “uur preva range fom 313 Bs 2, Hletonior Electret Femetry Sytems-The basi {ick dapaofenceeronteemery insane Sem bho gow ure, [sl [scr ruse = (Tanita Creu The Ista which aries coatnupaly ad ependea wpe he quantity beg changed is aso Tvean have infinite umbr of upats 4 |The asiog signals ie volage, caren, power te, cary te ifomaton in saalginrancta, 5, | the devices uch as pers ep char ecrde a peph paper et awed to dpa he ope 6 | Te eos praduced ia rag neuen ae cased du tothe fo, eon a spring 7. | Tes ype fine ee come oe 8 | These stamens ze more exible 9 | Detection ype of pressure gauge, pane cers, ee lndicaars ace some examples of al incu. G20. Draw the block schematic of electron telemetry instrumentation system and explain the same. Ans: een Istrmenaton te sine pcs sh og, franc se tan ‘pve recording id sean The telenetysynens ca tor a lnent Ts The ae Fo leery see 1 Paar emery pan 2 eo esa lenny yes 3: | theanaig isramers ar less reine instruments | 3 Tenet meena of py or ei pramte fn diplscenent fw, researc, enpraue ee te Bn esl wh sual ears of transport The dita she occa atthe cee ee Fi seme which varies a dno Sa has ony it number of ouput |r iia instrument ar highly Precio isrumeny 4, | ecg signals whieh mainly consis of i fe, ON or OFF sates are cated eutin digital 5, [Me deviees suchas microprocessor, micro cont pesos! competes are edo dsply te cup 6 [No such crocs ate prodoce in dial istrmens 7, [Mes are convene in ead ou, ther fom afar out in ow light and om fr distances. 7 hese ar less sible than the analog instruments 9. [igi revolution courte, personal computers ar the exanyie of digital astnaments et 1 ae the messurand, a transducer, tansmiter and ae ‘letronic ele ystems re widely wed fo lrget transmisvion distance, because the tine between sending ae systems ae cassie, i) Volpe elemeny systems Gi) Caen ickmetty systems (Gi) osion elemety systems (is) requeney telemetry stems (9) Rodi Fequeneyielemety sates (Impulse telemery syne ‘The derepion ofeach Hock of electronic telemetry systems are piven below, 1 Measurand The parameters which art be measured recalled mearrandrInlectonc telemetry systems, rameter like, slag, earens positon, requncy, Inputs ee used asthe source, which in fms varies vith he quay to be measured 2. Tranadueers Trance avariabe conversion device which secept the mented variables conver into ® proportionate eee signal without changing the a Sig he analogous oF proportionate elecccal signal i being amplified Fitered, modulsted or demodultet,comerson rom analog digi o digital to analog reamed ut in Signal conditioning clement based upon the frther eqiremens. n shor, the signal being conditioned int an appropriate manne. Seeger Te clemeser rel hae Reiser eceerenives the elec sgn Seca by ewanemier ata resins lection 6c acts the reeed signal nconvestedino a eta cmt cata processing lens Here sabi fom converted io dg orale, i eng de ecco the dese ak, ich a ett eordersfindietors: The signa ater bing renee et cease. ote aera sen being sored in 8 ero fr iter se 2 ! _ STATIC CHARACTERISTICS, ACCURACY, PRECISION, RESOLUTION, TYPES OF ERRORS, GAUSSIAN ERROR, ROOT SUM SQUARES FORMULA =" How the performance characteristics of an 14? Discuss the static Instrument clas ‘characteristics. Ans: ote Panera) Performance Characteristics: Performance characterises of in insane are lsd ita ewe types. Thy ae, (Static characteristics . (i) Dynamic characterises Static Characteristics: Let the measurement system of iRstunentation system be subjected wo a wide ange of fied Input signals then the ality of the measurement proces is now by the properties ofthe resulting output response ‘However some sensors ad messurng systems do Bot have satis characteristics bovause they provide the response ‘only fr ime-varying input signals and do not respond to time- invariant signals. One ofthe examples of such pe of stem ie pesoeleceie device Some of the state characterises are, Precision 3. Sensitivity 4 Lineary 5. Thweshold 6 Hysteresis 2 & Subiliy 9. Reproducibiiy 10, Dead zone Rang and span 12. Dat 13. Static enor ‘SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS)) SS: Scanned with CamScanner PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS °18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREM! ‘elosenes idk whichthe ouput the instrument the tue valu f the quantity being mes. “The erm accuracy describes how close te measure {sto the trve measured quantity) (00) Wis define asthe ratio of the ference btwcen te ale. Gena ot fl Se measured ae td ne vale ‘hi tio is exes in ees of Pre caput vale ‘The accraey ofthe measuring system is expesed Percentage of re vale ‘Measured vate ~Tre ale 199 aS Tne (9 Percentage of fil scale defection Measure value —Troevale 99 ‘Maximum sale valve 9 rms bility ofthe measuring system 10 Pret (pe same cusps values amen sre separ meanrements une ssid oni setae penacsuncyreloredioas pend Tijped interne of devin esse 02 Ler conser, an example in wich an pt of umn also teste i 2irToown pure ering esas odes suerte es Brecht prion tio eting sant canbe 6 Ths 0 Semen to be ih pee ipadcs sae parr an aplie int Boap e meseeat te munber ofits Hens pen can aoe ‘Raedan te cp of pest ef. ‘Sent: Ses or ti ssi sro Phnagutue ofthe cup to te mogatue of te Satu Sng esi nse wrd i be Tr te ut sgl ote ia and Conte eayend a, ‘Sensitivity: Change in ous sipst = Change in pt sis = Kee a x Where, K=Seasitvty 14," Valu of ouput signal 4, = Va of ng sigral Sensitivity can also be represeated by slope ofthe calitration euve or npu-outpt carve. The eesitvty ‘sisted in gure). The sensitivity ofan iaseuent ‘scons ifthe input cups uve is line “Aecuraey( Accuracy can be defined asthe dese of Out ‘ENTS 2 Sethiy cy = > tome ig nr Caltration Carve case te eaibaton CAVE 1 2 lng sens of teins sere ensured and canbe expresied as, tone a Figure Menlinear Calration Curve Based on he kindof np ad ont, sensi be repfeened in diferent units such as coun pr and millimeter per microampere. Linearity: Linearity canbe defined a the closes) cal calibration curve of the instrument tothe ‘eaigh ine thin given range of fl scale oe (oo) ean be stated asthe deviation of ouput cured measuring instrument from a specified or as Staight ie, andi ilstated in figure 3). ened st Maxiram devises scswe soy x 0. 2 B Sine, the Hnensty iz one of the mos desi haeieraties othe messing instrment the desian ‘Sth instumeot should be such hat the ouput signal Saline incon ofthe inputsignsl * “herbed: Threshol! ofsninseument can be stated as {pe aml quay of np ow whic the oa \wtot edt Kean be specified as percentage of avr seal elton or as absolute val items ‘fis fiero Mystere I defined asthe maximum diference tei Gaz, Explain cleary te cference ans? epettveness of ein to ‘Fresca is termined 1 Thera pein is deve SIRS atc of ensured he instru 43 between BECUTAEY sae a1) to the te vue ofthe at “secon fr to dee? edb itor gen ey ee cision be deve cra sa. or Sonnet and precision. Accuray refers ing mented, whereas ain powded eis press. IC Seo However an act irik output wit the same valve of input (win | Fate ang) nen apraching fe oh | o'r nsmument 68 ES et maestcmecsaundand tence | ain may on oecesely et Pes een ahs of te near, ent To esrb este te casi Tyce er be moied when the inpevoupst | gn cxanpl of soning rats on 4 So gtr ean be noted whee iteen or | The poses chitin the Dll on he ESF aaah rin an for dcrensing abe | ae usted in fis, tings esnaton: Reson of messing instrament an Fe ned a(n smallest cement nie messed | = : Wucaledatey tenner deo y tairuret ih cenainy) isn insrument at hgh resolution ete ang very smal cangs be not panty Svan: Is the abit ofthe instrument thas the Suomi: iste ti ofae snes Grain | — iewPeaina GRE Te nealecaring i insnen euety tenho lou beet ica ore samen having hgh #6 Reprodubly:sroing tbe dee of lst emt gen value ofa varie may erepestelly neared overs eid of tie. cf @ ‘he sepodcbliy ofa insruent she ability 10 esse he sme we fon (espoms) fr 8! Eeut aplicd over pid of ie unten peieind 60 Mah Frock ad vv ecrey i Acaroey ‘Dead Zane: Desd one (ead tan) can be defined 3+ Petree vrai inthe al of input for which he te pipemrcanna respond ad pedues no ou. | ange and Span; Range the ower and upp His Rapes aunt in which tis designed tinction or era detemie nde ad err te mens | 2. crete eed oe te range of tat estes ‘Spun ie silly defined as be ttl perating range of the insrument.| pits hindsesthe changeit capt oft isramen (rece fra erp (i change ot i=) Sy whine, ean in uit, cr change in is ses ober Ber DAR esa ndesible | ‘racer af ny ist ‘Sth Ever: The asurey ofa given isrument Sed in ters ofa eo. Te static eo" of 28 ca nothing bt the difference between te ine ale and the cat vale of te quaity ror = Measured vale — Exact (Tre vais) IN-ONE JOURNAL ie, Statice atu ‘SPECTRUM ALI 3. Inthe hid ese fe gue ‘neo the possibilty ithat the shoter hit alte le ‘eae as shown n gue Thicase indies tow precision apd low accuracy. tng ithe shooter ital tlle closet ach nr th outer ele of get late and misses the falls eye. Tas condition indicates bie pression and low array. figure (i) the bulls ate paced ‘onetialy at some distance to each ter. Her the i sen pacd closely as in igure i. Ths (tes lw preisn and average 26° Fe dete sooter ntl the bullets onthe bul agen age pon). Here all the bullets ae paced ‘Sosy Tisndines ih pression and high accrtey ear. rom the above discussion itis lear a highly pec insement eed not Be acre 28 CY ah Perce, but at beyond the preison range of te eee joes) FOR ENGINEERING STI Scanned with CamScanner210 {G25. What are the different types of errors In measuring instruments? Explain how they ca” be reduced. yi 544,02 on ‘What is meant by error and mention ferent types oferors? Ana: oan rps 0) “Te meaning insrunents may ot roid 10% =~ ‘arte easterca eth mens vale ay der romthe | () etal (ue) alscofte quam berg mesure. Th amoust tierce Rerwecn he meas valu ad he evalu i now a measurement ere (of) evr my aio be defined as (he amount of devin of be meaned vale fom hee ror” Messed value Tre vale eoM.V—TV “ein a aaa eo Relive eos equal 6 eri of asa eer the teva ofthe quan. Relaive cor is dense by €, sed seresed as follows. we MVATV iv" Tv Paceonge eave ror it MAT 99° sore,ne,x100- MYE¥ 100 ‘he meant eee can be bry laid ito tuce pes a foons, 1 Gmserore w 2 Systematic errs 3. Random core 1. Gros: rras: The messrement rs cused de to nm misakes ae efeedas goss errs. The various ‘mistakes hat canbe incre bya ema wile making ‘meanrenets a flows, Improper se ofthe mearring instruments eto lack asrueat knowledge 2 Misatsineadingadseoring te obsetons. locos ausnert of inseunent, io incompuing te results (Le, eros ia per erming clas) Only ew of the ss eros eam be dented and sock eas cannot eaalyed though mathesial appreach Duet this reason, gross ers cat Be limintd compel. But they can beet and Gee nity ig lonig ea © Readiag and recording the measured daa wit, | oper cae and ateaton im Thing mere thn tive readings sof tiemeas ‘nea tig relitle on only ove eaig, DE wae: ote dy ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUNES 2 ee nfo ition o Be oe neon ss UMENT A ————_— ete yeh eae seep est wera a oy me afte mer) ma ad Seg ES I a “which are as follows, a rs rman a gy Se meee eye ce ncaa pines cnseod rercineiecee nears tem Cates Foren nase Se ree tion inthe bearings of moving elements, nedaen * See a ering ee ioevahe buciondegpeotiosnnenn see ‘eye beet meen Sih sims oder iene gee (@) The instrument should be well calibrated | a known standard. = 0) doamactsmree intial ‘the determination of instrumental errors. a ) neoprene ‘specific measurement, | or ee npereres a oe te acon ree occa ee ee Cpe ee eae ceease teeae Seer eens Sle pen oe aa secon mart ies ire eae ee nro Eats Create i we sr pee a et Serato ag a © oe ond uy ABLE ae LEGAL proces. np Ristmorsanbe compe aed empl {Sp digi dap of upto e stent Random Eros The err that ate du 1 Be 3 Foovn acors which may randomly effet the measure Motta qunutyuchnowrss dom eon. Una ‘Erm tr ars emimaton org manbe of ‘Ratertcs Rand orae sho aoe ses Srenbeause ber snc fandindemessrnent Strate clinatonofgron enor adem Ane aly of Radom Errors cue be analyzed and minimized by per- Aad 7-1 Block Schomates of Measuring Syston re cor cosas whereas fr sa = Fale observing he poli iain ona | inp inal be sea a ce Se en desl eds errisafimson of int, oes tram inputs fib intrament is G25, Howa theses (Le tailed dyearic sensitiv re random errors analyzed? Explain therm with examples. (0, et, 010 Mee Paper, 0 ce aay Defcon moment | poco m Se eraomc on ere! pecan aoe ee ee tacoa arcane en | en of readings (meaurmens) of Soe, Seater oer ror The era oc on | Safina mas a te ena caso © Sey Si | Ct hy stbesmale season eros ‘onitency nesting successive readings om tbe imum by snore Tee even ested ‘by recording the oberon wth extreme care and Errors CeusedDueto the Daturbances of he Eqslp~ tment: Precision eerie inseumet may aise om ‘he oieside daranes (sues mechan vibrations (20) tote meaning device Poorly conelled pro- esses sls lead to andor en. Errors Caused by Fluctuating Experiment Conde fiona: Theseenorare cased duet some uncon arutances which nfence be insument ouput The |, ‘common aes for such ype of eors are tutions Inline voliage, vibration of he support instrament ‘G2a, Define dynamic error and show how it differs ‘withthe type of Input signal applied to the system. Ans pomp 503,018) DDynamle Error: The dfrencebereee he yale indicated ‘bythe meariement system apd the me ald ofthe quatty (hich ia incon of time) kno s dye oe As the ‘namic eapote of system con of tendysatresponse | 2, ‘nd wansiet sate response, the dynamic err aso comprises ‘STianicat enor and steady sate err As he input sina nd espons (oupat signal) ofthe system are finction fine the dais enor iso fue- ‘on fine. The dynamic er ders wit the ype of input iene stc or dynam sen applied tthe sysem. When the np sgnaltothepystem saat signal Foe ‘example sep sgl, the yams eror ofthe sytem consists fof enly waniet err. This is because, he steady sate ener becomes er, when he ep response stain the tend sae, Tnthiscate, thera of ou sinal value to inparsigaal value isknown a stati sett. ‘Whereas, the dynamic enor function consis of steady sate eroreomponent aswel athe tansent err component, ‘when te input signal the measurement syste are jai ‘igus For example amp signal or sinusoidal signal For ramp eae wo w /OTSPECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL ‘Statistical analysis of random eosinvolves the calula- tion of te following. 1. Aritmete mean 2. Deviation 3. Standard deviation 4. Variance Arthmetie Mea “Tee aritmetc mean of certain group of readings ofthe rmessured quit canbe define as te eostpobable ‘nlc ofthe measured quantity, The artimetic mean ofa Infinite qumberofreatings would provide close estimate ofthe tu val ofthe meanured quantity. Arithmetic mean of waumber of readings (yf By 5) EVER Asitumetc mean, ¥ Deviation Deviation of «reading is defined a he difference be= tween the eading ad ridueti mean Since mean the clove approximate of tue vale ofthe ‘measurand, the deviation ofthe reading fom the mean Indicates the mount of random enor in the measured vale (reading) : ‘AverageDevintl: = 2 Foranswer eer Unit, QI, Tie: Average Deviation. ‘The precision ofa meisuring device may be determined from the average deviation of ae of readings obtained fiom the same measuring device. The precision ofthe insrament is inversely related to average deviation il, low vale of average deviation indicates thatthe insrumest is highly precise FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) |) Scanned with CamScannerBR wvrne sein sa yn roi oie “4. Varance: Square of standart devin RUNS ‘ ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS OE “ai 3B Bandard Deaton Snr dino eee =P Suan ‘tenet oftandom eorin ie Bese sate gore FSM OT SINE of See etter 6600220 eg span expressed, ta) is sel tion dived by he number of i aaa | ze on? 21 sjntrdvson of te oer, 020 HE (sieaiedieatt tonsa a . itis denoted by the syenbol "7". amis komen 5 vase it eel cnet temen nacre tatineernenn tating point ia naa nc ss Rewermasin=t ae 1261251, 1255 pA 12864,7 12510552 255 252,52 1254,5,2 26 Lay sthmete mean ofthe ebove resting, 7 stents ttt at = 1259125291254 126.14 125641256125 HSS eta ae evan of he rating fiom mean, a 4)-F= 1259» 1255 d= x,-Fe 1252-12555. a 5 -F= 1254-1285 dyn Fa M261 12555-4055 Go-To n56-12555~ 9 005 aru 156=12555-# 008 4 cage, loo 4 7 [935|+1-035) +-0.15}+|055|-+1005|+|005|+|-045)-+|-0.08| _ 2.00 ; . Sud dvs bev eag, preyed deviation, om YI [vm <20) ee _ LT aT wa a OOS 7 7033 LUNIT-1 Block Schematics of Méesuring Systems "race of eave readings, 7=(Seandaed deviation? ~or= 033" 108 Dae Discuna the following, (Gaussian curve of error AW), Probable ecror (ui) Root sum squares formula. Deusen Carve of Error: The normal or Gash turret evr othe curve which represents the (babi ofeccrene of erin emessired aes ‘Sra qty (i, msl st dat)” ‘Kot of rnc effects an measure performed nib bass of normal aor Gousan a of ers A ew fics relied ois a, All bseratinsinlue random errs (Le small isang eet). 2, Random erry be pose or negate 3 _Theprotaieropstive and negtversdom eons fie ea tht the probbiay of an esr wil Be Somer tou zero er vale. 4, Shuler are mre pobable than Inge emo. [According tothe law of probably, the nor oscerence of devs rom te averge val fa infin ‘amber of mexcuements (eadins) ofa quay can be presed tug te following equation. 7 te Re mount of deviation fiom mean |) svat of ecaene of specie deviation 2h= Precision dex ‘yrean aloe egrened flows 1 ~ aln® ‘A gephica plot betwen the deviations (9) and the probate efoceurence 9) oft especie evans yl etre apn normal or Gassan curve of prob. The figuebelow shows the Gausin curve in white deviations (Donzi represented mers ded vision). : o mal Canin Err Probably Care “ap Probable Breer Tee em wos ‘Meanement 5st 20 tr probable ero. the raph inthe Hate abo ve between the Limits iiy tecause thi area represents seins of multisampetet Tn oxder to detersine the most proboble erat ii ood ate aren bounded bythe cue betes een ender sequal ioaloihe tol aes under theouve, (Gassian er ditbution the ares under the Gaussian (Cio to) considered 29 ie total number of {> Lette ta are be wit] alvin hove equation, we pti 7 os16s . moe «piskqown babe orn peibeaore eee Eo in Serato preset ct se Hence ened porn te ac ro aeiegan romble poalecrorenstobecsresedin tems fds TOSS nena ition ows P= 0e1850 r=0.8453 D ere, 0 Sunde dviton B ~Avengedevisin | 11 Aot sem Saars Form: asia 2 fet om teh ease tele Oe be nate of sans oft se et wie gone Ee fra we ‘nimi he probable ery considering asinle seo ‘endings ales root sum squares formal (r RSS formal) . xampe: Let, ace Nisa farction of ote parameters 8) Wafeie ston t) In ode o eae, i reuied to mesure the Paap ay Foren ASEH OL, ayo oa de fer occu. The pees tft enor tat may tke place inthe elelation of perametr WV isexpese eae ‘SPECTRUM ALLAN ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 5 Saas 7 rn EE Scanned with CamScannerELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND IN‘ {STRUMENTATION LINTU-HYDERABAD, aaa a Ga. A current of A with » probable error 20:1 pastes through 2 resiator of 500 0 with {probable errorof 10.2. Determine the power ipated and probable eter. vee. se. 070) Given that, ‘Caren, I= 5 Resistance, R= 5002 armota ak=100 (Power disp P=? (Probable ener AP=? . ‘ewer Dispated, The power dsipton Piven o perinn(gys00~ 2540 (ay Probable Brrr, AP: The probable error APs ie a Berea Zam ap- ara arr = foransxsooF +0025 = oF 50" P= 559016 W Thus th power dsp is 12.5 LW with probable enor of 539016 W. 1.3. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS, RE- FIDELITY, LAG ‘G28. Define the dynamic characteristics of an Instrument. Anes Mota. 000) ymamle Characters For answer refer Unit cc a 4,05, Topic: Dynamic earcter- “ om o oo ay co (QR warmer nC Amn od iy ABLE cE prvi) “The dynamic carateristicn of 09 ISIMER ape a So Rem iy Recreate dae SR cera Ticiaraye pie cm to reach he steady stat is specneg ee Speed ofeespnse ‘Measurement Lag: Tetime delay akenby the Metprcm io progecehe ouputin response te cage = ee crin beng mesediskaowmasmeansee | Sxemaieenne eters renee oo Fe ctu i a Prete ei oy inner al tr ae ne Sea 0 pra recon en tenant ea Seer ee ere ane ae Drei rT eres ee eras for and stn sate er, Diynamlc Range: The range of values of 3 cena unity (er example temperte, presse, vlan Shey) for which the measuring instoment cas prof 1 fll response under dyeamic condone oom {dynam range ofthe instrament. Dynamic anges ‘presented a the rai ofthe maximum vale e be tminimum value for which the system ean respond five Bandwidth: The rang of frequencies within whihibe esurat under sai contons Theo chars sytem depend oly “The various yes of state charactrsies ofa syste fre acorey, preston sae ener sae sensti| ican, seen, tebe reproduc, feadand : Siac characteristics of an nsrament ae determined by ssbjecng te ievumeer oa sie gant hd then king's umber of measurements ofthe fhe quantity under ste and ental conditions. “How the dynamic characteristics of measuring ‘systems are represented? [Ans The dymanie characterises ofa messuing system fie represened by diferent equations. The order of the Siterntil equation represents the order ofthe measuring System. However, ia general, the measuting systems are chased 5 flows, 1. Zeroorder systems 2. intend systems 3. Sccontarder stems 1. * evwerder System: A seastng instrument which t governed by azrvorder diferent equation i know a ‘The ferential equation ofa zero-ardersysemis given o 30. Re mee re yume arctic Sisko tests rhe dynamic characteiticn a wr tno ofthe system, which 3 ear ea ee (tt nde ote.) cone, constant aemciens sce Caracas tat Should We tet 80 Te measure Syn ands Ce any eid th ime) are known 3 “rates of he insures svinsrament are described ‘pctween te input and output OF yf aferesual equations. btained from he system depend on the ntre aynamie reponse ofa rye dyn icnaswell ron he perimeters | otic varying pu nc sti nem. Sf cms through which the dynamic characteris ofa tiem ne specie ae bandwidth dynamic range tbe speed ofrenyonse, ine constant ly, saling tne sad measurement a. Ini characteristics of anisirument are determined pectin ensue to standard put signal Hee ciee pulse signal ramp signals parabolic ot Ehsetl Sgr and then saljeing the dynamic Fsponse of he instrument ® wae, K~ SE ~Sutisemsitviy rom equation (2), i is clear that the output of the ‘ensuring sytem follows the input (x) perfectly without ny delay though the input changes wrt time. Thus, the ‘dynam performance af zero-order measuring rystem fs perfect since there note lag and o distortion a the magnitude Example: One ofthe example of zero-order system i ‘linear potentiometric device shown in figure (I). [A eatutng instrument which obeys and follows the shove uation sealed as zero-order system, “The equation (1 ean be rewrites, a Figo 1 LnerPotontometer Ueda Diplcament Tranocar ‘When the supply voltage Vis given to potentiometer of resistance R, with lengih The voltage resuling athe ‘ouput side i given by, 72> SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS) (00ND Scanned with CamScannerasi” us eacornon easuneuen 2 werner ATOM TU a Seon yar 8) yeahs ing ee auntie | fF -N ee Sameera felogeateoiune — 3 4 aun entmeene tl oe ae Fovanapplcd lace resistance Ais & “oe Balle © By utnsing 8 in equnon Owe BXiny, yo Hinks ge pee =o Ye «sateen notes no% “heel om equation (9 ‘ahage teary ouows Mises ares, ; 12 Famarder Systems Aspeasiringisramést which it prey tecarderdfererial eqanton is Known, Shnrorer sytem ‘ieatnreatl union of fest-order stems given 4) iis ler that he up pt placement Hence -t0) © Amex nmanet ich oe afew he ‘eee es anc em se SSUUSE ators doe nas ying ution © aon Bt ies wee 0, 2rd) “GO a 0 gy = AD seiy = 440 o Tine constant 4 = 2 sui estviy By ping Laps ron we ‘e+e ARG) contort} aR) a) ao siventy, second-order System: DAIL eat op Sorgen een af rat Pee 4010 femur a cra tread see Ritrmetnerersyaem en, SB nc ofthe example of second ode sytem iy ooo yen as sow a Ree | rt: pings ome etn smut ton os am e soa M Esco) a DypbnaLaphes ttn 2m) + RG monies ae )-FO) nn tt a be sar en =). ea BR “The dimensionless or normalized uanstrfuctin XO) og Foy” Mar eBeaR ‘By dividing bth aumerator and denominator by Mt a) K- “Tee equation (12) the oemalized wane function of onder tem andi hare ean BRE edhe a0 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS : D.C VOLTMETERS, D'ARSONVAL MOVEMENT, D.C CURRENT METERS, AG VOLTMETERS AND CURRENT METERS nlc D’Arsonval movements converted ‘inant en hnsaees Se veer ETC cmchCuest ney comcast Seta wintas?b' Anema mvesens ton nf Toman) awe: tage Vota wh a Four Peston Satch Tn Bowe (1), oY ¥ya0d Ya voinges and Ry Ry Ry re mtuplers The value of sulle are ealcalated aa na whe ‘Sing ihe following equations by, \ Yat +R) e VIRB) Figure: Bsc D.C Voter Creat Tye RD. PTR RD Inte ceatoftaieD.Cvolieter, the cunent owing tough he str movererts ited he sees resistor "has ture dosrnotenceed the maximum tle fein vale Amac prticlarangemeit ofebaininga mlirange svotmeter bt connect the muliper series sting Tn this ‘rangement th ange selecor sich selects and connects the ‘eure value of esitanee i cies wih the movement. ‘G55, JDetine voimeter sensitivity. What she tading ‘effect of a D.C voltmeter? Explain with an “The DEC volimeter measures the poten dfeence tecnsen to pointrin sD Celruitwhenitis connected across ‘hem with proper posi. Inthe above ec, + Tyo rullrange vote ofthe dice sample. = Series resistance (mali) Ans: ot, 94 Full snl defiection urea of be movement | Voltmeter Sensivity = Intern resstance ofthe meer movement. For answer refer Unit, Q14, From the figure, we ave, V=(R+ RJ Loading Elect of D.C Volmete {he loading eect of4D.C ‘eter refer tothe phenomenon irwhich anegative eo is produced in the voltmeter reading (eased wate), de 0 {below internal esistance (elo senility of he volimeten)) Avolimetris connected in parallel tothe circuit whose voltage isto be measured. Hence, ifs voltneter having a Tow Sensitivity fs used to measure the vole. () Across tow resistance clteuits, it provides correct reading. {SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS NENT tay ARTE s Multiplier eistanee, Scanned with CamScanner108 Bete co ceca tae ‘Aeros high essance cuts, the weiner 3 ‘une for that potion othe ult and hence the fquiveletrevisance of tat prion decree AS ® ‘el be voimter ingests volage ae wert ‘Beactal valage Tite isnown as oding eet ofthe voter Toawoidthe lang ft volmeterorih esr shouldbe wed race ff Unit 35. ‘G34 Explain about ammeter loading effect. How canbe minimized? ® sya “The lading eet mance cir when the ressiane of cise ard hey cust rest inte coe cae “Te deal ammeter ae nro itera existance i 2, «0 whesen amen ned is ee wich isin: ne ‘with load resistance, the current flowing through SPS trae ced tan ml ese See Tis penreson own os nding fle a ‘ i Re retme Fur lang Ele ofan Atar ‘The lading eft fm mieteor meter oon ea contion whch changes te working or functoning facie, nbn an sme etd ito he eeu The reason for Fated a str nthe erat it eabe the erent tb wrk under dcable operating conditions. I be etc. _rprences te anges Be operon ote changes inthe ‘ret Bo it resus in ee Teepe cent fowing inthe eet i given by, y 5 o The inl tent oc ce erent of he aunts, La [JNTU-HYDERARAD, eect a Sacer Scat y ey oes a ela atte Rete i ea cme shouldbe se no duce loading effect. te ae SEE creat shown n gre wo ra es ng are connected t0.4 100 V DL sou, Mac otage srs Rs 10 Be messureg Figure ‘Asensitvity of 1000 01V and (i) Asenstvty 020000 ON, then find which, Veltmeter wil read the accurate valu o) voltage across R,. Both the meters an Used on the 50 V range 0 Anes 0 S04 a9) ‘ven at, ‘Range of volmetrs=50¥ (Measurement of Voltage Acros R, Using Voltmeter, ving Sense of 1000 22 Resistance of volmeter, R,~Sensivity * Range = 1000» 50 a=50K8 Wen vole fconcted across the pale conan of fs , ees he equal eae ‘crs ih ele flows, “BR, (OxI0")S0«10) Ae Rek ossoxie 88 ‘Thea, voltage across, is measured by this volar spreads, - hs @ 8, 33x10" wR be = xy = 833410 sci 99 24 fe Bak” Goe8ayx1e AY On ving te egaations 2) an (1), meget, Measurement of Voltage Across , with a Volmeter having «Sensi 020,000 04V Resistance of volmeter, = Seniiviy = Range = 20000 » 50= 10° : 1 | 1319 | SmaI = OV ETOON ii - aS aso Sean eo a paiva era ns Ben HSK” OsieoleI@) cana ante ee ane ia se ” tn hy tonne] a tei er eee - jcated by voltmeter 1 = 30 V pereeee — aie smu ne enw on ORR G0+1O x10 aan. somaya ee “When voltmeter? is connected across the 100 kS2resistor Heme, i can be obeve that the vatimetes MED | gpatcauses te equivalent paaiel resistance to be decreased 10 SE he A pei | ease Loading effect i introduced when voltmeter of low =295.242 Ce rt | pa ier bn bn? ma oncniee een saa necacmnsin rs nn Baw oaay scimerssaramsmenertar ts | ward voter 2—a801¥ ‘Stratum scat oe | on” Eno cmee SterramttarantseV te ac! | Oe eg cece ao () The reading of each mete (i) Error in each reading, expressed as a percentage ofthe true Ans: ‘Aernay 7,504 24) teers ars Tea des atest abiani (ss) 50-30 = 2221007 40% 30 os Error inthe reading of voltmeter 2 i, ‘Truveltage Ay Travoliege _ 50-4837, 30 G37. A volmeter having a sensliviy of 5 KV ‘30'Vinits 100 V scale when connected across an unknown resistance R,. The current through the resistor Is 1.8 mA. Determine the % error due to loading effect. 100% 3.26% ayLtnat2, S83, 080) Ans Given that, ‘Sensitivity of volmete, = 15 KO Voltage = 80 Range of volineter= 100 V Curren, 7= 1.8 mA, Unknown resistance, R=? ‘Tete vale of vlageaerosthe 100K resistors SOV ‘error due loading effet =7 SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ND Scanned with CamScannerELECTRONIC MEASUREMESS ‘Whe a votoorier 5 conacied erste MM + reste (the messed or meter resis #8 Pe ‘with Terfre, hc equivalent ressanee ESET ambition of, and and not le TST Inthe mensureraat tne mete 1k 2.20 Raxk, RAR, “0 LUNrT-1 Block Senemases of Measuring Systems “a basie ’Arsonval movement with an Internal fosistance R= 80.0 and full scalo current *ro.smAisTobe converted into amultrange [BIS voltmeter with ranges of 0-10 V, 0-50 V, (0.280 V and 0-500 V. Show the arrangement swith the help of neat dlagram with values of feslatances used. ase. ‘rit eon 8 ei ane Internal eitance, R= 50. nts 503. 10) ho Fall cle cen f= 0.5 mA Fora matiange D.C volute wit 10V ange fies F, postion of range switch, the tua circuit Bean 208 i fy at, to a a ven by, The resistances Ry and Ry alle = RR, ~20000-30= 199502 ‘Tepe or equa estan oe eile resitane ai ee yr. 40 ha de Then mun oramulinge Colne ih 0 V an. ao Fao iO semana tat) psn sun sich be oa cesar, ‘Themetereitance, givens pan ete sR fan Eo 100, ‘resem eer "Rye : Tig io's 100 anise Subang a inept (5 asso ye, TSSIO+R, (1 15109 +4444 1785 “10) Mabe 15210, (05 =10)~(6440=109) aster seit (5x10) -(4444x10°) pecs ara tnt et Ba g19) mse 2 Ero Ei 5. 38. Aresisane R= 15% als connected in soed wit aD. vohage suppy of 38 V. ancter fesltance Ry #15 kin shunt with te Sippy A vetancom = 12s i ammeter 002 Staal eststace, combination fs in shunt aoc i with mine the enor de telosdng eect ttm q = MABNONG Keen bt CRNA Ar Ne : “The expected eurent wing trough Ra io “The curont Rowing through the mee ily (On diving the equation 2) and (1) we pe between expected current and meter cute, Eo due to loading, Lali seio Tessa presi) Si y= 2500 : eR RAR) 10012) (19950 + 50) = 802. Fora maiange DC voltmeter with 250 Veange Se ¥, posi orange swite, te otal eet resistance, ir. my Rane RAR) (0k) ~ (0+ 19950: 40000) Fora mltange D.C volunetr with $00 V range Le, postion of ange switche ttl eee esisance, fF wee 000s Ryn R (Ry FRR, +R) = (10004) ~(50+19950+#0000+ 400000) 50042 Amultiange D.C volunter with values of resistances sedis shown in pe sos Expected caren ~ Meter ay Exposed eument | = 00 (1- =(1=095)» 100= 5% ‘The 6 eror due to loading eet is unduly i LABLE to fae LEGAL po aaa cena oem warm ansisner te re a Sa eres sunnah) Arent Se a sr one soe eon field, the coil will rotate in rp hp en ‘Kos PMC evn nic inenen comin Sone perm ne a ae Saco nay “nui! shaped sot ro core fixed beeen the to pt ‘The magnpf The eylindial core makes the magnetic field ail nd ltr snd slo hes to doetease the elctance cada Sa meen mes ee Sachin igen noone tect acess oa an Scaggs nade eee ant ce regener eter anes eee asters at ere raee toatl te pobre ere eres ‘over the calibrated ssle)ne amount of force experienced by tach side ofthe coil is Epresed es, Force= BIIN Newton o where, Be Density of ux 1 Curent Rowing tough the ei {=Langthoftke coi 1N=Namber of ums of te cei ‘he detesing torque produces expresed a, 1=Force = Perpendivar distance fai) fy Fomequion 1) T=INt= >) T.=BINA Scanned with CamScanner ) ‘SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 4) 0)(A=! B= Force arn the cll From eqaton 2), team be observe tht for acon ‘ux densi he dfectng equ is roporiona tothe cues flowing through the cil, is forBNA= K= Constant TK tet ‘Asie insteunet employs contol pring. bec te eproprinl the een 37, = 8 Buta al defen ston a toe 2 Tater “Thus. dels ray propre aes og rough be cl half wave rectifier. “he cut diagram of half wave ecifel ype AC voles town nee mana ee, ‘ * Re Piven Fg Hal Wave Rio Type RC elmer When tbe AC votaget be measred is applied a the lap the diode D wl be forward ise foe the postive half tycleofinnt sup late foreard ised sta D, wlleonduct Sioveot. Terfore te'aeter defection gives the average fale ofthe poste bai eyee For the negative half eel of Input sop he diode D, wl get reverse ised and doesnot edit Tout only half eve rectifieation ofthe input supply idoe Since he doe centr nly fr positive half eles siapusurpy, plating D.C ouput will becbained as shown infgue ine ug Wave Hal Ware ocr Type AC ante Cie putting DC voltage generates putting D.C soit es we es see nie a Sieecers tec “average value of applied input. i ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS At ‘Caplin the operation OF AC volimetor wing ‘reverse current characteristics compared to Ge diode. wo INSTRUMENTATION (JNTU-HYE id inp seal rat a a The ave vale of Lf. sar to coat 2 ¥,, fore) 045 V4, f ‘ait cre foie te Be ey sam tien tw cm nein a Seraee nome oaveseeimned din eS ets ead ss a naman _ Tat fsa av ter al set ae fine = EE | hc 2 | esse eae cribe the operation of AG volimeter wag fll wave rect te ug ane matric "A.C voluge meauremént using eter etapa theconvesin ofA Cvohage fo bemesuredinfounidrecing | Seg dineclarediermcecregbemean Pievoianeert mens Theres ba refer ee ‘Siete coi cif ea er fl mae a \wave) anda PMMC D’ Arsonval meter. The cirui diagram | ZINC tenner ig wav ec svn & eH PMC mee Figure (0: A.C Vlimter Using Full Wave Retr The fll wave rectifier i formed by comecting fer licon diodes inthe Form of brie, Here Si diodes ae ms. ely used because they have high forward current an Io For postive half eyele of A.C input voltage the die 2, (WD wane: sericea cr and D, will get forward based and conduct. Therefore be | i Anyone fun ity is UABLEtfce LEGAL proceeding! UNIT lock Schematic of Mensurng Seen efecton gives he average value ofthe postive hall ae darnepnehalejlearA cin oligetbe odes "earned based and cont. Therefore he a Pron gic the average val of the eae half mee sa fll waverecifcation wil be one and afl wav Oe rm eisai athe pao he cso The ele pba meer clears aterm a of Amoi (because A.C voages a cuentae ex de ens) The ouput waveform ofa al wave reir en Caaimeters shown in figwe a Dil gut Outgot Wave of Full Wore Recir Type AC Vain The average vale of applied put signa is give rita» ees “Ths, te caren owing roe te er isiven by "89% mon, Duet biscurent ener inde deeton eu ‘00 9:ines tnt peered iD Casume agate, “eee » fl wave reser eat supped with sisi AC tp exis a ses ati egal 1609 Tine tt of bese ih D.C Sue ™09 "Spe ‘The eton pve om vale and wea vale desc fom er ths oting but a of Ssteavtage nfo or asin signa oom for iret Form itr (suo wave) Mian cai _ Wy, “Wein” Cink ‘G45. Discuss about multange A.C voltmeter. Ans asic schematic of muitrangs A.C volmeeis shown in fgwe This eit is used to measure various anges of AC 1.23 or contsins a cain ofmlilers Sd A, for voliage ranges of fy, When te selector switch is Matirange A.C voli ormed ty resistors By Ry By EPBso 50 v, 10 V especie Connected to 25 V 208 ets a3 & muller Te resistor connected nyo te ttt movement Fe, Rats aa acter st ale eran ei ae on shunt? Describe Rw # neat feed Wer Seity its appteatons. ane onto e010) une shut a ead tne eg Aen on ealledss Anton shunt or universal shuts) De Aromegat o an ston shunt shown i EWE. Figur: Arto Shunt ‘avoids the posiiliy of using the meter in the cuit without shunt. Tie isthe ost mporant merit ofthe aryton niall, assume thatthe selector switch is connected 10 poston 1 Witte switch in position the esistors RR and the mete movement becomes series and the series connection becomes parallel to the resistor, In this condition, more ‘Cure flows though he shunt compared othe erent trough the meter, Thuy the meter movement i protected by excess ure. This reduces the rent ofthe meter movement. ‘When the selector switch connected to postion 2, the resistor nd & becomes parallel tothe series combination of resistor A andthe meter Inthe condition, more cutent lows Ahrough the meter and less eurent ws through the shunt vokage signa SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 1 Scanned with CamScannereek eons ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND. Ce mot Sr ren (COSI Zoe 3, the combination of The Pent ges divided into shunt cu a 2 re crore nb | THANE ce Sidra Beye ean ee | TT ae eerie FoctAE ym 2Arnge A Rat aroun 102 ANNES orig ‘ones 2 Acree GE belge rniatayransionorowean |= ‘meter wn ncurent range of 24,54, 10 sees Atenel movemet wit anneal! saree tanta sete econ Sonenr a 224 a, any 0) BS . na: yesh 283,210) | Given sine, shnt and mt 8 EE, the nt amet D'Aromslmevenent, | sossbnt and mcr willbe peers tee MT ots detect caret of mee ! Desired eument ranges =2A.5.A, 10 akon, = Ree | nuns rben, an Aor shunt be sine fr | suc et gs ens Aton st shal consist Boh R= 002501252 hres pasar 4 The swith thrown 10S A range poston, +R, in pullel with A+R Le, ai be the shit estan of he Aion hunt a shou te Be ee Spates ¥ Posh 00 ma Ima ae 5000-1 = 4999 ma oR Inala) A, ? (4999 mA) RR) (1 MANE, 50 ; (a s50, +e E250 ht N Re 4,999 2) an : ort Range [=I 19000ma Te svc nm 10 A LF | r= inns es nplib eS The overall shunt resistance should be small in order to. - catieteonacynsnelanecue fe cane ‘rms be eae aes ewe hina Aono kp = Shunt resistance, R, = R, +R, +R, > aE i, cmmomnrhsadina tek eS Ag te Rem esonon ORR cel i oho fm,-9909 8-50 a For30 rng, shar includes only, - 8, = ee shh oe designed caret ranges, Fennec MRA eter) sald be este as jiestetealma Salting the ale o f+, om gain ‘equation (1), we have, Vth iene A(R +R)= 00250125. 2 +9900R, 50 = 0.0250125 o00R, = 50 0250125, R= 00050025 @ NARNING Pe ot bot UN ety py iti neeat pea) ia oy is LABLE te fact ; L 3 | 1-1 Block Schematics of Measuring Syston [Sbsatng te vloe oR, +, om equation (2) io potion (we NE, bs "a, +R, +R, 00250125 2 un! 41259 4 geomsoi2s 4999 n+ 504+ 4999R,= (499 40.0250125) $000, + 50~ 125.0374 1750374 "5000 Ayr 00150074. Sutin te vals of and, we the vl oF +R, R= 00250125 (0.005025 +, + (0.050074) = 00250125. = 000500262 “The shunt esitances of yon shunt are, "R= 00050025 2 = 0.0050026 R= 00150074 For2A ange, the shun resisaree, 002501252 Fou 5 Arangethe shun esses, Ryn + R= 00100051 2 For IA tinge the hun essanee, 0050025 Gi eae tevonngernnineines ‘Moving tron tstroment: se sunen in which oil is Made natonay at deer ous dv 0 he movement et ton inthe ld produced byte eo ae refered Ws ‘ving ron nunend) They tee for he measurement of A.C current > ‘Moving iro iment ae of wo ype. Thy a 1) tinction ype or moving ane pentane 2._Repulson np or double vane ype inrmens 1. _-Anmoton Type or Moving Vane Type Instrument: ‘Theos sectional view of etrction ype moving on insrmet sown ee). gure: action type maving ite instrument = —ramapememued ame sa cement eis fat iin re et vn fev ‘inside the coil, tothe screed wd of pulled ah va a eed an moves overheated te t between the magnetic field of $2 scoot uation nbemeen he mae Sld 9 The Fre pe moving vane revs det ete (up of he vane proportional © erected ne eo Boe Sy ch vane i pulled sie a ‘proportional to the magnetization, ‘ofthe vane and oer ptt sneagn ote ol hein rue enor a, Magnetization T= Me Dut, =H And HT Ta? _Tecaectng ques diet proportions tothe eee cuvet opted othe col Wamthon Type (or) Double Vane Type Instrum aeraeion pe moving on instrument comprises sar reery coil andes on vanes, conoling one tamer ale rangement The tw on ane Zea toed isi the cll such that both comes ia ‘Sate with one another long the ais ofthe col Ost Peo tonvans,one fixed the fare of te col ‘Sheteas he thers neuned on te pl sue eat it Srtcetomove-Apoimereatached tote moving vane "Toccoa sectional vew ofarepulion ype moving on inswument shown in ite). Figure (2: Rapuslon Type Moving ron nstrment ‘SPECTRUM ALL:N-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. Scanned with CamScannerELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTR —TDEF UMENTAT— a canon ne Un RES paponcaremanom swat | rm igcpamet onic Of ga ck Speman tonsa Sons : coi «magnetic poder a sce doe 0 whic | andes int en Ter maa © Sctvckenvenstevmeretaeihnepoy Aste | TRNEE STNG Sagan ce mm nae pak. BR nl Sega eens cing er ren ane mae ey epctcck | rf te cue! Ro to tac Laer ee) ammmnmntinnenines | Eengeennnen tne Geeta taunt merece | Aer an a ous ed iat, ecw oe, Haan ere i aor raed vse Te ore By | intermediate values (D2AGES) A TAhed by nga aa ‘emoving vane ones ove 2 ite cpl om ante | ier known vues of tecen Yang igi non |Ee | ee ‘rate dete tngoe, There vataneos eau | Be renng ma onan eek, ont sett ‘oman ote ete repltn Te fc fren | shown inf y ga et tt eee on ot Fagan epson rms | dal j MinBche | ects tafe et n= =) he tte eae ie, and), wich tr proportional oe a TaR Ro RAE- Rl coal ae ep en nek feld (site col which at ropes RX" | : nai eat Bowe tough te Ee! HED Be cant ing dough eee 2 | a » er Figure Selo See Type Ohne, Tah) — 0 Lae ey a oi ceo es he eset aes OF, ant ae eee fe AM Peon aed fr marking the positions onthe sea") "With neat sketch describe the operation of RR Te wel Desrmination of Rnd Re The estan alas hunt type ebmmeter Also explain now Wie A - Tak Rirceonnacby ine, orn wala ‘stor ascii! aim Tax eects i oper anda ee Fapteneetegentrcre_ ina glctal en uninown eto sconected arse Xan Y oft caren oplil oe ae aidan mena, | Dchemcremanion caters | ee epncerm “enh isrametisuedio A Celi, indies i! nn eno, He metre oa) | em De ictricl Anke | (i ameter: In shunt type ohmmeter the wnknown E Ry a Eth Lae ie rosin Arcane Le RE RR (OHMMETERS Thetlresivanecefihe voltae souce=ag, | wich coc in se wih cane aia sor RAGE, cptantne pert atzesosypectmmeter | Teco aid fy woe wc chit)‘ EAN a ‘Also derive the equations associated with Lz ~ EESEESLR av detection, RE orn) Tana 4 The crit rangement of «sit pe obmineer z siiie mibics stale Dovel ter connected i eis Wit ‘This euret shuld be doubled 0 provide fat cris «tse Dar ages The out | gettin, Tse ial cute! euiredo prods le © a a RISE ofr sory combination inetd by X and Y | genecion i, i RARER sar whieh unawares is connected. Based on te —l~ See ites icicle (Size alr of is esis diflet cures fo hroush a aan Wen eerie Cee ae eeetfae teumkmoweressarcvalcsn | rye cure flowing trough Rt 1,1, sip ohm pelt 03a “dtemined by eating he deicton nated by te meter cutee lowing though Ry 8 y= 2 ly Fue Cet Set Tp Ohta nt a ee _ Fr Spre()iten be seed eg | tna shunt ype cheer he se of ONOFF sw ie lteD-Aronal metre te eae Sco ete) ela ne Srorestoantenet | ysis ingeonO) Wee Then device notin se. nf tsi rh Ki a fk ] ner estan ofthe meet oye a aR 18, C2 By applying KE] ‘E_-Curent adjustable resistor BATRA) | i ea | tenes once te fac offal ald (ibid 8, / ad ye 0) = Usknon essor a ‘gar eit are tpe Omer Fi slbratonsInaly, the ONOFF switch i clot ad he RARER) one syne canerincain dyn | Smit as ON wat ole | ga fe BEAR "toca ss Toa Tae ei ae Shon ease R= 0, tere al Th ae eae MEAT “| {ecamen ows ough te short cic and no cure favs Rak Cet ining rior ie AMeough the mer, Under iis condition the positon of he RR tRe) Ae Zao asing sir Now, by ain quo) inematon()¥e08 | pris mad as Oot see mee t—Unlnown resitar th tinal X nd Yore opened Inhicase Ri E te sng eae ta bigh 2 votage source (te) a Then gem lsof uret itig ! ce therefore igh cent flows rough he mete. Nowe es omer alle atten nay own rita ide | =yscrae an foe eet, | oman rr et onthe scale. Under his ondon Iu as a) | Recaro tele ny tage font nad th and Yess a shor. ats case R= 0, therefore a high current lows through the circuit [Now evalu ofresisor 8, varied nd adjusted il he poier ie nde poston ofthe pine is marked as w Son he SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERI a STUDENTS NEN eee Scanned with CamScanner“Applications of Obmmeters o ND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-HYt a ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS At Sana he nie as ran as ae of ea serene fae me Rn ke 3 Rak 9) R>>R,wecanwnieR, +R, > Ry By substttngeqution (6 in eusion 3) w= RoR From the above analysis itis observed resistance ofthe meer (Ry) and th ill: ‘Also half scale revisunce ca Differentiate Between series 07 tha te resis compte by Tein rahe ote ce ng Brough te meet iho ype we comet aah ema ee sO famork FEC cette el ee ‘aa er ipl spa = rete tag sr pect ee wivuneandags mmc of 3 shunt texan. Tere, "pserics peo ease the vale ed to peaere a single oe Of ged ange shoul be extended © creme ene Ta 8 A rears gees ve owt 8 we IE called edo ere Tet eu fmt om Rpm i te lowing Sea, Figure: Matton Obie imate vale of ressee ii aeition SO ar pe ohrnmeter and shunt a sence of ejb ir 8 pens 091 VIBE ag | nance ofthe eter. jude Scot he sea ‘halons oi tan pe Ia this Pe es nt depends om the aga nk sito rit sek ees of resistane® MEASTEETS eon lee eden Eaton. Thea vo decane time a 386 Tat nes nie OS age of shunt pe ohne does at econ ees Gay Uso orebecing of semen de comity of eu. | ss | a arson! met mo |e ocoee er = OF i a mone nt | An £A Pv of known estas, The ae dete: onl eer ovement Sf A Shown in fi. | eng | | L i | i} ! sre eet Crt of nw eee rj da Sel Ae j aoe down esi vale of 86 nl the resistor shoul B. with the resistor ct owing ough beirut en peste The curent when eit = v ‘sed to determine the aprox of machine field coils WARNING: erxPteconr no hs oki CRIMINAL 2. aR k un ys IBLE ce EGAL ree) © 1.29 LUNIT-1 Block Schemas of Neorg yao ____—* he emis Aad Bae sor maxima sae | AMS ye eine cecal dong becteaitertneietconcre | Ma GSU Meta we red onde tin of Be | ty Se ee mc | come re ei gn paca bne Wt | an a ay Se fsae of enn ncaa niealcaccerenetoemeerwaienty, | MNO, ee 2 re era rat Fe tr isown tone ay solving gun (and 2 wean ‘GE Whats Takage caret? How Wis measured for an electroytlccapactor? Sie Fihccasbar ce One aa soe vate Pic known a eo "Pe esage ort 87 capaci, The Feaage 627 ed wing echo 1, Astor, ¥ rent: When scaacirichaged os meio eset Fea and he Tom avers Powe ie caret Dove she cassie sreurersofeptoe Jyh aatethe Bekok ald ep. Whe "Ths, the cent Tess apposite al eof eclipse i inte a Koo: Th ext oo cop nn, per setae scot pecs Takes j migeeneeiteromerens se sete cara coe Seon sete item Be ei cette tamer ANT ea om (ein tera uy Let nab The fan nb heb i © meelrircapeaateenevoe | Len roo erect Bee ceeneto nn |" cece s Oat cmmercatacen! | E tee tt “° = * Feuer neneeat te \6 MULTIMETERS ¢ atecee # § aes To perform ry est he peiner of (083, explain the font pane of mune Suppose shoul indicate masa 80 PE craninepecemssratis [oy Series eae gerne we ee? sori excuse snes LIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR. ‘SPECTRUM ALexrcrnoe weasuncues AN, rece and ‘mvius"(~) or ‘common are used for each. ee scale is used to = ce tratace am ‘Same wih ces 20 ¥ 50 ier ends mem Sreiticancarscenee: | SPSARity Seaemne bemeasued 8250. When De ipa 8 freee acnelcted rane, mearre eeiGginte 158, 15002 © 50000 1.30 o ‘commu and oO AC eee ‘min gs of 300 eed When Be cma an 06 Fac TS Vane tote hen O13 an eee earns ae ev) faittowe2s ABC Ame ciqne®h Sed when clamping DPE ish cuen propese ACID. terminate maim og 1000 V mean The terial ouput 360 V DC is used for deste Temi -10A and #10 A ae wed force! crema Ato OAD 7 metre BO VAC wong, ie seit ted 1 Fad ao poner toltge Range robe Selected oMesrere230VA,S8 ne INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-HYDep, sy N — means pAb Sa ATS tiga an | 8 EAS ae cn ‘rend Pri: he sting cl 2 et | oer ie ACD wr = marche may cay eee caren tro te coi te asuition [st over ented and destroyed and Hee De COPE ‘ire enschede preset his ie isrment {provided wath efron pectin iat Wh this Epes frany ress incareat end the safe Timi overladdevie open set the straint {acral duct ich be reset Baton pope-wp an | theiemnat eet by pesing te ese buon down loraw a practical circuit ofa malimeter. Also Graw its different sections. Practical Cut of» Malineter: A pracicl multimeter circuit comprising § D.C millammete, 4 D.C valine ole «microsnmeter and anohmreter sated in gue). et ste Maint ‘The differeat sections of a multimeter are, aren Dc vole 2 Cromer 3 DCanmeter 4 Ober CD Wann: reersieapeg os fsk i CRMNAL st. Aron te ocd r "3 ct Anrone ood puiy is UABLE te ace LEGAL ae) | ie. (Select the vlog range of 250 V by m fe Sy mesa eng! ot Ar stig he requ olin stony | trecortoch make src the ngewe 1 quanti of volage is requied 10 be measured they 2 mesures rom the ites age 0d isp sah sa hen wich wn prope agi j <4, Ae unit The DIC vols section of slime shown sigs) Mariner Celt Fg 0 Vota Sete “The AC volimee section of fru 0) Figure AC Votre Set of MalietrCicit ‘The DC ammeter section of matinee is shown in foue — a | Figure te. Ammeter Seton a Mlimee leit “The ohmmeter section of multimeter is shown in dana 2 The easic block diagram of 8 Sete 1 4.31 igure mete Section ot (ez) ‘and explain it Ah ge pmesy 28S ac meee {led Tire: Black Diagram of» Digital Multimeter “The varius functional locks ofa digital malimeter are same as that of slog altimeter. ‘ihe applied input voltage sD.C ten the Catienuator anenuates the Input toa fouired level and provides ouput to te Analog o Digial Converter (ADO) “Th funeton of analog to digital converte isto convert analog sigal applied to i ito digital. After converting the ‘Sona no digital iis processed in ital processing unit and ‘endisplayed Tf the applied inpat voltages A.C, then the A.C emt tenuate the inp to afequred level, which hen ‘ected by an A.C converter. “The fected output of A.C converter is then applied 1 ADC, which again conver the relied analog signa into ual digital form, The digital signal isthe processed and ‘splayed atthe cua, The caren o be meavured is applied itis converted into equivalent voltage signal by means of precision shunt resistor. The vllage signal then processed i the same way ‘Smentioned shove) and displayed athe output inthe units of “The ohms converter comprises a constant current source nich s made to pas through the resistor of unknown value “The vollage developed across the resistor sthen measured a figure (9). | SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURN. splayed athe ouput inthe units of resistance. IAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS | aS Scanned with CamScannereNTATION OER, 1 Cee eammvian 1,Z. METER PROTECTION ne eaant i ee ta aes os san a etme Ae Asal eae > TRUERMSRESPONDING VOLTMETERS ) args [0 wren Javon rocrer ser | esata "meters are protected by connecting ane show in si rciecaneanensay eiramieyenwenamo unm [) tice a mccain 0 Merwodios | canted MBtaiciomemcer fssingedodetscomecctecmhe || Ashe hy Stetina dopa baat eto ‘erertown nse). to does ae eos be mee ir Se nor, aa sce (2) ‘of ipa signal (aes each for one hal ye then i cet ‘elt = mip rescince OR ‘aus tn ne prtcetn msn The nl de 2 tae he i + captain the working of # true value dni prteionarangemen a 0¥7 2 LeBe j vom sd reste ae ] te a anes @ gt et teeta teens onncer 88 07 9 Where, | vols) ret nel LE ial 1 the ae ofthe RMS ron al Pn, ae rot palo! - otag ot ety meize te ei PONE sy rare “4 igre Ceci of Bane 0. ameter tens en = NC n te Powe "ye Tec otal curent supplied othe cig || anecdote mesczeneat | Se outy obe hte: CDE, WF ca ‘igor: Sap led Protection Arangoment sy sbatining equation) a eqation (1) tpt deren) exiting brween 60 oi Fo hie cl re coespesngote ePen Oh we slbttitetemeced este ponei ct [Tous erm ieted te awoke eames which pds equi bs owe (Tr ee operon RS WME of MTT, “a srsinor connected in series withthe mee ii | pe inal * speci hing ah Ree Tete et | TE , : ‘run, or ech full seal deflection cure ya) ow he me dos at EO end ha of ee fe 2 [I ena tts Sect fom onion) veces Se LS apne fl) 0 Die 2 5 eee eee % 5 lad ei | alle vlage ce volneer ev? {Lalas Steno eure psi eee k acy shermocoipe exis one on bn Die Pte ne ste . cn aimee nora es of mesg emanations | Se ean omg i A= (nar ecient cf eg eh the esuing therPocosTle lth ts hed re same thermal envio TPE Wheat int incedies beyond th cuin voi of he more eed he votage measrog range 0 | Ypmocoules a Retin a tedonc clement Bat + diode the diode wl conduct and all the caret fows thou / Sian seamen saveretiewsteds hemes | wher, | cn sith ae | See rac sat ncn alee | bana iy tig Dome et ee bem (eratoofttal cumentiometer curently) vig the messed vgs 27 a Satie vying KVLinbecieutshowmin gas Oh MEE. Se Sogea of LR) “2 | in moa. The apt section of he DC ALR, sereples connected 10 i pu adi Tray the bride stand ree RMS whee i show © amplifer and the 190 ana bridge uit ec 1.8 EXTENSION OF RANGE (xnav as mulpying power of shunt and ton bender i ast ampli by 28. A eee ane dest = : amplifier and then fed othe beating element of the measuring sent eed Basie D.C Ammeter: A basic D.C ammeter cre wed for pm the oui lage ftaned The DC apis aa aa et eaectempays a se D'Asona arash in foe) “ _ see Matheny become is regan of te ei mycosis ime raed) genase nah on ie | Spat OC ater me q o- ye bridge attains balance condition when the out i voltage Sy Qe ‘The creat measuring range ofthe aunt i gexoageneig genomes | TEA hrm euie tuips vole of DF sananay | fe eenc byerccing exer ts I) eve ners: | ccna ae Drarsonval meer as sown in gue 2). | Neha tenmomal meson eas en Jem fag mee - _Exsereal mip Fegual tothe AC curent ofthe eating clement of eA Fie sta ge DI cet ace i ee ee ea eae | ene te RMS oes of OP A TG In de abone fg, an . Fer gr of he pt sigal deine om sceraad 1 he ico sm | J Se be DC eae! ne paint aco sec jet cin cep ! iin fe Se Aste a inf ero tat poses nat gt AR | Faw xed te go Vt cme current. igure tending ynge of Ar epee? 3 me | SPECTRUM ALLIW-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING s1u0enrs ee csi ae Scanned with CamScanner~*~ : Batic tence. Figure: True R.M.S Voltmeter 0 SPECIFICATIONS OF INSTRUMENTS List a few specifications of multimeter. Current (1), voltage (V), resistance (R) Specifications of Analog Multimeter 1. +» Measuring parameters i 2. Current range of D'Arsonval meter movement used SOA” 3. * Sensitivity 3 20 saa 4. Operating frequency range 7 2 i) cnminaay met 2 0-50mA, 0-1, 10, 100, $00 mA, 0-10. 6° D.Cvoltage measuring ranges. * 1 9-250 mY, 0-2.5 V, 10, 50, 250, 1000, 5000 7. A.C voltage measuring ranges 1 02.5 V, 10, 50, 250, 1000, 5000 V 8, Resistance measuring range Rx Q, Rx100.2, R x 10000 Q 1. What ae the objectives of measurement? Explain. Refer Unit) 01 2. Define static error and static correction. Refer Unit, G8 03, Draw the block schematic of a data process instrumentation system and explain the same. Refer Unit O17 04... Discuss the following, Gaussian curve of error (i) Probable err (iil Root sum squares formula, Refer Unit, 026 How a basic D'Arsonval movement is converted basic D.C voltmeter? Explain. RafeP Nit! O31 ” 05, 06. Explain the operation of A.C voltmeter using half wave rectifier, 7, Discuss multrange ohmmeter. Rote 08, Explain how D.C meters are protected. Refer Uii ook's a CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guy is LIABLE to face LEGAL pl Scanned with CamScanner « WARNING: XeroxPhotocopying of =_ .