Chapter 4

Network Connectivity Devices

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
4.2 OSI Module - At a Glance
4.3 Network Connectivity Devices
4.3.1 Modem
4.3.2 Repeaters
4.3.3 Hubs
4.3.4 Multiplexers
4.3.5 Bridges
4.3.6 Switches
4.3.7 Routers
4.3.8 Brouters
4.3.9 Gateways
4.4 Summary
4.5 Check Your Progress - Answers
4.6 Questions for Self – Study
4.7 Suggested Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter you will be able to-

 State different network connectivity devices
 Discribe to devices like modem, brouters, routers, bridges, switches etc.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter OSI module provide set of standard rules for networking.
Model contains 7 layers, each layer performs different task. The first layer is
physical layer. It uses the bit and signals to communicate. The second layer is data
link layer. It is responsible for the creation and interpretation of different frame types
based on a actual physical network being used. The Network layer is third layer and is
mostly associated with the movement of data by means of addressing and routing. The
fourth layer is the transport layer, it is primarily responsible for guaranteeing of packet
transmitted by the network layer. Session layer is the fifth layer, it is responsible for
managing connecting between two machines during the course of communication
between them. Presentation layer is primarily concerned with the conversion of data
formats, in the form of packets, from one machine to another. The seventh layer of the
OSI model is application layer. It acts as the arbiter or translator between user’s
applications and the network.
The interfaces and devices that are used to connect computing devices and
transmission media are called connectivity hardware or network connecting devices.
Network connectivity hardware connects individual devices to a single network, for eg
a pc or printer would use network connectively devices to connect to UTP or some
other that we are going to study in particular section of your book.

4.2 OSI MODULE - AT A GLANCE

Now all of you are aware of what networking, transmission media and cable
media that we can use to transmit data from one terminal to other terminal For
understanding process of data transmission there are some standard rules. In previous
year you already studied OSl module, that module provides standard rules for
networking.
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 Layer Purpose

Application Interface to network services

Presentation Translates between Application and others, redirector, encryption,

compression.

Session Establishes rules for communication, determines synchronisation

Transport Handles network transmission

Network Addressing, traffic, switching

Data Link Error checking, manages link control, communication with cards

Physical Network interface card, wire, and so on.

1. Physical layer
The first layer is the physical layer. It uses the bits and signals to communicate.
This is the only layer that is truly connected to the network in the sense that it is
the only layer concerned with how to interpret the voltage on the wire- the 1s and
Os. This layer is responsible for understanding the electrical rules associated
with devices and for determining what kind of medium is actually being used
(cables, wires, connectors, and other mechanical distinctions.)
It is important to note that while the OSI model doesn't define the media used,
the physical layer is concerned with all aspects with all aspects of transmitting
and receiving bits on the network.
2. Data link Layer
The second layer is data link layer. It is responsible for the creation and
interpretation of different frame types based on the actual physical network being
used. This layer is also responsible for interpreting what it receives from the
physical layer. Using low – level error detection and correction algorithms to
determine when information needs to be re-sent. Network protocols including the
TCP /IP protocol suite, don't define physical standards at the physical or data-
link layer, but instead are written to make use of any standards that may
currently be in use.
3. The Network layer
The third layer of OSI model is the Network layer. It is mostly associated with the
movement of data by moans of addressing and routing. It directs the flow of data
from a source to a destination, despite the fact that the machine might not be
connected to the same physical wire or segment, by finding a path or route from
a machine to another. It is necessary; this layer can break data into smaller
chunks for transmission. This is sometimes necessary while transferring data
from one type of physical network to another network. This layer is also
responsible for reassembling those smaller into the original data after the data
has reach edits destination.
To restate : The network layer involves communication with devices on logically
separate networks connected to form internet works can be large and can be
constructed of different types of networks, the network layer utilizes routing
algorithms that can be used to guide packets from their source to their
destination network.

Network Fundamentals / 46
 A key element of the network layer is that each network in the internetwork is
assigned a network address and they are used to route packets constitute the
topics of address and switching.
4. The Transport layer
The fourth layer is the transport layer. It is primarily responsible for guaranteeing
delivery of packets transmitted by the network layer, although it doesn't always
have to do so. Depending on the protocol being used, delivery of the packets
may or may not be guaranteed. When the transport layer is responsible for
guaranteeing the delivery of packets, it does so through various means of error
control, including verification of sequence members for packets and other-
protocol-dependant mechanism.
5. The session layer
The fifth layer is session layer-it is responsible for managing connections
between two machines during the course of communication between- them. This
layer determines whether it has received all information for the session and
whether it can stop receiving or transmitting data packets. This layer also has
built-in error correction and recovery methods.
6. The presentation layer
The sixth layer Is the Presentation layer. it is primarily concerned with the
conversion of data formats, in the form of packets, from one, machine to
another. One common example is the sending of data from a machine that uses
the ASCII format for characters to a, machine that uses the, EBCDIC format for
characters, typically of IBM mainframes.
The presentation layer is responsible for picking up differences such as these
and translating them to compatible formats. Both EBCDIC and ASCII are
standards for translating characters to hexadecimal code. Letters, numbers; and
symbols in one format which must be translated when communicating with
machines using a different format. This is the responsibility of the presentation
layer.
7. The Application layer
The seventh layer of the QSI model is the application layer. It acts as the arbiter
or translator between user's application and the network. Applications that want
to utilise the network to transfer messages must be written to conform to
networking APIs supported by machine’s networking components, such as
windows sockets and NetBIOS. After the application makes an API call, the
application layer determines which machine it wants to communicate with,
whether a session should be set up between the communicating machines, and
whether the delivery pf packets needs to be guaranteed.

Benefit of OSI layered Architecture

Many benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or
tasks of Networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standard
interfaces between these layers, The following list summarises the benefits of OSI
Layered architecture:
• The individual protocols or layers are less complex and therefore can be
defined in great detail.
• Reduced complexity allows easier program changes and faster product
evolution.
• It facilitates systematic troubleshooting.
• You can change one layer without having to change all layers.
• It helps divide complex network operation into more manageable layers.

Network Connectivity Devices / 47

• A better environment for interoperability is created.
• One layer uses services of the layer immediately below it. Therefore,
remembering what each layer dose is easier.
• It helps design the standard interface for the " plug-and-play" multi-vendor
integration.
• It clarifies what general function is to be done father how to do it.

Interaction between OSI Layers

The process of how the layers interact on the same computer, as well as how
the same layer processes on different computers communicate with each other, is all
interrelated. The software or hardware products implementing the logic of some of the
OSI protocol layers provide two general functions:
• Each layer provides a service to the letter above it in the protocol specification.
• Each layer communicates some information with the same layer's software or
hardware on cither computers.

Interactions between Adjacent layers on the same Computers

To provide services to the next higher layer, a layer must know about standard
interfaced defined between layers. These interfaces include definitions of what Layer N
+1 must provide 10 Layer N to get services, as well as what information Layer- N must
provide back to N+1.
The figure presents a graphical representation of two computers and provides
an excellent means of interaction between layers on the same computer.
The data is cheated by some application on Host A. for, example; the user
types an e-mail message. Each layer creates a header and passes the data down to
the next layer.

Passing the data down to the next layer implies that the lower needs to
perform some services for the higher layer. To perform these services, the lower layer
adds some information in a header or trailer. For example, the transport layer hands
over its data and header to the network layer. The network layer adds header with the
correct destination network layer address so that the packet can be delivered to the
other computer.
From each layer's perspective, the bits after that layer's header are considered
to be data. For example, Layer 4 considers the Layer 5, 6, and 7 headers, along with
original user data, to be one large data field.

Network Fundamentals / 48
 After the application creates data, the software and hardware implementing
each layer perform their work, adding the appropriate leader and trailer. The physical
layer can use the media to send a signal for physical transmission as shown in step 2.
Upon receipt (step 3) Host B begins the adjacent layer interactions on host-B.
The right side of above figure shows an arrow pointing next to the computer (step 4)
signifying that the received data is being processed as it goes up the protocol stack.
The following sequence outlines of basics of processing at each layer and shows how
each lower layer provides a Service to the next higher layer. Consider the receipt of
data by the host Son right side of the figure.
Step 1- The physical layer ensures bit synchronisation and places the received finery
pattern into the buffer. It notifies the data link layer that a frame has been
received after decoding the incoming signal into a bit stream. Thus physical
layer has provided delivery of a stream of bits across the medium.
Step 2- The data link layer examines the frame check sequence (PCS) in the trailer
to determine whether errors occurred in transmission (error detection). If an
error has occurred, the frame is discarded. 'The data link addresses are
examined so that host B can decide whether to process the data further. If
the data is addressed to host B, the data between the layer 2 header and
trailer, is given to the layer 3 software. Layer 2 has delivered the data across
that link.
Step 3- The network layer destination address is examined. If the address is host B's
address, processing continues and the data, after the layer-3 header, is
given to the transport layer software. Layer 3 is provided a service of end-to-
end delivery.
Step-4- If error recovery was an option chosen for the transport layer, the counters
identifying this piece of; data .are encoded in the layer-4 header along with
acknowledgement information (error recovery). After error recovery and
reordering of the incoming data, the data is given to the session layer.
Step 5- The session layer can be used to ensure that a series of messages is
completed. After the session layer ensures that all flows are completed, it
passes the data, after the layer-5 header, to the layer-6 software.
Step 6- The presentation layer defines and manipulates data formats. For example,
if the data is binary instead of character data, the header denotes that fact.
The receiver does not attempt to convert the data using the default ASCII
character set of host B after the data formats have been converted, the data,
after the Layer-6 header, is then passed to the Layer-7 software.
Step 7- The application layer processes the final header and then can examine the
true end-user data. This header signifies agreement to operating parameters
by the application on Host A and Host B. The Reader typically is sent and
received at application initialization time only. For example, for file transfer,
the size of the file to be transferred and the file formats used would be
communicated (application parameters) at the initialization time.

Interactions between the tame layers on different computers

Layer N (where N*1 to 7) must interact with layer N on another computer to
successfully implement its functions. For example, the transport layer»can send data
but if another computer does not acknowledge that the data was received, the sender
will not know when to perform error recovery.
To interact with the same layer on another computer, each layer defines a
header, arid, in some cases, a trailer. Headers, and trailers are additional data bits,
created by the sending computer's software or hardware, that are placed before or
after the data given to Layer N by Layer N+1- The information needed for this layer to
Network Connectivity Devices / 49