Summary of Child Developmental Psychology: Why Developmental Theories are Important

7 Main Developmental Theories Developmental theories provide a framework for thinking about human
growth and learning. But why do we study development? What can we
Child development theories focus on explaining how children change and
learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever
grow over the course of childhood. These developmental theories center
wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior,
on various aspects of growth, including social, emotional, and cognitive
understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals
development.
and society.
The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have
An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to
personal experience with development, but it is sometimes difficult to
fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational
understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as they do.
growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.
Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their
Why is it important to study how children grow, learn, and change? An
age, family relationships, or individual temperaments?
understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to
Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational
understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.
lifespan.
7 Best-Known Developmental Theories
In order to understand human development, a number of different
There are many child development theories that have been proposed by
theories of child development have arisen to explain various aspects of
theorists and researchers. Some of the major theories of child
human growth.
development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every
History of Developmental Theories aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as
mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of
Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely development such as cognitive or social growth.
ignored throughout much of human history. Children were often viewed
simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory
advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that
Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through
occur during childhood and adolescence.
his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to
Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced
the 20th century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, behavior.
researchers became increasingly interested in other topics including typical
According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can
child development as well as the influences on development.
have a lifelong influence on personality and behavior. Freud proposed one
More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and of the best-known grand theories of child development.
identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.
According to Freud’s psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a than focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson
series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During believed that social interaction and experience played decisive roles.
each stage, the child encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the
His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from
course of development.
infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a
His theory suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth.
erogenous zones at specific stages. Failure to progress through a stage can
Unlike many other developmental theories, Erik Erikson's psychosocial
result in fixation at that point in development, which Freud believed could
theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan. At each stage,
have an influence on adult behavior.
children and adults face a developmental crisis that serves as a major
So what happens as children complete each stage? And what might result turning point.
if a child does poorly during a particular point in development?
Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the emergence
Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy
of a lifelong psychological virtue.
adult personality.
Behavioral Child Development Theories
Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations
that can then have an influence on adult behavior. During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought
known as behaviorism rose to become a dominant force within
While some other child development theories suggest that personality
psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on
continues to change and grow over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that
observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific
it was early experiences that played the greatest role in shaping
discipline.
development. According to Freud, personality is largely set in stone by the
age of five. According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be
described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such
Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory
as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely
Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first through processes of association and reinforcement.
half of the twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went
Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental
on to expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of
interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories of theorists
these neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best
such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal
known.
only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to
Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.
growth and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and
This theory differs considerably from other child development theories
conflicts that arise during different stages of development.
because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead,
While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development shared some it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are.
similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather
Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding
development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical abstract or hypothetical concepts.
conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus
Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when
with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as
reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviors.
logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge
Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory during this stage.

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought Bowlby's Attachment Theory
processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we
There is a great deal of research on the social development of
understand and interact with the world.
children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social
Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers
cognitive development. play a major role in child development and continue to influence social
relationships throughout life.
Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize
how we think about child development: Children think differently than Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an
adults. innate need to form attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by
ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not only that but
His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of
these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and motivational
thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought
patterns.
processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world.
In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed
Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the
to ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their
steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.
caregivers who in turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for
Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during exploration.
which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory
Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have
perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor
suggested that a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who
responses caused by sensory stimuli.
receive consistent support and care are more likely to develop a secure
Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may develop
learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
take the point of view of other people.
Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura.
Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which
Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could
children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin
not sufficiently explain all of human learning.
For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned the interactions between these two forces determine how kids grow
behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or physically as well as mentally.
operant conditioning. According to social learning theory, behaviors can
Biography of Psychologist John Bowlby
also be learned through observation and modeling.
The Founder of Attachment Theory
By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children
develop new skills and acquire new information. John Bowlby (February 26, 1907-September 2, 1990) was a British
psychologist and psychoanalyst who believed that early childhood
Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a
attachments played a critical role in later development and mental
critical role in learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to
functioning. His work, along with the work of psychologist Mary Ainsworth,
take the form of watching a live model.4
contributed to the development of attachment theory.1
Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about
Bowlby believed that children are born with a biologically programmed
how to perform a behavior as well as through observing either real or
tendency to seek and remain close to attachment figures. This provides
fictional characters displaying behaviors in books or films.
nurturance and comfort and aids in the child’s survival. Sticking close to a
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory caregiver ensures that the child’s needs are met and that they are
protected from environmental dangers.
Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning
theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field At a Glance
of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively
John Bolwby was an influential psychologist who introduced attachment
and through hands-on experiences.
theory, or the idea that early bonds play a crucial role in functioning. His
His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers, and research on child development had an important impact on our
the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order understanding of human development and continues to influence modern-
functions. In Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process. day psychology, education, child care, and parenting.
Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an
Bowlby's Early Life
individual's understanding of the world.
Edward John Mostyn Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-class
This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of
family. Believing that too much parental affection and attention would
proximal development, which is the gap between what a person can do
spoil a child, his parents spent only a small amount of time with him each
with help and what they can do on their own. It is with the help of more
day. At the age of seven, he was sent to boarding school, which he would
knowledgeable others that people are able to progressively learn and
later describe as a traumatic experience.
increase their skills and scope of understanding.
College Years
In reality, fully understanding how children change and grow over the
course of childhood requires looking at many different factors that Bowlby went on to attend Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied
influence physical and psychological growth. Genes, the environment, and psychology and spent time working with delinquent children. After
graduating from Cambridge, Bowlby volunteered at two schools for his mother (or permanent mother substitute–one person who steadily
maladjusted and delinquent children to gain experience and consider his ‘mothers’ him) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment."
career goals.
After the publication of the influential report, Bowlby continued to develop
These experiences working with children inspired him to become a child his attachment theory. Bowlby drew on various subjects,4 including
psychiatrist. cognitive science, developmental psychology, evolutionary biology, and
ethology (the science of animal behavior).
Klein's Influence
His theory suggested that the earliest bonds formed by children with their
He then studied medicine at University College Hospital and psychiatry at
caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life.
Maudsley Hospital. During this time, Bowlby also studied at the British
Psychoanalytic Institute and was initially influenced by the work of Melanie Bowlby as a Psychoanalyst
Klein, a psychologist who created the play therapy technique.
Bowlby had trained as a psychoanalyst and, much like Sigmund Freud,
He eventually became dissatisfied with Klein’s approach. He felt that it believed that the earliest experiences in life have a lasting impact on
focused too much on children’s fantasies and not enough on development. According to Bowlby, attachment also keeps the infant close
environmental events, including the influence of parents and caregivers. to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.

After becoming a psychoanalyst in 1937, he served in the Royal Army He suggested that both mothers and infants had evolved to develop an
Medical Corps during World War II. In 1938, he married a woman named innate need for proximity. By maintaining this closeness, infants are more
Ursula Longstaff, and together they had four children. likely to receive the care and protection needed to ensure their survival.

Once the war was over, Bowlby became Director of the Tavistock Clinic, Bowlby was also influenced by Konrad Lorenz, a zoologist and ethologist
and in 1950, he became a mental health consultant to the World Health who demonstrated that attachment was innate and aided in survival. In
Organization (WHO). Lorenz’s well-known 1935 study on imprinting, he showed that young
geese would imprint on attachment figures in the environment within a
Bowlby's Career and Theories
certain critical period after hatching.
Bowlby’s early work with children led him to develop a strong interest in
Lorenz even got newly-hatched geese to imprint on him and view him as a
the subject of child development. He became particularly interested in
“mother” figure. This revealed that not only is attachment innate but that
how separation from caregivers impacted children.3 After studying the
there is also a critical period during which the formation of attachment
subject for some time, he began to develop his ideas on the importance of
relationships is possible. Lorenz’s research found that an attachment was
attachment on child development.
not likely to occur after a certain period (approximately 32 hours for
The WHO commissioned Bowlby to write a report on the mental health of geese).
homeless children in Europe. In 1951, the resulting work Maternal Care
In humans, Bowlby believed that the first two and a half years of a child's
and Mental Health was published. In it, he wrote, "...the infant and young
life were critical for the formation of attachment. If it did not happen
child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with
during this period, he suggested it may be too late. However, he later While mothers are often associated with this role as primary caregivers
expanded the timeline for this critical period up to the age of five. and attachment figures, Bowlby believed infants could form such bonds
with others. The formation of the attachment bond offers comfort,
The central theme of Bowlby’s attachment theory is that mothers who are
security, and nourishment.
available and responsive to their infant's needs establish a sense of
security. The baby knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a However, Bowlby noted that feeding was not the basis or purpose of this
secure base for the child to feel safe to explore the world. attachment, allowing bonds to be formed with fathers and other significant
caregivers.
—
It is not food or nourishment that determines attachment. Instead it is the
Imprinting refers to a well-researched phenomenon within animals where
responsiveness of caregivers and the attention and care that children
they form an extremely close and dependent bond with the first animal
receive that determines their attachment patterns.
they see after being born. For example, when ducklings hatch, they tend to
imprint on their parent and follow them everywhere. Stages of Attachment

The core purpose of imprinting is survival, which makes sense considering Bowlby also suggested that attachment forms in a series of stages:
that young animals are dependent upon their parents for food and
During the first part of the pre-attachment phase, babies recognize their
protection. Let us not forget that humans are animals too, and we can also
primary caregiver but do not yet have an attachment. Their crying and
experience imprinting. Imprinting in humans isn’t as simple as us forming
fussing draw the attention and care of the parent, which is rewarding to
an inseparable bond with the first human we see when we are born.
both the child and the caregiver. As this stage progresses through about
Instead, human imprinting involves how we form socio-emotional bonds three months, infants begin to recognize the parent more and develop a
with others in ways that impact us throughout our lifespan. sense of trust.

During the indiscriminate attachment phase, infants show a distinct

preference for the primary caregivers and certain secondary caregivers in
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
their lives.
Bowlby defined attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness
During the discriminate attachment period, children form a solid
between human beings." His ethological theory of attachment suggests
attachment to one individual and experience separation distress and
that infants have an innate need to form an attachment bond with a
anxiety when parted from that person.
caregiver.
Finally, during the multiple attachment phases, children develop strong
This is an evolved response that increases a child's chances of survival;
attachments to people beyond the primary caregivers.
babies are born with a number of behaviors, such as crying and cooing, and
caregivers are biologically programmed to respond to these signals and How Attachment Influences Development
attend to the baby's needs.
Bowlby believed that a child's earliest attachments with caregivers created
The Importance of the Attachment Bond a blueprint for all future relationships. These early attachments serve as a
framework that helps children understand themselves, others, and their ___________________________0_____0___________________________
relationship with the world.
A Biography of Mary Ainsworth
Bowlby suggested maternal deprivation disrupted the attachment process
Mary Ainsworth was a developmental psychologist perhaps best known for
and could result in long-term emotional, social, and cognitive problems.
her Strange Situation assessment and contributions to the area of
This approach, known as monotropy, views attachment as a bond between attachment theory.1 Ainsworth elaborated on Bowlby's research on
the child and a single attachment figure. In Bowlby's view, this attachment attachment and developed an approach to observing a child's attachment
figure was primarily the mother. Problems with this attachment, he to a caregiver.
suggested, led to lasting problems that could include mental health issues,
Based on her research, she identified three major styles of attachment that
lower intelligence, higher aggression, poor relationships, and lack of
children have to their parents or caregivers. In a 2002 review ranking the
empathy for others.
most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century, Ainsworth was listed
Bowlby believed that the maternal bond was most critical for as the 97th most influential psychologist, based on the frequency of
development. Later research, however, has disputed Bowlby's maternal journal citation, introductory psychology textbook citation, and survey
deprivation hypothesis. response.

While Bowby emphasized the existence of a single primary attachment Early Life
figure, contemporary research has shown that children develop multiple
Mary Ainsworth was born in Glendale, Ohio. When she was 15, she read
attachments to other caregivers. Bowlby's belief that separation from the
William McDougall's book Character and the Conduct of Life, which
primary caregiver would negatively affect development, modern theorists
inspired her lifelong interest in psychology.
recognize that quality matters more than quantity.
She attended the University of Toronto in the honors psychology program.
Bowlby's Contributions to Psychology
After earning her BA in 1935, her MA in 1936, and her PhD in 1939, she
Bowlby’s research on attachment and child development left a lasting spent several years teaching at the University of Toronto before joining the
impression on psychology, education, child care, and parenting. Canadian Women's Army Corp in 1942
Researchers extended his research to develop clinical treatment
The Strange Situation Assessment
techniques and prevention strategies.
In 1950, she married Leonard Ainsworth and moved to London. During her
His work also influenced other eminent psychologists, including his
time in England, Ainsworth worked at the Tavistock Clinic with psychologist
colleague Mary Ainsworth, who also made significant contributions to
John Bowlby, where she researched maternal-infant attachments. After
attachment theory by expanding on Bowlby's research to develop a
leaving this position, she spent time researching mother-child interactions
method for observing a child's attachment to a caregiver.
in Uganda.4
In a 2002 survey of psychologists published in the Review of General
After returning to the U.S., Ainsworth took a position at John Hopkins
Psychology, John Bowlby was ranked as the 49th most frequently cited
University. She divorced in 1960 and underwent therapy that contributed
psychologist of the 20th century.
to her interest in psychoanalytic theory.
While teaching at John Hopkins, she began working on creating an there might be other attachment styles she had not observed in her
assessment to measure attachments between mothers and children. It was research and believed that cross-cultural variations might exist
here that she developed her famous "Strange Situation" assessment, in
Major Contributions to Psychology
which a researcher observes a child's reactions when a mother briefly
leaves her child alone in an unfamiliar room. Mary Ainsworth's research on attachment has played an important role in
our understanding of child development. In addition to Ainsworth's three
According to Ainsworth, the way the child behaves during the separation
styles, other researchers identified a fourth style known as disorganized-
and upon the mother's return can reveal important information about
insecure attachment.
attachment.6
Ainsworth's work also inspired a great deal of research on the impact these
In her study, children between the ages of 12 and 18 months were briefly
early attachment styles continue to have throughout life.
left alone in a room while the researchers observed their reactions. They
were observed when the parent and child were together, when a stranger While these styles change with time and experience, researchers believe
entered the room, when the parent briefly left the room, and when the that childhood attachment styles influence adult romantic attachments.
parent returned. Adults with a secure romantic attachment style tend to have lasting
relationships and believe love is enduring. Those with an insecure romantic
Attachment Theory
attachment style believe that love is more temporary.
Based on her observations and research, Ainsworth concluded that there
While her work is not without controversies, such as the extent to which
were three main styles of attachment:
early attachment styles contribute to later behavior, her observations have
Secure attachment: Securely attached children seek comfort when inspired an enormous body of research on early childhood attachment.
frightened and prefer parents to strangers.
A Word From Verywell
Anxious-avoidant attachment: Anxiously attached children are wary of
Mary Ainsworth was a significant figure in the field of developmental
strangers, exhibit great distress when a parent leaves, but are not
psychology. Her research and development of the Strange Situation
comforted by a parent's return.
Assessment helped psychologists further explore the importance of early
Anxious-resistant attachment: Avoidantly attached children show little childhood attachments in child development. Her work also inspired
preference for parents over strangers and seek little comfort from their further exploration of how early relationships continue to shape
caregivers. interpersonal attachments throughout life.

Since these initial findings, her work has spawned countless studies into Who was Mary Ainsworth?
the nature of attachment and the different attachment styles between
Mary Ainsworth was a developmental psychologist who conducted
children and caregivers.
groundbreaking research on attachment theory. She is best known for her
In her letters to her mentor and fellow attachment researcher John "strange situation" experiment, which helped identify the different types
Bowlby, Ainsworth noted that she also believed different sub-types might of attachment between children and their caregivers. Ainsworth's work on
exist within the three primary attachment styles. She also suggested that
attachment theory has had a lasting impact on our understanding of the Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of
importance of early relationships. comfort, care, and pleasure. The roots of research on attachment began
with Freud's theories about love, but another researcher is usually credited
What did Mary Ainsworth study?
as the father of attachment theory.
Mary Ainsworth studied attachment theory, which suggests that young
John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the concept of attachment,
children form bonds with their caregivers. These bonds are essential for
describing it as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human
the child's development and well-being.
beings."1 Bowlby shared the psychoanalytic view that early experiences in
Ainsworth's most famous study is the "strange situation" experiment. In
childhood are important for influencing development and behavior later in
this experiment, she observed how infants and toddlers responded when
life.
their mothers left them alone with a stranger.
This study helped identify the different attachment types between children Our early attachment styles are established in childhood through the
and their caregivers. It also showed the importance of early relationships infant/caregiver relationship. In addition to this, Bowlby believed that
for the child's development. attachment had an evolutionary component; it aids in survival. "The
propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals [is] a
How did Mary Ainsworth influence psychology?
basic component of human nature," he explained.
Mary Ainsworth's work on attachment theory emphasized the importance
Characteristics of Attachment
of early relationships. Her research showed that early attachments
critically impact a child's development and well-being. Her work also Bowlby believed that there are four distinguishing characteristics of
influenced other areas of psychology, such as parenting and child care, and attachment:
inspired further research on how early attachment affects adult romantic
Proximity maintenance: The desire to be near the people we are attached
relationships.
to.
The Different Types of Attachment Styles
Safe haven: Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in
Attachment styles are characterized by different ways of interacting and the face of a fear or threat.
behaving in relationships. During early childhood, these attachment styles
Secure base: The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which
are centered on how children and parents interact.
the child can explore the surrounding environment.
In adulthood, attachment styles are used to describe patterns of
Separation distress: Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment
attachment in romantic relationships. The concept of attachment styles
figure.
grew out the attachment theory and research that emerged throughout
the 1960s and 1970s. Today, psychologists typically recognize four main Bowlby also made three key propositions about attachment theory. First,
attachment styles. he suggested that when children are raised with confidence that their
primary caregiver will be available to them, they are less likely to
What Is Attachment?
experience fear than those who are raised without such conviction.
Secondly, he believed that this confidence is forged during a critical period Researchers Main and Solomon added a fourth attachment style known as
of development, during the years of infancy, childhood, and adolescence. disorganized-insecure attachment.3 Numerous studies have supported
The expectations that are formed during that period tend to remain Ainsworth's conclusions and additional research has revealed that these
relatively unchanged for the rest of the person's life.1 early attachment styles can help predict behaviors later in life.

Finally, he suggested that these expectations that are formed are directly
tied to experience. In other words, children develop expectations that their
caregivers will be responsive to their needs because, in their experience, Attachment Through Life
their caregivers have been responsive in the past.
Before you start blaming relationship problems on your parents, it is
important to note that attachment styles formed during early childhood
are not necessarily identical to those demonstrated in adult romantic
attachments. A great deal of time has elapsed between infancy and
Ainsworth's Strange Situation Assessment adulthood, so intervening experiences also play a large role in adult
attachment styles.
During the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth further expanded upon
Bowlby's groundbreaking work in her now-famous "Strange Situation" Those described as ambivalent or avoidant during childhood can become
study.2 securely attached as adults, while those with a secure attachment in
childhood can show insecure attachment patterns in adulthood. Basic
The study involved observing children between the ages of 12 to 18 temperament is also thought to play a partial role in attachment.
months responding to a situation in which they were briefly left alone and
then reunited with their mother. Ainsworth's Strange Situation Assessment So what role might factor such as divorce or parental discord play in the
followed this basic sequence: formation of attachment styles? In one study, Hazan and Shaver found that
parental divorce seemed unrelated to attachment style.
Parent and child are alone in a room.
Instead, their research indicated that the best predictor of adult
The child explores the room with parental supervision. attachment style was the perceptions that people have about the quality
of their relationships with their parents as well as their parent's
A stranger enters the room, talks to the parent, and approaches the child.
relationship with each other.
The parent quietly leaves the room.
But research in this area does indicate that patterns established in
The parent returns and comforts the child. childhood have an important impact on later relationships. Hazan and
Shaver also found varied beliefs about relationships amongst adults with
Based on these observations, Ainsworth concluded that there were three differing attachment styles.
major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure
attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Securely attached adults tend to believe that romantic love is enduring.
Ambivalently attached adults report falling in love often, while those with
avoidant attachment styles describe love as rare and temporary.
While we cannot say that early attachment styles are identical to adult
romantic attachment, research has shown that early attachment
styles can help predict patterns of behavior in adulthood.

Secure Attachment Characteristics

Children who are securely attached generally become visibly upset when
their caregivers leave and are happy when their parents return. When
frightened, these children will seek comfort from the parent or caregiver.

Contact initiated by a parent is readily accepted by securely attached

children and they greet the return of a parent with positive behavior.
While these children can be comforted to some extent by other people in
the absence of a parent or caregiver, they clearly prefer parents to
strangers.

Parents of securely attached children tend to play more with their children.
Additionally, these parents react more quickly to their children's needs and While forming a secure attachment with caregivers is normal and
are generally more responsive to their children than the parents expected, as Hazan and Shaver have noted, it doesn't always happen.
of insecurely attached children. Researchers have found a number of different factors that contribute to
the development (or lack thereof) of secure attachment, particularly a
Studies have shown that securely attached children are mother's responsiveness to her infant's needs during the first year of a
more empathetic during later stages of childhood.5 These children are also child's life.
described as less disruptive, less aggressive, and more mature than
children with ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles. Mothers who respond inconsistently or who interfere with a child's
activities tend to produce infants who explore less, cry more, and are more
anxious. Mothers who consistently reject or ignore their infant's needs
tend to produce children who try to avoid contact.

As adults, those who are securely attached tend to have to trust, long-term
relationships. Other key characteristics of securely attached individuals
include having high self-esteem, enjoying intimate relationships, seeking
out social support, and an ability to share feelings with other people.

In one study, researchers found that women with a secure attachment

style had more positive feelings about their adult romantic relationships
than other women with insecure attachment styles.6
 How many people classify themselves This leads to frequent breakups, often because the relationship feels cold
as securely attached? In a classic study and distant.
by Hazan and Shaver, 56% of
These individuals feel especially distraught after the end of a relationship.
respondents identified themselves as
Cassidy and Berlin described another pathological pattern where
secure, while 25% identified as
ambivalently attached adults cling to young children as a source of
avoidant, and 19 percent
security.
as ambivalent/anxious.

Ambivalent Attachment
Characteristics

Children who are ambivalently

attached tend to be extremely suspicious of strangers. These children
display considerable distress when separated from a parent or caregiver,
but do not seem reassured or comforted by the return of the parent. In
some cases, the child might passively reject the parent by refusing comfort
or may openly display direct aggression toward the parent.

According to Cassidy and Berlin, ambivalent attachment is relatively

uncommon, with only 7 to 15 percent of infants in the United States
displaying this attachment style.8 In a review of ambivalent attachment
literature, Cassidy and Berlin also
found that observational research
consistently links ambivalent
insecure attachment to low As adults, those with an avoidant attachment tend to have difficulty with
maternal availability. As these intimacy and close relationships.9
children grow older, teachers often
These individuals do not invest much emotion in relationships and
describe them as clingy and over-
experience little distress when a relationship ends.
dependent.
They often avoid intimacy by using excuses (such as long work hours) or
may fantasize about other people during sex. Research has also shown that
As adults, those with an ambivalent adults with an avoidant attachment style are more accepting and likely to
attachment style often feel engage in casual sex. Other common characteristics include a failure to
reluctant about becoming close to support partners during stressful times and an inability to share feelings,
others and worry that their partner thoughts, and emotions with partners.
does not reciprocate their feelings.
 A Word From Verywell

While adult romantic attachments may not exactly correspond with early
childhood attachments, there is no question that our earliest relationships
with caregivers play a role in development. By better understanding the
role of attachment, you can gain a greater appreciation of how the earliest
attachments in your life may impact adult relationships.

___________________________0_____0___________________________

Biography of Margaret Mahler (1897-1985)

Margaret Mahler was a 20th century psychiatrist who studied children's

development and developed the theories of individuation and separation.

PROFESSIONAL LIFE

Margaret Mahler was born in Hungary on May 10, 1897. She became
interested in psychoanalysis as a teen when she met Sandor Ferenczi. She
studied medicine at the University of Budapest beginning in 1917, before
transferring to the University of Jena in Germany to study pediatrics. She
graduated in 1922 and settled in Vienna, Austria. She began training in
psychoanalysis in 1926. After several years of working with children,
Mahler was certified as an analyst in 1933.

She married Paul Mahler in 1936, and the couple fled Austria as the Nazis
rose to power, settling in Britain before moving to New York in 1938. She
began a private practice and worked with experts such as Dr. Benjamin
Spock. Mahler taught child therapy and was a member of the New York
Psychoanalytic Society and the Institute of Human Development. She also
became heavily involved in research directed toward pediatric mental
health. She taught at Columbia University between 1941 and 1955, and
she served as a clinical professor of psychiatry at the Albert Einstein
College of Medicine until 1974.

Mahler spent most of her career working with psychologically impaired

children. She was among the first psychologists to specialize in the
treatment of psychotic children. Her work in this area led to the book The
Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis and Individuation. In  Differentiation, or “hatching,” occurs when the child first gains
addition, she co-founded the Masters Children’s Centre in New York with awareness that he or she is separate from the mother.
her colleague Manuel Furer. It was from here that Mahler created and  Practicing occurs as the child becomes a toddler, gaining motor
taught the Tripartite Treatment Model, a therapeutic approach involving skills that enable the child to explore the world independently
both the child and mother. from his or her caregivers.
 Rapprochement marks a “backing off” from separation, as the
Mahler received several awards for her work throughout her career,
child becomes anxious about separating from his or her mother
including Barnard College's highest honor, the Barnard Medal of
and tries to regain closeness. This can lead to separation
Distinction, in 1980. Mahler passed away in 1985 in New York City.
anxiety and abandonment fears. As a child develops language
CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOLOGY skills, this phase winds down.

Mahler’s most significant contribution to the field of psychology was her Mahler proposed that early in development the child does not have a
theory on separation and individuation. Mahler believed that children exist concept of object constancy for the mother, which means when the
in a symbiotic phase until they reach about six months of age. During this mother disappears, she ceases to exist. This concept is similar to Jean
time they are unaware of their surroundings and others and only are Piaget's theory of object permanence.
cognizant of themselves as one with their mothers. They do not see
As a child matures, perception of his or her mother begins to evolve and
beyond that relationship. After about the age of six months,
the child internalizes the image of her. Children who hold positive internal
the separation-individuation phase commences and the child begins to
images of their mothers continue to feel support throughout adulthood,
distinguish him- or herself from the mother, thus developing an individual
while those who do not may struggle with insecurities relating from their
identity and ego. It is during this phase that the child also begins to
childhood perceptions. Mahler argued that disruptions in the normal
develop cognitive skills and master the ability to communicate with others.
developmental trajectory could lead to maladaptive behavior, including
For Mahler, this “psychological birth” proceeds according to a predictable
child psychosis.
pattern:

 The normal autistic phase occurs during the first weeks of life and
shows little social engagement. However, Mahler abandoned this ___________________________0_____0___________________________
phase later in her career.
 The normal symbiotic phase lasts through the first six months of life, Separation-Individuation Theory Of Child Development (Mahler)
and occurs when the child gains awareness of caregivers but has no (1st Reference)
sense of individuality. Summary: Mahler describes a series of stages occurring within the first
 The separation-individuation phase takes place at about four or five three years of life aimed at the developmental goal of Separation and
months, as the child begins to develop a sense of self, separate from Individuation.
the mother. This is further broken down into subphases that proceed
in a predictable order: Originator: Margaret Mahler (1897-1985), a Hungarian-born American
psychiatrist
Keywords: Separation-Individuation, Ego psychology, Developmental psychological desires and thus serves as the basis upon which future
stages, Object constancy, Mother-infant interactions relationships will be formed. Crucial to successful progression through the
next stages are the availability and the ability of the mother to adapt
Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)
successfully to the infant’s needs.
Mahler is regarded as one of the main contributors to the field of ‘ego
3. Separation-Individuation stage: (5-24 months)
psychology’, a school of thought which evolved from Sigmund Freud’s
Structural Model (id-ego-superego). Her aim was not to develop a novel In this final stage a significant transition occurs in two overlapping realms.
theory, but to broaden the scope of pre-existing theories. Her studies focus In separation, the infant develops an understanding of boundaries of the
primarily on mother-infant interactions within the first three years of life, self, and thus the mother is increasingly viewed as an individual.
thereby filling a void in psychodynamic stage theories, such as Freud’s Meanwhile, individuation marks the development of a sense of self. This
psychosexual stages of development, and Erikson’s psychosocial stages of consists of four sub-stages:
development. Although this article will refer to mother-infant relations, the
3A. Differentiation/Hatching: (5-9 months)
theory holds true for any primary caregiver.
The infant’s primary focus begins to transform from internally focused to
According to Mahler, successful completion of the developmental stages in
externally focused, although the primary point of reference continues to
the first few years of life results in separation and individuation. Separation
be the mother. This internal process is exemplified by milestones in motor
refers to an internal process of mental separation from the mother, while
development which physically allow increased separation, such as
individuation refers to a developing self concept. Although interrelated, it
crawling. The infant becomes increasingly interested in discovering his
is possible for one to develop more than the other, largely depending on
mother (e.g. how she looks or smells) rather than trying to become
the mother’s attitude towards the child.
symbiotically unified with her.
Stages of Development
3B. Practicing: (9-14 months)
1. Normal autistic stage: (0-1 month)
Capacity for separation continues to develop with increased autonomous
At the very beginning of life, the infant is primarily focused on functions, particularly walking. Although able to explore freely, the child
himself/herself, uninterested in external stimuli. The mother is viewed as still regards the mother as unified with him/her and thus explores his/her
an intrinsic part of the infant, devoid of a separate existence. The primary surroundings while keeping within an optimal distance. The child’s
goal at this point, is to achieve a state of equilibrium, while lacking the experience of the world he or she discovers is influenced by the mother’s
understanding that the satisfaction of needs may come from an external reactions and by her availability to sooth when experiences may be
source. frightening or painful.

2. Normal symbiotic stage: (1-5 months) 3C. Rapprochement: (14-24 months)

At this phase, the infant vaguely acknowledges the mother’s existence, not At this point the child’s desire to achieve independence is marred by a fear
as a unique entity, but as the main source of need-satisfaction. The of abandonment. Therefore, the child seeks to maintain proximity to the
fulfilment of the infant’s physiological needs becomes intertwined with
caretaker while engaging in exploration. This stage is essential to the three years of life as vital to the ultimate goal of raising children who grow
development of a stable sense of self. This includes three sub- stages: to be successful, adaptable adults.

a. Beginning: The child returns to the caretaker in order to share Note: For the purposes of this article, the primary caregiver will be
experiences and excitement. There is an overarching felon of referred to as the mother. In practice, this person may be the natural
omnipotence and exuberance. mother or another individual (or a select few individuals) who are
responsible for the primary and everyday care of the child.
b. Crisis: The child recognizes his/her limitations versus the desire
to be all powerful and self sufficient. The child is torn in choosing Getting the Right Start
between physical and emotional proximity to the caretaker or
Parents, even those who have no background whatsoever in the formal
independence. This stage is characterized by temper tantrums
study of child development will attest to the importance of giving children
and helplessness and thus the need for emotional availability of
the best possible start by welcoming them into a home environment which
the mother increases.
is both loving and attentive. The mother, typically the primary caregiver
c. Solution: The child reaches a healthy medium between the two during the earliest years of a child's life, who is warm, nurturing and
extremes due to language and superego development. If the crisis attuned to the changing needs of her child will certainly provide the child
is not resolved well, there will be an increase in extreme clinging with a greater sense of security and confidence than a mother who is
or shunning behaviour. distant or uninterested. This simple truth is the basis of Mahler's
Separation-Individuation Theory, which details the stages of the child's
3D. Object constancy: (24+ months)
development during those crucial first three years of life.
Successful completion of this phase marks the development of an
Normal Autistic Phase: Birth to 1 Month
internalized mental model of the mother, which unconsciously
accompanies and supports the child even when they are physically A newborn infant is blissfully unaware of anything but its own needs. At
separated. In addition, a sense of individuality begins to develop. The this stage, the mother needs to be available to lovingly meet the baby's
degree of ambivalence in the internalized model implicates the formation needs and introduce tender, caring interaction.
of a healthy self concept and self-confidence.
Normal Symbiotic Phase: 1 to 5 Months
___________________________0_____0___________________________
During these first few months, babies begin to learn about their world and
MARGARET MAHLER’S THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT develop their very first human bond -- that which they share with their
(2ND REFERENCE) mothers. Positive stimuli (cuddling, smiling, engaged attention) and relief
of discomfort (feeding promptly when hungry, changing of soiled nappies,
Margaret Mahler's theories on child development focus largely on the
providing an appropriate sleep environment) all help the infant to develop
mother/child relationship. Her study on separation-individuation is
a trust that their needs will be met, building a basis for security and
considered her most valued contribution stressing the importance of
confidence.
consistent attentiveness especially from the mother during a child's first
Sub-phase One: Differentiation - 5 to 10 Months
As the baby matures, he develops an increased interest in both the mother Toddlers continue to take pleasure in exploring their environment, but
and the outside world. Not yet able to understand that she exists outside during this phase, much of their growth comes from socialisation. Imitation
of his view, parents often first notice their baby's first outward signs of of others is common (much to the amusement and sometimes dismay of
separation anxiety during this time as the baby continually "checks back," parents!), as is the tendency to want the things that others have, taking
looking at other things but then looking for the mother as a reassurance them by force if necessary. Mahler also observed that toddlers often
that she is still present. Often, babies are most comfortable to express become a bit "low key" when they are not around their mothers, and may
interest in outside stimuli when they feel safe in their mother's arms withdraw a bit into themselves. Unlike when they were babies, toddlers
during this phase. Consistent access to the mother aids the baby's learn that their emotional needs are not automatically sensed or tended
emotional well-being and while it first appears about this time, this need to, so they may be especially demanding of their mother's attention. When
may continue well into the practicing sub-phase. they don't get their way, frustrated toddlers often resort to throwing
temper tantrums. Now aren't you glad to hear that your little one's
Sub-phase Two: Practicing - 10 to 16 Months
behaviour is perfectly normal?!
As children's mobility increases, they are able to explore their environment
Sub-phase Four: Consolidation and Object Constancy - 24 to 36 Months
with an autonomy that was previously impossible. Still not ready for
extended separation from their mothers, crawlers and beginning walkers At some point around the second birthday, children begin to be more
will sometimes choose to separate briefly from their mums, but will comfortable separating from their mothers, knowing that they will return
typically return quickly for assurance and comfort. Some independent play (object constancy). This ability makes it possible for two year olds to accept
time is enjoyed, but often the baby is only comfortable to play on their that they are unique from their mothers without anxiety, allowing the child
own when the mother is within the child's line of sight. Mothers who are to engage substitutes for the mother when she is absent.
able to release their children to a beginning level of independent
___________________________0_____0___________________________
exploration whilst staying nearby will provide their baby with the ability to
take pleasure in their growing world. Mahler described this "hatching" as Heinz Kohut’s Attachment Theory
the true birth the individual occurs, with the child beginning to have a basic
sense of self not directly connected to the mother. Self Psychology

Sub-phase Three: Rapprochement - 16 to 24 Months Self psychology, an offshoot of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, forms much
of the foundation of contemporary psychoanalysis as the first large
As parents of toddlers know, they can be a confusing bunch. One minute, psychoanalytic movement recognizing empathy as an essential aspect of
they are running from their mothers, refusing her attention or wishes, and the therapeutic process of addressing human development and growth.
the next they are anxiously clinging to her. Mahler referred to this as
"ambitendency" and explained that this behaviour is representative of a Self psychology theory, which rejects Freudian ideology of the role sexual
toddler's sometimes opposing desires and needs. It is during these months drives play in organization of the psyche, focuses on the development
that children first get a real sense that they are individuals, separate from of empathy toward the person in treatment and the exploration of
their mothers, which is both an exhilarating and frightening discovery. fundamental components of healthy development and
growth. Therapists may use self psychology theory in part to help people
consider how their early experiences may contribute to the formation of the individual will be able to maintain consistent patterns/experiences
their sense of self. and self-regulate and self-soothe throughout life. When individuals are not
able to develop a healthy sense of self, they may tend to rely on others in
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
order to get needs met. These others are called self-objects (because they
Heinz Kohut, a psychoanalyist who began his career following the are outside the self). Selfobjects are a normal part of the developmental
teachings of Freud, introduced self psychology in the 1970s with The process, according to Kohut. Children need self-objects because they are
Analysis of the Self. Progression of his work with people who sought incapable of meeting all of their own needs, but over the course of healthy
treatment led him to become increasingly dissatisfied with some of the development, self-objects become internalized as individuals develop the
limitations of Freud’s approach. Specifically, he found fault with the ability to meet their own needs without relying on external others.
approach's lack of effectiveness in addressing what was considered at the
The role of transference is also important to self psychology. In
time to be a narcissistic personality. Kohut began to explore the idea
psychoanalysis, transference is understood as the process in which
of self-love, considering whether it really was immature and harmful to
a person in treatment redirects feelings and desires from childhood to a
relationships, as posited by Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.
new object (usually the analyst). Kohut formulated three specific types of
Eventually, Kohut suggested that some degree of narcissism could actually
transferences that reflect unmet selfobject needs:
be healthy and beneficial to a person's relationships with others.
 Mirroring: In this type of transference, others serve as a mirror that
Kohut also disagreed with Freud about the source of narcissism. He
reflects back a sense of self-worth and value. Just as people use a
believed it to result from a lack of parental empathy, rather than
mirror to check appearance, mirroring transference involves use of the
conflicting drives, as Freud suggested. Kohut believed when parents failed
affirming and positive responses of others to see positive traits within
to provide empathic responses, a child would not develop a healthy sense
the self.
of self-esteem and would therefore look to other sources to gain a sense of
 Idealizing: Kohut believed individuals need people who will make
worth and value.
them feel calm and comfortable. An example of this can be seen in
Empathy in general became an important part of Kohut’s work, as he came children who run to a parent for comfort after falling and being
to feel that overly rigid adherence to Freud’s ideas often encouraged injured. The external other is idealized as somebody who is calm and
analysts to impose their own beliefs on the person they were treating, soothing when one cannot provide that on their own.
when understanding the unique perspective of those in treatment on the  Twinship/Alter Ego: Kohut suggested that people need to feel a sense
concerns they sought help with was more likely to yield better treatment of likeness with others. For example, children want to be similar to
results. Self psychology places a high value on empathy, or the ability of their parents and mimic the behaviors they observe. Over the course
the therapist to understand the experience from the perspective of the of healthy development, a child becomes more able to tolerate
person in treatment. differences.

SELF PSYCHOLOGY CONCEPTS THE ROLE OF HEALTHY NARCISSISM

In self psychology, the self is understood to be the center of an individual’s Narcissism is a normal part of child development, according to self
psychological universe. If a child’s developmental environment is psychology theory. Children may often fantasize that they have
appropriate, a healthy sense of self will typically develop, and generally superpowers and/or see their parents as omnipotent; Kohut believed such
childhood experiences should be encouraged as over time, children attempting to better explain narcissism, is not able to be applied to every
generally begin to recognize that their inflated perceptions of the self and person who has a narcissistic personality.
their parents are unrealistic. Children who are growing up in a supportive
Other critics have stated that the theory is incomplete and does
environment are typically able to weather the resulting frustration and
not adequately address all factors of the psyche, such as drives and the
disappointment and develop a healthy degree of narcissism, leading to
unconscious, that may have an impact on a person's development and
a secure and resilient sense of self.
well-being.
Insufficient parental empathy may contribute to the development of a
___________________________0_____0___________________________
narcissistic personality, according to Kohut. Empathy may be insufficient
when a parent cannot react to or adequately nurture a child, is unable to GLOSSARY
meet the self-object needs of a child, or if the dispositions of the parent
and the child do not easily align. Any or all of these may affect the child's Empathy:
ability to meet their own needs later in life.
A cognitive tool, how a clinician comes to know the internal states of
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SELF PSYCHOLOGY another. Called “vicarious introspection” in the case of the analyst at work,
with the aim of understanding another’s experience. Kohut describes
Self-psychology helped provide a clearer and more empathic ambience as the positive attunement of analyst to analysand and
comprehensive understanding of narcissism, allowing it to be seen as a empathic failures as the misattunement of analyst to analysand.
natural part of development. While a narcissistic personality may be a
serious concern, narcissistic personality traits themselves are not Introspection:
necessarily harmful.
A person’s ability to use self-reflection to know his or her own internal
With his approach, Kohut also expanded understanding of empathy, as it states, including emotions, thoughts, fantasies, and values.
relates to mental health care. Self psychology highlights the importance of
Narcissism:
empathy in the context of the therapeutic relationship as a tool to
understand and explain what has been observed, rather than a specific Used primarily in two ways—first, a way of conceiving of human
action or deed, and considers it to be an essential component of the development, characterized by the growth and stability of the self
treatment and healing process. When a therapist is able to demonstrate independent of its transactions with externally experienced others;
this ability to see and understand a person's concerns through their point second, a line of development (vs. a fixed stage or pathological state)
of view—what Kohut termed experience-near observation—treatment characterized by the strivings to form and maintain a vital self. Kohut
may move forward more readily. distinguished between healthy narcissism, a strong and vital self with
ambition and ideals striving toward the realization of individual talents and
LIMITATIONS AND CONCERNS
skills, and pathological narcissism wherein self strivings are unsuccessful in
Critics of self psychology argue that the theory is nothing more than maintaining a cohesive and stable self-representation.
supportive therapy and say it is unlikely to create lasting change for people
Self-object:
in treatment. It has also been suggested that self psychology, while
The manner by which another is experienced as if that person were an involved accessing one's own internal cognitive skills, memories, and
extension of the self and performs functions necessary for the smooth emotional states.
continuity of the functioning of oneself. A self-object relationship aids the
In defining the arena of psychoanalysis as within the jurisdiction of that
experience of the self as cohesive, harmonious, firm in limits of time and
which is comprehended by empathy and introspection, Kohut moved
space, connected to the past and present. Self-object relationships
psychoanalysis away from a preoccupation with forces, vectors, and
according to Kohut support mirroring, idealization, twinship, and alterego
structures, and toward subjective states and more explicitly
functions in the development and maintenance of a cohesive self.
phenomenological processes. It was the “self rather than a more abstract
Transference: metapsychological concern that dominated Kohut's thinking, and which
was made accessible by introspection and empathy.
When the patient responds to the analyst as if the analyst were some
significant figure of the patient’s past. Transference provides the self How self psychology and classical analysis fit together is a fascinating study
psychologist the means to accurately diagnose the patient’s of politics in psychoanalysis. In some ways, over the years, self psychology
developmental level. has taken its own path and departed from the mainstream of classical
analysis in the United States. However, in other ways, certain key aspects
Self Psychology
of self psychology have more recently been integrated into the
I. Self Psychology Defined mainstream of classical analysis and has fueled and enriched the entire
corpus of contemporary psychoanalytic theory. Thus, although there are
Self psychology refers to the method, observations, and theory that grew many clinicians who think of themselves as “self psychologists,” some of
from the novel clinical descriptions put forward by a pioneering the principles of self psychology can now as well be found in the
psychoanalyst from Chicago, Heinz Kohut, primarily in the late 1960s and mainstream and are the source of many different and helpful ways of
1970s. formulating clinical interaction.
However, the seeds for the development of self psychology were put in Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice
place by Kohut in a seminal 1959 paper titled “Introspection, Empathy,
and Psychoanalysis.” In this early paper, Kohut set the groundwork for Self-Psychology
what was to come by defining the faculties of introspection and empathy
The theoretical model known as self-psychology was developed by Heinz
as crucial tools and determinants of the clinician in the analytic encounter.
Kohut and was derived from his observations during the psychoanalytic
Much as an internist uses a stethoscope, an analyst uses introspection and
treatment of patients with narcissistic personality disorder.
empathy.
Unlike object relations theory, which focuses on the internalization of
Introspection was defined as a person's ability to use self-reflection to
relationships, self-psychology emphasizes external relationships and their
know his or her own internal states, including emotions, thoughts,
impact on the development of self-esteem and self-cohesion.
fantasies, and values. By contrast, empathy was defined as “vicarious
introspection,” by which Kohut meant a person's ability to be cognizant of Moreover, Kohut sharply departed from the works of Freud and
and accurately apprehend another's mental states, that necessarily subsequent ego psychologists by stressing that psychopathology arose
from deficits in the self rather than from internal conflict. Hence borderline
personality disorder arises from the inability to hold on to others as Clinical Example: Mr. C was a 41-year-old man with narcissistic personality
internal structures who are capable of soothing the self, drug addiction disorder. He came to psychotherapy because he said that his girlfriends,
results from a need to fill missing parts of the self, and narcissistic his parents, and the people with whom he worked were constantly hurting
personality disorder arises from being developmentally arrested at an early his feelings by not giving him the respect and the validation that he
stage in the evolution of the structure of the self. warranted. He told the therapist that he was hungry for love and approval,
but those in his world were too ‘self-absorbed’ to provide what he
This developmental stunting is regarded as secondary to empathic failures
needed. He told the therapist that he was struggling with the same issues
in the mother or other caretaker. Subsequently, the personality is forged
that Shakespeare described in Hamlet: ‘How weary, stale, flat and
by attempts at restoring wholeness and balance to a fragmented
unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world.’ Mr. C then looked at
experience of self.
his therapist to see if he was getting the response he wished. After a brief
MIRROR TRANSFERENCE silence, he asked his therapist, ‘Do you know the play well?’ He was
showing early signs of a mirror transference in which he hoped to impress
Two fundamental transferences derived from self-psychology and the therapist with his knowledge of Shakespeare and capture the ‘gleam’
observed in psychodynamic psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are the in the therapist's eye, a validation of his self-worth.
mirror transference and the idealizing transference.
IDEALIZING TRANSFERENCE
The MIRROR TRANSFERENCE is the patient's attempt to capture ‘the
gleam in mother's eye’ by impressing the therapist. Idealizing transference emerges in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis
when the patient attributes highly positive or even perfect qualities to the
 This transference relates to the developmental stage where the child's therapist or analyst.
self-esteem is enhanced by validating responses from the mother or
caregiver.  It stems from a developmental phase when the child's sense of self-
 If loving and encouraging responses are forthcoming when a young esteem and wholeness arises from being in the shadow of an admired
child is performing for the parent, the child's sense of self-worth is and idealized parent who is not only empathic with the child's needs
validated. but also provides a positive example for the child.
 On the other hand, when a parent or caregiver fails to empathize  The lack of such an experience is thought to doom the individual to a
with the child's age-appropriate developmental need for a mirroring lifelong search for people in his environment whom he can idealize
response, the child has a difficult time developing a healthy self- and from whom he can draw self-esteem.
esteem and is likely to become developmentally arrested at this stage.  For example, some may seek to be in the company of an idealized
 He is thus ‘stuck’ in a phase of development in which he is constantly politician or rock star because they feel their own self-esteem is
in need of validating, affirming responses from others or he feels enhanced by the reflected glory of the idealized figure.
fragmented and empty.
Kohut proposed that individuals who do not obtain the mirroring or
 This mirror transference can be noted during the course of treatment
idealization needed from parents will develop a fragmented sense of self
in patients who ‘show off’ for their therapist as a way of seeking
and will seek out responses from others to shore up their self-esteem.
approval.
While Freud suggested that narcissistic needs for self-esteem are This model has also been criticized for minimizing the role of infantile
ultimately superceded by investing one's love in others (object love), sexuality as a motivator of behavior. However, self-psychology has
Kohut proposed that these narcissistic needs are never outgrown and that influenced psychodynamic clinicians to regard the maintenance of self-
the quest for mirroring and idealization continues throughout life. esteem as a motivator of equal importance to the drives of sexuality and
aggression in classical Freudian theory. It has also called attention to the
Those individuals who do not obtain them continue to experience
psychotherapist's technique – interpretation of unconscious conflict may
significant psychological distress.
need to be accompanied by empathic validation of the patient's needs for
Self-Object self-esteem regulation.

Kohut used the term self-object to describe how others are used as an ___________________________0_____0___________________________
extension of the self. In other words, a patient in therapy may use the
Heinz Kohut (2nd Reference)
therapist to make up for deficits in the self by trying to influence the
therapist to admire and validate the patient. Narcissism: Heinz Kohut’s Thoughts on Self-Love

He referred to the patient's need for idealizing and mirroring as self-object Is Narcissism Really Bad?
functions that were necessary for the maintenance of the self. Late in his
Grandiosity, lack of empathy for others, entitlement, excessive need for
career, Kohut viewed these as lifelong needs that are never transcended.
attention from others, and inflated sense of self-importance—these are
He also added a third self-object function, which was described as terms typically used to describe narcissistic personalities. Historically in
twinship, or the need to have others who are exactly like the patient. The psychoanalysis and in society today, narcissism has a negative connotation;
concept of self-object does not refer to an actual physical person but it’s typically pathologized as “abnormal” and “unhealthy.” However, as
rather to the responses that the person provides. we’ll come to understand in this article, while narcissism has its dangers, it
also has important, necessary values.
 These responses by others are integral in maintaining a strong sense
of self-esteem throughout life. In classical Freudian psychoanalysis, narcissists were often seen as
 During psychotherapy, a clinician using self-psychology as a conceptual unanalyzable or untreatable because they were thought of as incapable of
model would seek to strengthen and preserve self-esteem through forming meaningful attachment to others. Without the ability to form
empathic and validating responses to the patient's needs. meaningful attachment to the therapist, narcissists were considered
unable to mobilize the so-called “transference relationship,” a
Critics of self-psychology have pointed to its emphasis on parent-blaming,
foundational element of psychoanalytic treatment where emotional and
that is, drawing a one-to-one correlation between empathic failures in
behavioral problems are thought to be played out so that they can be
parenting and subsequent psychopathology in the child. This rather
explored with the therapist. When met with a narcissistic patient, some
reductive view does not take into account the inherited temperament of
classical psychoanalysts would present a pretend, invisible crown to the
the child and the genetic contributions to psychiatric syndromes and
patient—ouch!
personality disorders.
Enter Heinz Kohut, a classical psychoanalyst puzzled by narcissists and the
difficulty of using Freudian theory to address narcissism. Even though he
taught Freudian psychoanalysis and was sometimes called “Mr. An example of a self object experience is a parent responding to a baby’s
Psychoanalysis,” Kohut in the 1970s began formulating a different view of cries by giving the baby milk, checking the diaper, and picking the baby up
narcissism under the rubric of what has become known as self psychology. to provide soothing comfort. The parent is playing the role of providing
Contrary to Freud’s view that narcissism is pathological, Kohut saw emotional comfort to the baby and is experienced as part of the baby
narcissism—or in other words, self-love—as a crucial part of development. because the parent makes the child feel safe, comforted, and whole. Over
Where classical Freudians focused on the decisive role of the so-called time, the baby internalizes or takes in comfort from the caregiver and
“drives”—aggression and libido—in the development of pathology, Kohut learns to self-soothe. When the parent isn’t available to calm the baby, the
turned his attention to the development of the self in understanding baby draws on his sense of self produced by prior selfobject experiences to
narcissism. self-soothe, perhaps by sucking on his thumb or exploring toys in his reach.

The Building Blocks of Healthy Narcissism In his theory, Kohut identified three selfobject needs—also called
narcissistic needs—crucial in the development of the self. He believed that
The word “self” is commonly used in everyday language. It’s a common,
the caregiver’s empathic attunement to these needs serves as one of the
intuitive word, yet the idea of the self has long been studied by
foundations upon which the self is developed. In other words, as we’ll see
philosophers such as John Locke in his inquiry into the problem of personal
in the following examples, the caregiver’s empathic attunement to these
identity and by psychoanalysts. Kohut made it central to psychoanalysis.
selfobject needs plays a significant role in ensuring that these needs are
Kohut didn’t provide a concrete definition of the self; he believed that it met.
would limit further creativity and exploration of his theoretical ideas. Over
1. The first selfobject need Kohut described is mirroring, an experience
time, among those who are self psychologically oriented, the self has come
where the caregiver recognizes the child’s capabilities and talents and
to mean the core of one’s self-esteem and one’s feeling lovable and whole.
affirms the child’s feelings of strength. In Kohut’s terms, mirroring
It’s central to people’s experience of their continuity over time. In this way,
meets the child’s healthy exhibitionistic needs.
narcissism isn’t pathological; rather, narcissism is self-love vital to one’s
sense of self and overall functioning in life.
 Say a child comes home from school and shows his mother a
According to Kohut, development of the self begins in infancy. Healthy drawing that he drew in art class; the child wishes to receive
development, Kohut believed, was a product of what he referred to as praise from the mother. In a mirroring selfobject experience, the
“self-object experiences,” a concept regarded as one of Kohut’s central mother empathically attunes to the child’s need for praise and
contributions to psychoanalysis. Just as babies need nutrients from food says, “Oh, this is amazing! You’re such a talented little artist,” and
for physical development, they need affection and connection from others places the child’s drawing on the refrigerator door.
for emotional survival and their developing selves.
2. The second selfobject need is idealization. Children need someone
In early life, the self object other—typically the parent or caregiver—is whom they can admire and idealize and from whom to gain beliefs,
experienced as part of oneself rather than a separate person in the various values, aspirations, and strength. Idealized selfobject experience offers
self psychological theories that have developed since Kohut first children calming, soothing regulatory functions as well as the
introduced his ideas in the 1970s. Put another way, the self object other foundation upon which to establish their ambitions and goals.
serves as an emotional regulatory function in early life.
  Imagine a child fears sleeping in the dark and runs to her mother and adults may join clubs where they meet people who share the
for comfort. The mother empathizes with the child’s fears and same interest as them.
rocks the child while reading a story and kisses her good night.
The Ups and Downs of Life and a Good-Enough Childhood
During such times of fear when a child feels threatened, a
calming, soothing parent can be greatly restorative. The child In his theory, Kohut emphasized the importance of empathic attunement
draws strength from the mother who has an incredible, admirable in understanding these narcissistic needs, which he considered as lifelong
power to “make everything better.” As the child feels connected needs. He thought that the caregiver’s empathic attunement to a child’s
to a powerful selfobject other, she develops a sense of self selfobject needs plays a significant role in the development of the self.
through the unconscious experience that says, “You’re powerful; However, Kohut noted that as a natural part of the ups and downs of life,
you make me feel better. I’m connected to you; therefore, I’m there would bound to be empathic lapses and disappointments in the
powerful, too” (Arble, 2014). caregiving experience.

 In addition to having someone to whom they can turn for While Kohut didn’t think that the selfobject environment has to be perfect
comfort, children also need someone from whom they can in childhood, he believed that it’s important for the mirroring, idealizing,
develop beliefs, values, ambitions, and goals that would go on to and twinship selfobject needs to be met in a way that’s good enough to
guide them through life. Imagine a child grows up with a father develop a sense of self. It’s good enough when a child’s narcissistic needs
who is a firefighter. The child’s father talks to him about the value are reliably met most of the time or when the caregiver, despite being
of helping others and saving lives. The child comes to find imperfect and inevitably failing at times, is able to empathically attune to
incredible meaning and fulfillment in this value that over time the hurt, acknowledge the pain inflicted on the child, and repair with the
shapes his ambitions and goals. The child, having an interest in child.
science, decides to be an emergency room doctor when he grows
In fact, Kohut thought that disappointments in the caregiving experience
up, where he would live out his belief in the importance of helping
could lead to children developing self-soothing regulatory functions—an
others and in the value of saving lives.
important developmental milieu. These disappointments, however, should
3. The final selfobject need, sometimes thought of as the least
fall within the limits of what’s tolerable for the child in order to foster
developed by Kohut, is twinship or alter-ego. In a twinship selfobject
developmental growth; otherwise, the disappointments would likely be
experience, the child experiences a sense of alikeness to caregivers
felt as intolerable frustration and could lead to problems in the developing
and important others.
self.

 A child, for example, may choose to wear the same color shirt as What Happens when Childhood isn’t Good Enough?
her mother. A little boy may stand beside his father over the
bathroom sink and lather shaving cream on his face while Kohut recognized that the development of the self may be affected when
pretending to shave like his father. Twinship experiences provide either one or all three narcissistic needs isn’t met in a way that’s good
children with a sense of belonging that’s crucial throughout one’s enough. In their paper titled The Disorders of the Self and their
lifespan. Young adults in college seek out a sorority or fraternity Treatment: An Outline, Kohut and Ernest Wolf (1978) found it helpful to
think of five different personality patterns that could emerge from failures
in meeting the mirroring, idealizing, and twinship selfobject needs.
When children are met with a caregiver who is rejecting or criticizing or By contrast, contact-shunning personalities avoid social contact despite
who has unrealistic expectations, they might go on to present with what their intense need for connection with other people. They fear that others
Kohut and Wolf called a “mirror-hungry personality.” These children feel would reject them because of the sheer intensity of their need for
hungry for affirmation and often seek out ways to fulfill this unmet need as connection. As a result, they often avoid social contact to protect
adults. They might behave in ways to evoke attention from others, with the themselves from the pain of this imagined, possible rejection. At the same
hope to counteract their lack of self-esteem. For example, they might time, they often fear that connection with others would suffocate them,
upload attention-grabbing photos or “selfies” on social media to garner resulting in a loss of sense of self. This seemingly contradictory fear of
“likes” from family members, friends, and strangers in order to establish a being rejected and suffocated by others lead contact-shunning
sense of self-esteem. personalities to withdraw into isolation. The compromise of social
isolation, however, is in and of itself a painful state.
Adults with ideal-hungry personality, according to Kohut and Wolf, search
out others whom they can admire for their prestige, power, or moral The psychological mechanisms and behaviors used in these five
stature. They tend to attach to a person whom they admire until that personalities to build a stable sense of self and restore a sense of feeling
person inevitably disappoints them. When the idealized person loved and whole are oftentimes fleeting and ineffective; they’re frequently
disappoints, ideal-hungry adults would often leave the relationship and accompanied by disappointments and intolerable pain associated with a
continue to search for a new idealizable person in order to feel secure in pattern of relationships that are problematic, unfulfilling, or short-lived.
their self-esteem.
Kohut believed that therapy could help to develop a long-term sense of
Kohut and Wolf observed that individuals with alter-ego personality self by exploring selfobject experiences in early life that failed to meet
tended to need others who would conform to their appearance, beliefs, one’s narcissistic needs. He emphasized empathy as the clinical method for
and opinions. This sense of conformity or alikeness validates the existence understanding deficits caused by selfobject failures and for repairing the
and reality of the self and creates a sense of belonging. However, when the ruptures they produced. Kohut thought that empathy was therapeutic on
twinship-hungry person is met with disagreements or differences from the its own and that therapy reignites derailed development. Through the
other person, she might feel estranged and feel propelled to leave the therapist’s empathic attunement, a selfobject experience is created.
relationship in search of someone else who more nearly provides this Individuals could go on to internalize selfobject experiences with the
sense of alikeness. therapist, and over time come to develop their own internal sources of
self-esteem, confidence, vitality, and ambitions. In this way, narcissism,
Merger-hungry personalities, according to Kohut and Wolf, often feel a
albeit having its dangers, has its values because narcissism is essentially
need to control people around them in an attempt to fulfill their unmet
self-love necessary for people to feel loved, confident, and whole, and for
needs for structure and security in early life. They often have difficulties
their overall functioning in life.
with boundaries and with discriminating their own thoughts, feelings, and
wishes from others; they tend to experience the other person as part of ___________________________0_____0___________________________
their own self. Merger-hungry individuals often seek out another person’s
Introduction to Development Theories - Ecological, Ethological, and
continuous presence for security and to feel whole. Any sense of
Eclectic
separateness from the other person often feels intolerable and painful to
merger-hungry personalities.
Our final three theories will offer more comprehensive ways of looking at  Chronosystem is the historical context in which these experiences
development, approaches that seek to combine contexts, explain the occur. This relates to different generational time periods such as what
origins of behaviors, and/or combine the two. Just as seeking to explain the baby boomer generation experiences while growing up and what
behaviors as nature or nurture is too simplistic, trying to account for any millennials experiencing.
aspect of human behavior with a single theoretical perspective is likely to
ignore important influences. In sum, a child’s experiences are shaped by larger forces such as family,
schools, access (or not) to resources, culture, and time period.
Ecological Systems Theory - Putting it All Together Bronfenbrenner’s model helps us understand all of the different
environments that impact each one of us, simultaneously.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed Ecological Systems Theory,
which provides a framework for understanding and studying the many Ethological
influences on human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Bronfenbrenner recognized that human interaction is influenced by larger Ethology is the biological study of behavior and is closely related to
social forces and that an understanding of these forces is essential for evolutionary biology, which explores the evolutionary reasons for
understanding an individual. The individual is impacted by several systems behavior. In ethology we find the intersection of animal and human
including: behavior, with connections established between biological instincts and
some of our most seemingly human drives. This is most clearly
 Microsystem: This includes the individual’s setting and those who demonstrated in the area of attachment. Many species will imprint on a
have direct, significant contact with the person, such as potential caretaker - presuming that first visual contact to be "mom" and
parents/caregivers or siblings and access (or not) to health care then literally following that "mom" - whether it be an individual of a
services. The input of those is modified by the cognitive and biological different species or a toy. We see ethology here as there is clearly a
state of the individual as well. These influence the person’s actions, biological drive that causes this behavior and evolution here as that
which in turn, influence systems operating on them. caregiver is necessary for the survival of the individual and the species. As
 Mesosystem: This includes the larger organizational structures, such we will discuss later, this imprinting on a caregiver translates into human
as school, the family, or spirituality and how they interact with each attachment and may have a lasting impact on relationships throughout life.
other, which can indirectly affect the child. These interactions can
affect the child’s self-image, growth, sense of accomplishment, and
schedule thereby impacting the child, physically, cognitively, and
emotionally.
 Exosystem: This includes the larger contexts of community. A Eclectic
community’s local policies, social services, and media and can impact As we have explored, we have diverse theories that seek to explain
the organizational structures it houses. different components of development. An eclectic approach borrows from
 Macrosystem: This includes the cultural elements such as attitudes in the various theories - combining approaches as needed. A theorist with an
a culture, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global eclectic approach might consider attachment to be a product of a
community. biological drive that is further modified by experience (learning) and
ultimately establishes a sense of trust or mistrust in the world Aggression is used to establish multiple systems with these behaviours:
(psychosocial).
 Securing of territory: Through aggressive behaviour, a species
___________________________0_____0___________________________ member can secure a piece of territory. They deter potential
intruders, while further behaviours maintain the claim to the territory
Ethological Approach
(for example, lions scent their territory).
Konrad Lorenz suggested that aggression is innate in animals, which builds  Fighting for food: By growling or baring their teeth as a warning to
up to be released when external stimuli trigger it. It is an instinctual others when food is at stake, they warn animals around them that this
process that is passed on rather than learnt. is their food. Depending on how important the food is for survival, the
animal may fight for it or give it up (if it dies fighting for the food but
An innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is a neural network within the brain. survives to find more food, there is no point in sticking around and
This mechanism helps species secure resources and maximise their fighting for it until death).
chances of survival. Unlike humans, food, territory, and other necessities  Fighting for mating rights: The stronger species members will vie
are harder to come by for wild animals. for attention and ultimately fight one another to secure their right to
While we have adapted and evolved to the point where food is accessible, mate and pass on their genes. The stronger one generally wins due to
animals in the wild still have to fight for their lives regularly, whether to genes related to aggression being passed on.
avoid starvation or to secure their territory from opposing species or even Ethological Explanation of Aggression
their own kind.
The ethological explanation focuses on explaining behaviour occurring in
Most of the time, members of the same species will avoid fighting to the the natural environment in animals. Ethological explanations are based on
death as it is counterproductive. It would not be good for the animals if principles of evolution, such as adaptiveness. This is why the behaviour
every fight ended with the death of one of them, reducing the population that is explained from an ethological perspective is seen as innate to the
as a whole. Therefore, members of the same species develop warning signs animal and supportive of adaptive functions.
and fight until the other gives in, known as ritualistic aggression.
When it comes to aggression, the ethological explanation focuses on its
Examples of ritualistic aggression include: adaptive function. If an animal reacts aggressively on occasion, it can
 Baring teeth. support its survival.
 Raising hackles (hair on the back or neck). The ethological approach suggests that addressive behaviour can be an
 Growling. automatic biological response, which is reviewed in different theories. Let's
 Hissing. take a closer look at these theories.
 Appearing bigger.
Ethological Theory of Aggression

Lorenz initially used the example of geese when explaining human Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen are often considered the fathers of
behaviour and developed his theory on aggression. Overall, these modern-day ethology. Lorenz postulated that aggression was an innate,
behaviours are adaptive functions to ensure the species survives. adaptive response that evolved in animals. The environment typically
triggers aggression. Nikolaas Tinbergen expanded on these theories with  This finding suggests they were born with this instinctive mechanism
his research on foraging honey bees. Overall, the ethological theory of of defence, an innate releasing mechanism. Monkeys recognised
aggression focuses on (for exam purposes, anyway): threatening stimuli and enacted FAP to react defensively.

1. Innate Releasing Mechanisms. Fixed Action Patterns

2. Fixed Action Patterns.
IRMs trigger fixed action patterns (FAPs) when the animal comes across
Innate Releasing Mechanisms (IAMs) specific external stimuli.

Innate releasing mechanisms (IAMs) are ‘innate’ because they exist within A FAP is an instinctive series of behaviours triggered by external stimuli.
the animal as an inherited trait rather than a learnt one. They are a neural
network within the brain that responds to specific stimuli, triggering the Once started, FAPs cannot be stopped, according to Lorenz.
release of a particular sequence of actions (known as fixed action patterns)
directly responding to the stimulus. It is an in-built process within the
brain. Evaluation of the Ethological Theory of Aggression

Animals have evolved a specific response to certain stimuli. Ethology is the study of animals, so using these results to understand
human behaviour comes with its hurdles and strengths.
If you were to look at it from an evolutionary standpoint, when an animal
is successful in the game of survival, its traits are passed down. It would be Strengths
more efficient for specific characteristics to be immediately known rather
First, let's examine the strengths of ethological research into aggression.
than arduously learnt. When a stimulus is presented to an animal, the
animal will then go through a ‘pre-programmed’ series of responses or  Biological evidence: The neural and hormonal system has been linked
a fixed action pattern (FAP). to aggression in humans. The limbic system, serotonin, testosterone,
and cortisol play a role in aggressive behaviours. This rule also applies
In a study by Sackett (1966), they isolated four male and four female
to animals. It implies that aggressive behaviours are innate and
rhesus infant monkeys from their mothers, raising them in a wired cage,
instinctive, which is the primary argument of ethology.
and observed their behaviour:
 Fight-or-Flight is one of our innate responses to a threatening
 Researchers showed these monkeys a picture of other monkeys of the stimulus. If we choose to fight or act aggressively in defence, we refer
same species displaying threatening and non-threatening poses. to this as the ethological approach to aggressive behaviours in
 Considering the monkeys had been isolated, they did not learn that humans.
these behaviours were threatening. They have no real exposure to
Weaknesses
threatening poses and have not been taught to defend themselves
against it. Now, let's examine the weaknesses of ethological research into aggression.
 Despite this, the isolated monkeys adopted defensive poses to the
threatening images.  Comparing animal behaviours to humans: Generalising animal
behaviours to humans is complex and not always an accurate
 representation or process. Humans have many different social and Ethology - Key takeaways
cultural influences that change behaviours, suggesting that aggression
Ethology is the study of animals. In some cases, researchers will then
is not wholly innate, and two, affected by external stimuli more so
compare the results to humans, used to explain our behaviours and
than animals.
psychology.
Consider this study by Nisbett et al. (1996): The culture of honour
The ethological approach to aggression suggests that our aggressive
was measured in southern white males and compared with
tendencies and behaviours are similar (at a base level, anyway) to animals.
northern students at the University of Michigan. A confederate
We can effectively assess aggression in animals and relate those aggressive
bumped into students in three experiments and called them
tendencies to humans.
‘assholes’.
Konrad Lorenz believed aggression builds up in animals and is an innate,
Those from the south felt more threatened, reacted more
instinctive response to external stimuli, known as innate releasing
aggressively, were more upset and were physiologically primed
mechanisms. Fixed action patterns result from innate releasing
for aggression. Compared to northern students, they were more
mechanisms and are a series of behaviours animals must complete once
likely to engage in aggressive behaviours, as they felt their
started.
masculinity was threatened.
Biologically, humans’ limbic and hormonal systems support the ethological
This difference in humans is cultural. Northern students were
argument of aggression. Fight or flight is another example of an innate
mainly indifferent. According to this study, cultural and social
releasing mechanism.
upbringing affect aggression. Biology does not control it as much
as ethology likes to suggest. How can culture override innate It is hard to apply animal studies to humans due to the complexity of our
responses? behaviours. Cultural and social situations influence aggression in humans,
and we can act aggressively with premeditated intent (war, abuse).
 Human aggression is premeditated: In ethology, for animals at least,
aggression is a reaction. It is a means to an end, necessary for survival Frequently Asked Questions about Ethology
in most cases. In humans, aggression is visible in war, cruelty, and
abuse. It is not just for survival, nor to secure other Why is ethology important?
necessities. Aggression is premeditated in some cases, such as murder,
Ethology is vital because it allows us to understand animal behaviour and
and ethological explanations, such as Lorenz's theory on aggression in
why species act a certain way, giving insight into an evolutionary
animals, do not account for this. We have an element of control over
perspective on why behaviours manifest in animals. Ethology can also be
aggression that innate releasing mechanisms do not fully support.
used as a building block, in a sense, in the study of human behaviours.
 Behaviours are not universal in humans: Although we touched upon
this in the study by Nisbett, innate releasing mechanisms are universal Who came up with ethological theory?
across the species. For ethology to apply aptly to humans, we have to
Ethology has existed as a concept for a long time. Charles Darwin may have
have similar innate releasing mechanisms, but this is not the case. One
been the first to begin studying ethology truly. Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas
person may not react to a threatening stimulus the same way another
Tinbergen are often considered the fathers of modern-day ethology.
would; this gap widens when the two are from different places.
Is ethological theory nature or nurture? Ethology examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our
behavior. Konrad Lorenz, proponent of ethology, discovered that newborn
This answer changes depending on what section of ethology you intend to
geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached to the first
study. For instance, innate releasing mechanisms are nature, not nurture.
moving object they see after birth.
Species inherit innate releasing mechanisms, they do not learn them.
However, a lion teaching its cub how to hunt can be an example of Concept of Imprinting
nurture, despite inherent urges and behaviours facilitating the process.
Imprinting takes place during an early, restricted period of development.
What is the focus of ethological research? the early following behavior of certain baby birds, such as geese, which
ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and
Ethology is the study of animals. In some cases, researchers will use the
protected from danger (Lorenz, 1952). If the mother goose is absent during
results and compare them to humans to explain our behaviours and
this time but an object resembling her in important features is present,
psychology.
young goslings may imprint on it instead.
What is ethology?
The Critical Period- Observations of imprinting led to a major concept in
Ethology is the scientific study of animals. child development, It refers to a limited time during which the child is
biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the
___________________________0_____0___________________________ support of an appropriately stimulating environment.
Ethological Perspective of Development A Sensitive Period – It is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to
emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental
Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and
influences. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.
its evolutionary history. Its roots can be traced to the work of Darwin. Two
European zoologists, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, laid foundation of John Bowlby (1969) Study to understanding the human caregiver–infant
it. relationship. He argued that infant smiling, babbling, grasping, and crying
are built-in social signals that encourage the caregiver to approach, care
Ethology examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our
for, and interact with the baby.
behavior. Konrad Lorenz, proponent of ethology, discovered that newborn
geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached to the first Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Lorenz
moving object they see after birth. work demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in
influencing behavior patterns, eventually led developmentalists to
Ethological Perspective of Development
consider the ways in which human behavior might reflect inborn genetic
Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and patterns.
its evolutionary history. Its roots can be traced to the work of Darwin. Two
Evolutionary Perspective of Development
European zoologists, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, laid foundation of
it. The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify behavior that is the result of
our genetic inheritance from our ancestors (Bjorklund, 2005; Goetz &
Shackelford, 2006). The evolutionary perspective draws heavily on the field Cons- the evolutionary perspective ignores the environmental and social
of ethology. factors involved in producing children’s and adults’ behavior.

Darwin (the Origin of Species,1859) argued that a process of natural ___________________________0_____0___________________________

selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment.
Ethological/Evolutionary Theory
On the basis of above argument, evolutionary approaches put forward
that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as During the 1950s, the history of the ethological theory can be traced back
skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors as when Lorenz and Tibergen observed the egg-rolling response of a greylag
well. goose. When a mother goose is incubating and somehow realizes an egg
near the nest, its attention is stirred and then tries to roll the egg back to
For example, shyness and jealousy are produced in part by genetic causes,
the nest. When the egg is already recovered, the mother goose returns to
because they helped increase the survival rates of humans’ ancient
incubate again.
relatives (Easton, Schipper, & Shackelford, 2007; Buss, 2003, 2009, 2012).
The two began to observe that such behavior is an example of an innate
It seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive,
and stereotype pattern of movement.
emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with
age (Geary, 2006b; King & Bjorklund, 2010). In the 1960s, the ethological theory was first applied to study the behavior
of children. Since then, the theory has become more influential and has
Ask questions like – What role does the newborn’s visual preference for
been applied to research on adult behavior as well.
face like stimuli play in survival? Why do children play in gender-
segregated groups? The most famous example for the ethological theory is the so-called filial
imprinting. In this phenomenon, a young animal inherits most of its
Evolutionary psychologists are not just concerned with the genetic &
behavior from its parents. Again, Lorenz had utilized the greylag geese as
biological roots of development. They recognize that humans’ large brain
his test subject. Check out this awesome video on this experiment.
and extended childhood resulted from the need to master the complexities
of human group life, so they are also interested in learning (Bjorklund, He observed that not long after the young geese were born, they have a
Causey, & Periss, 2009). short opportunity to discover who their mother is. He made sure that he
would be the first object the young would see. During this period, the
Evolutionary psychologists realize that today’s lifestyles differ so radically
learning of these young geese were so sensitive that even when they were
from those of our evolutionary ancestors that certain evolved behaviors,
exposed to their own biological mother, they would follow Lorenz like he
such as life-threatening risk taking in adolescents and male-to-male
was the parent!.
violence, are no longer adaptive (Blasi & Bjorklund, 2003). Evolutionary
developmental psychology may help in development of effective Examples of The Ethological Theory
interventions

Critical Evaluation of Evolutionary Perspective

In humans, the phenomenon of filial imprinting occurs even earlier. It
Pros – It focus on genetic and biological aspects of behavior, generally starts when the embryo itself begins to recognize the own voices
of its parents. Like the geese, there is also a period in human development his theory in studying biological structures and behavior under
where the child is very sensitive to information and the exposure to these the perspective of ecology.
bear huge impacts in the course of development.
At present, the study subjects of ethological theory involve a wide variety
This is called the critical period. It is believed that the absence of a critical of organisms ranging from the smallest insects to humans. However, for
period in a child’s early life can make it hard for him to develop some much of its history, ethological theories have been used to evaluate
functions later. One of the most famous examples of “critical period” for experimental field studies.
human children is the acquisition of language.
Ainsworth Attachment Theory
“Attachment” is also an evidence since it promotes the survival of infants.
Ainsworth attachment theory (devised by American Psychologist Mary
Humans and other primates tend to develop certain signalling behaviors
Ainsworth) offers explanations on individual differences in attachment. As
that attach themselves to their parents. Some of these include crying,
adults, when you are attached to some special one and you’re apart from
smiling, and even babbling. Studies revealed that these mechanisms are
that person, we can express our feelings through words however in infants
innate and are not learned because children who were born deaf and blind
and young children, the attachment can be observed by a technique
also do the same things.
created by Mary Ainsworth called SSC (Strange Situation Classification).
In addition to this, homosexuality is also believed to be governed by the
Other Ethological Theories
ethological theory. Scientists in this field believe that the presence of
homosexual members in the family increases the availability of resources Ethological Theory of Aggression: In simpler terms, Lorenz explained that
to their other siblings. This then creates higher probabilities for other the potential for aggressive behavior is built-in (innate) within all animals,
children with the same “homosexual gene” to survive better. This but the actual aggression would be shown by external stimuli or triggers.
phenomenon though is still up for further studies.
Fixed Action Patterns (FAP): Dutch biologist and ornithologist, Niko
Evolution and Ethological Theory Tinbergen explained that all members of the same species exhibit the
same identical behaviors (with no prior learning involved) no matter where
The study of behavior in ethology is based on two principles: changes in
they were raised. Examples: all dogs bark; all cats meow, etc.
behavior to survive and heritable behavioral traits. Clearly, Charles
Darwin’s work about evolution has become the foundation of this very Criticisms About The Ethological Theory
theory. Darwin proposed that organismal traits and behavior are adapted
to their natural environment in order to determine who will survive. Indeed, the ethological theory has greatly expanded the scope of the study
about the causes of animal behavior. However, during its early days, it
For instance, this is where the ethological theory can be held in contrast suffered from serious criticisms about its verifiability.
with other theories about behavior: behavior is adapted for survival and is
inherited by the succeeding generations. The Need For More Evidences

The ethological theory believes that animal behavior is linked to biological Questions regarding evidences about specific behaviors that ensures
structure. It generally aims to utilize a neo-Darwinian principle by applying survival among species and the generalizations from behavioral patterns of
humans likened to animal species arose.
We have learned the answers to those questions. Some behaviors are just Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory posits that an individual’s
universal and generally vary depending on the social context. Additionally, development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental
the rise of the concept of “social context” has also brought things into systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings (e.g., family) to broad
different perspectives. societal structures (e.g., culture).

Ethological Theory Does Not Take Development in Consideration. These systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and chronosystem, each representing different levels of
True enough, the theory does not consider that life occurs in different
environmental influences on an individual’s growth and behavior.
stages. As a result, no large changes of qualitative development are given
attention to. Instead, the theory focuses only on the quantitative  Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory views child development
development. as a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment, from immediate family and school settings
Critical Period Fails To Explain Everything.
to broad cultural values, laws, and customs.
While the identification of the critical period is important in child  To study a child’s development, we must look at the child and their
development, it presents some limitations. One of these limitations immediate environment and the interaction of the larger
includes the lack of explanation on why some humans become more environment.
careful to some of their experiences in their life.  Bronfenbrenner divided the person’s environment into five different
systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the
After the rise of the ethological theory, most people have generally macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
accepted that behaviors can be heritable in some form. However, we have  The microsystem is the most influential level of the ecological systems
seen that it still remained as a controversial theory, partly because it was theory. This is the most immediate environmental setting containing
believed to be so vague in explaining the range of observed, inherited, and the developing child, such as family and school.
manifested biological structures and behaviors of living organisms.  Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory has implications for
In addition to this, even supporters of the theory still hesitate at its educational practice.
seemingly non-progressive range of studies – a view that is seen as the Background
biggest obstacle to the acceptance of its ideas.
American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous
___________________________0_____0___________________________ theories of child development.

He argued that studies of children in unfamiliar laboratory environments

with one other person, usually a stranger, were ecologically invalid (See
Mary Ainsworth’s 1970 experiment of the ‘ Strange Situation’).
Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner (1974) claimed most earlier studies were ‘unidirectional,’
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory meaning that the laboratory studies observed the influence of A on B (e.g.,
a stranger/mother with a child) rather than looking at the possible
influence of the child on the stranger/mother, or any other third party’s Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning other people
influence. can influence the child in their environment and change other people’s
beliefs and actions.
Bronfenbrenner maintained that these laboratory features of research are
not characteristic of environments that children actually live and develop Furthermore, the child’s reactions to individuals in their microsystem can
in. influence how they treat them in return.

Bronfenbrenner recognized multiple aspects of a developing child’s life The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are
interact with and affects the child. His work looked beyond individual crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development.
development, taking into account wider influencing factors and the
If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said
context (or ecology) of development.
to positively affect the child. Whereas distant and unaffectionate parents
He proposed the ‘Ecological Systems Theory’ based on these dynamic may hurt the child.
interactions that the environments have on the developing child.
The Mesosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s (1974) perspective has some resemblance to the works
The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory and Lev Vygotsky’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and
sociocultural theory in which the environment is explicitly or implicitly
teachers or between school peers and siblings.
considered as a crucial mechanism in development.
The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not
The Five Ecological Systems
function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon
Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the child’s environment is a nested one another.
arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. He organized
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers,
them in order of how much of an impact they have on a child.
this interaction may influence the child’s development. Essentially, a
He named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, mesosystem is a system of microsystems.
macrosystem and the chronosystem.
According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and
Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive
child’s development depends on its relationship with the others. effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on
development if the teachers and parents do not get along.
The Microsystem
The Exosystem
The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and are the
things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed
environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers, and school peers. by Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s.
It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not This system consists of all the environmental changes that influence
themselves contain the child but indirectly influence them as these social development over the lifetime, including major life transitions and
structures affect one of the microsystems. historical events.

Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parents’ workplaces, These can include normal life transitions, such as starting school, and non-
parents’ friends, and the mass media. These are environments in which the normative life transitions, such as parents getting divorced or having to
child is not involved and are external to their experience but nonetheless move to a new house.
affect them anyway.

An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development could be if

The Bioecological Model
one of the parents had a dispute with their boss at work.
It is important to note that Bronfenbrenner (1994) later revised his theory
The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a
and instead named it the ‘Bioecological model’.
result of something which happened in the workplace, which may result in
a negative effect on development. Bronfenbrenner became more concerned with the proximal development
processes, meaning the enduring and persistent forms of interaction in the
The Macrosystem
immediate environment.
The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
His focus shifted from environmental influences to developmental
theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development,
processes individuals experience over time.
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity.
‘…development takes place through the process of progressively more
Thus, the culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their
complex reciprocal interactions between an active, evolving
beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life.
biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects, and symbols in
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as it does not refer its immediate external environment.’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1995).
to the specific environments of one developing child, but the already
Bronfenbrenner also suggested that to understand the effect of these
established society and culture in which the child is developing in.
proximal processes on development, we have to focus on the person,
This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic context, and developmental outcome, as these processes vary and affect
location, and ideologies of the culture. people differently (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).

For example, a child living in a third-world country would experience a Critical Evaluation
different development than a child living in a wealthier country.
Bronfenbrenner’s model quickly became very appealing and accepted as a
The Chronosystem useful framework for psychologists, sociologists, and teachers studying
child development.
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is
known as the chronosystem.
The Ecological Systems Theory provides a holistic approach that is inclusive
of all the systems children and their families are involved in, accurately
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory In The 21st Century
reflecting the dynamic nature of actual family relationships (Hayes &
O’Toole, 2017). The world has greatly changed since this theory was introduced regarding
technological developments.
Paat (2013) considers how Bronfenbrenner’s theory is useful when it
comes to the development of immigrant children. They suggest that The exosystem of a child could be expanded to consider influences from
immigrant children’s experiences in the various ecological systems are social media, video gaming, and other modern-day interactions within the
likely to be shaped by their cultural differences. Understanding these ecological system.
children’s ecology can aid in strengthening social work service delivery for
these children. This could suggest that the ecological systems are still valid but may
expand over time to include new modern developments.
A limitation of the Ecological Systems Theory is that there is limited
research examining the mesosystems, mainly the interactions between Kelly and Coughlan (2019) used constructivist grounded theory analysis to
neighborhoods and the family of the child (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, develop a theoretical framework for youth mental health recovery and
2000). Therefore, the extent to which these systems can shape child found that there were many links to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
development is unclear. theory in their own more recent theory.

Another limitation of Bronfenbrenner’s theory is that it is difficult to Their theory suggested that the components of mental health recovery are
empirically test the theory. The studies investigating the ecological systems embedded in the ‘ecological context of influential relationships,’ which fits
may establish an effect, but they cannot establish whether the systems in with Bronfenbrenner’s theory that the ecological systems of the young
directly cause such effects. person, such as peers, family, and school, all help mental health
development.
Furthermore, this theory can lead to assumptions that those who do not
have strong and positive ecological systems lack in development. Whilst Frequently Asked Questions
this may be true in some cases, many people can still develop into well-
What is the main contribution of Bronfenbrenner’s theory?
rounded individuals without positive influences from their ecological
systems. The Ecological Systems Theory has contributed to our understanding that
multiple levels influence an individual’s development rather than just
For instance, it is not true to say that all people who grow up in poverty-
individual traits or characteristics.
stricken areas of the world will develop negatively. Similarly, if a child’s
teachers and parents do not get along, some children may not experience Bronfenbrenner contributed to the understanding that parent-child
any negative effects if it does not concern them. relationships do not occur in a vacuum but are embedded in larger
structures.
As a result, people need to avoid making broad assumptions about
individuals using this theory.
Ultimately, this theory has contributed to a more holistic understanding of emotionally connected to their mothers because mothers satisfy more
human development, and has influenced fields such as psychology, basic needs, such as the need for food. The child comes to feel emotionally
sociology, and education. connected to the mother because she is associated with the reduction of
primary drives, such as hunger, rather than the reduction of drives that
What could happen if a child’s microsystem breaks down?
might be relational in nature.
If a child experiences conflict or neglect within their family, or bullying or
In a classic set of studies, psychologist Harry Harlow placed young monkeys
rejection by their peers, their microsystem may break down. This can lead
in cages that contained two artificial surrogate "mothers" (Harlow, 1958).
to a range of negative outcomes, such as decreased academic
One of those surrogates was a simple wire contraption; the other was a
achievement, social isolation, and mental health issues.
wire contraption covered in cloth. Both of the surrogate mothers were
Additionally, if the microsystem is not providing the necessary support and equipped with a feeding tube so that Harrow and his colleagues had the
resources for the child’s development, it can hinder their ability to thrive option to allow the surrogate to deliver or not deliver milk. Harlow found
and reach their full potential. that the young macaques spent a disproportionate amount of time with
the cloth surrogate as opposed to the wire surrogate. Moreover, this was
How can the Ecological System’s Theory explain peer pressure? true even when the infants were fed by the wire surrogate rather than the
cloth surrogate. This suggests that infants' strong emotional bond with
The ecological systems theory explains peer pressure as a result of the
their primary caregivers is rooted in something more than whether the
microsystem (immediate environment) and mesosystem (connections
caregiver provides food per se. Harlow's research is now regarded as one
between environments) levels.
of the first experimental demonstrations of the importance of "contact
Peers provide a sense of belonging and validation in the microsystem, and comfort" in establishing infant-caregiver bonds.
when they engage in certain behaviors or hold certain beliefs, they may
exert pressure on the child to conform. The mesosystem can also influence
peer pressure, as conflicting messages and expectations from different Harry Harlow and the Nature of Affection
environments can create pressure to conform.
What Harlow's Infamous Monkey Mother Experiments Revealed
___________________________0_____0___________________________
Harry Harlow was one of the first psychologists to scientifically investigate
Harry Frederick Harlow: Contact Comfort the nature of human love and affection. Through a series of controversial
monkey mother experiments, Harlow was able to demonstrate the
Harlow's Research
importance of early attachments, affection, and emotional bonds in the
When Bowlby was initially developing his attachment theory, there were course of healthy development.1
alternative theoretical perspectives on why infants were emotionally
This article discusses his famous monkey mother experiments and what
attached to their primary caregivers (most often, their biological mothers).
the results revealed. It also explores why Harlow's monkey experiments
Bowlby and other theorists, for example, believed that there was
are so unethical and controversial.
something important about the responsiveness and contact provided by
mothers. Other theorists, in contrast, argued that young infants feel Early Research On Love
During the first half of the 20th century, many psychologists believed that psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, physicians, or psychoanalysts,"
showing affection towards children was merely a sentimental gesture that he noted.
served no real purpose. According to many thinkers of the day, affection
Many of the existing theories of love centered on the idea that the earliest
would only spread diseases and lead to adult psychological problems.
attachment between a mother and child was merely a means for the child
"When you are tempted to pet your child, remember that mother love is a to obtain food, relieve thirst, and avoid pain. Harlow, however, believed
dangerous instrument," the behaviorist John B. Watson once even went so that this behavioral view of mother-child attachments was an inadequate
far as to warn parents. explanation.

Psychologists were motivated to prove their field as a rigorous science. The The Monkey Mother Experiment
behaviorist movement dominated the field of psychology during this time.
His most famous experiment involved giving young rhesus monkeys a
This approach urged researchers to study only observable and measurable
choice between two different "mothers." One was made of soft terrycloth
behaviors.
but provided no food. The other was made of wire but provided
An American psychologist named Harry Harlow, however, became nourishment from an attached baby bottle.
interested in studying a topic that was not so easy to quantify and measure
Harlow removed young monkeys from their natural mothers a few hours
—love. In a series of controversial experiments conducted during the
after birth and left them to be "raised" by these mother surrogates. The
1960s, Harlow demonstrated the powerful effects of love and in particular,
experiment demonstrated that the baby monkeys spent significantly more
the absence of love.2
time with their cloth mother than with their wire mother.
His work demonstrated the devastating effects of deprivation on young
In other words, the infant monkeys went to the wire mother only for food
rhesus monkeys. Harlow's research revealed the importance of a
but preferred to spend their time with the soft, comforting cloth mother
caregiver's love for healthy childhood development.
when they were not eating.
Harlow's experiments were often unethical and shockingly cruel, yet they
Based on these findings, Harry Harlow concluded that affection was the
uncovered fundamental truths that have influenced our understanding of
primary force behind the need for closeness.
child development.

Harry Harlow's Research on Love

Harry Harlow's Further Research
Harlow noted that very little attention had been devoted to the
experimental research of love. At the time, most observations were largely Later research demonstrated that young monkeys would also turn to their
philosophical and anecdotal. cloth surrogate mother for comfort and security. Such work revealed that
affectionate bonds were critical for development.
"Because of the dearth of experimentation, theories about the
fundamental nature of affection have evolved at the level of observation, Harlow utilized a "strange situation" technique similar to the one created
intuition, and discerning guesswork, whether these have been proposed by by attachment researcher Mary Ainsworth. Young monkeys were allowed
to explore a room either in the presence of their surrogate mother or in A Word From Verywell
her absence.
Harry Harlow's work was controversial in his own time and continues to
Monkeys who were with their cloth mother would use her as a secure base draw criticism today. While such experiments present major ethical
to explore the room. When the surrogate mothers were removed from the dilemmas, his work helped inspire a shift in the way that we think about
room, the effects were dramatic. The young monkeys no longer had their children and development and helped researchers better understand both
secure base for exploration and would often freeze up, crouch, rock, the nature and importance of love.
scream, and cry.
What is the significant finding of Harlow's experiments on monkeys?
Harry Harlow’s experiments offered irrefutable proof that love is vital for
Harlow's research demonstrated the importance of love and affection,
normal childhood development. Additional experiments by Harlow
specifically contact comfort, for healthy childhood development. His
revealed the long-term devastation caused by deprivation, leading to
research demonstrated that children become attached to caregivers that
profound psychological and emotional distress and even death.
provide warmth and love, and that this love is not simply based on
Impact of Harry Harlow’s Research providing nourishment.

Harlow’s work, as well as important research by psychologists John Bowlby Why was the surrogate mother experiment unethical?
and Mary Ainsworth, helped influence key changes in how orphanages,
Harlow's monkey mother experiment was unethical because of the
adoption agencies, social services groups, and childcare providers
treatment of the infant monkeys. The original monkey mother experiments
approached the care of children.
were unnecessarily cruel. The infant monkeys were deprived of maternal
Harlow's work led to acclaim and generated a wealth of research on love, care and social contact.
affection, and interpersonal relationships. However, his own personal life In later experiments, Harlow kept monkeys in total isolation in what he
was marked by conflict. himself dubbed a "pit of despair." While the experiments provided insight
into the importance of comfort contact for early childhood development,
After the terminal illness of his wife, he became engulfed by alcohol misuse
the research was cruel and unethical.
and depression, eventually becoming estranged from his own children.
Colleagues frequently described him as sarcastic, mean-spirited,
misanthropic, chauvinistic, and cruel.

While he was treated for depression and eventually returned to work, his
interests shifted following the death of his wife. He no longer focused on
maternal attachment and instead developed an interest in depression and
isolation.

Despite the turmoil that marked his later personal life, Harlow's enduring
legacy reinforced the importance of emotional support, affection, and love
in the development of children.