Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University

College of Engineering
City of Malolos, Bulacan

CVE 311

EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING

Module

Compiled by:

Radger Teddy L. Manuel

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com

 CVE 311 – Earthquake Engineering
1 2 3 4
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Topics
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Hazards
D. PHILVOCS
Earthquake Intensity
Scale
E. PHILVOCS – Active
Faults and Trenches
F. Earthquake
Monitoring
G. Philippines
Earthquake Model

2.4 Introduction
Ever since human beings first felt the earth shake, they have had the desire to know
why that happens and developed, as a result, numerous explanations for it. An early
attempt for a scientific explanation was made by Aristotle, who found an explanation
for the cause of earthquakes in the interior of the earth. Aristotle theorized that the
winds of the atmosphere were drawn into the caverns and passageways in the
interior of the earth and that earthquakes and the eruption of volcanoes were caused
by these winds as they were agitated by fire and moved about trying to escape.

Today, after the numerous scientific developments of the twentieth century and the
many years of geological and seismological studies, there seems to be a clear
understanding of what causes earthquakes, and where and how often they may
occur. This chapter, thus, introduces the modern theories that explain the
mechanisms that give birth to earthquakes and the phenomena that are deemed
responsible for these mechanisms. It will also describe the observed correlation
between such earthquake-generating mechanisms and some prominent features on
the earth’s surface, the locations where earthquakes occur, and the frequency of
earthquake occurrence. Additionally, a brief account will be given of the efforts being
made to use the current understanding of the earthquake-generating mechanism to
develop techniques for the near-term prediction of the size, time, and location of
future earthquakes.

2.4.1 What is Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering may thus be considered the branch of civil engineering that
provides the principles and procedures for the planning, analysis, and design of
structures and facilities that are capable of resisting, to a preselected extent, the
effects of earthquakes.

More specifically, earthquake engineering provides the principles and procedures

for:

(a) the selection of the proper location of structures to minimize their exposure to
earthquake hazards
(b) the estimation of the earthquake forces that may affect structures and their
surrounding environment in a given time interval
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(c) the analysis of structures and the surrounding environment under the effect of
such forces to determine the maximum stresses and deformations that may
be imposed upon them
(d) the configuration, proportioning, and detailing of structures to make them
resist such stresses and deformations without the collapse or failure of any of
their components
(e) the improvement of soils and the stabilization of natural slopes to guarantee
the stability of structures supported on weak soils or slopes.

It is based on concepts from seismology, geology, probability theory, geotechnical

engineering, structural engineering, and structural dynamics.

2.4.2 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes

In general, an earthquake can damage a structure in three different ways:

(a) by causing a ground failure

a. surface faulting - is a geological feature (ground fissure) associated
with the generation of earthquakes. During an earthquake, the two
sides of a fault may slip relative to one another. If a structure lies
across a surface fault, then the structure may be damaged when the
fault slips during an earthquake.

b. ground cracking - is possible when the soil at the surface loses its
support and sinks, or when it is transported to a different location. It
occurs because when displaced, a soil layer breaks, causing fissures,
scarps, horsts, and grabens on the ground surface.
c. ground subsidence - is a phenomenon in which the ground surface of a
site settles or depresses as a result of the compaction induced by the
vibratory effect of earthquakes. Sites with loose or compressible soils
are the most likely to experience ground subsidence.
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d. landslides - are often triggered by strong earthquakes, these landslides

represent the failure of slopes that are marginally stable before the
earthquake and become unstable as a result of the violent shaking
generated by the earthquake.

e. soil liquefaction - is a phenomenon by which fine saturated granular

soils temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state and as a result,
lose their ability to carry loads or remain stable. It occurs when a
deposit of loose soil is vigorously shaken or vibrated, and thus it is
commonly observed during earthquakes. It is caused by a water
pressure build-up that is generated when a saturated soil is compacted
by the effect of the earthquake vibrations.

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(b) by producing other effects that may indirectly affect the structure
a. tsunamis - large sea waves generated by a sudden depression of the
ocean floor. The dislocation of the ocean floor produced by the
slippage of undersea earthquake faults is a common source of
tsunamis. When a tsunami reaches a coastal area, its height may
increase to catastrophic levels and strike the area with a tremendous
force.

b. seiches - are long-period oscillating waves generated by distant

earthquakes in enclosed bodies of water such as bays, lakes,
reservoirs, and even swimming pools. Seiches occur when the natural
frequency of a water body matches the frequency of the incoming
earthquake waves, that is, when the water body resonates with the
earthquake waves.
c. Fires - by far, have been the most devastating indirect effect of
earthquakes. Fires are started when, for example, an earthquake
breaks gas pipes or destroys oil-storage tanks, and overturned stoves,
furnaces, and heaters, or downed power lines, ignite the gas or spilled
oil.
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(c) by shaking the ground on which the structure rests - may be considered the
earthquake effect that is the most damaging to structures. During an
earthquake, as is commonly known, the ground moves vertically and
horizontally, at times strongly and violently. This motion, in turn, makes a
structure lying on the shaking ground oscillate back and forth and up and
down and makes the structure experience large stresses and deformations in
this process

2.4.3 Earthquakes Forces

For structural engineers and from a conceptual point of view, earthquakes represent
just another force for which structures need to be designed. Earthquake forces,
however, possess several characteristics that make them unique in comparison with
any other forces, such as gravity, wind, or thermal forces.

Earthquake forces, the result of a back and forth, and up and down, motion of the
ground that supports a structure, can be exceptionally large in magnitude, can
change rapidly and erratically during the duration of the earthquake, and may be
radically different from earthquake to earthquake, from one site to another, from one
type of foundation soil to another, and from one structure to another.

Furthermore, earthquake forces depend on the properties of the structure. This

means that if one modifies such properties, one also modifies the earthquake forces
that will affect the structure. It also means that they can—and usually do—change if
the earthquake damages the structure. Most importantly, earthquake forces are
unpredictable. The reason is that little is known today about the mechanism that

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generates earthquakes, and not much more is known about the factors that shape
the earthquake–generated ground shaking that gives rise to earthquake forces.

As a result, the magnitude and characteristics of earthquake forces can only be, at
best, roughly estimated.

Earthquake forces are also distinct from other forces in the sense that they affect the
strength and behavior of structural materials. That is, the properties of structural
materials under earthquake loads are different from the properties that are
considered when designing, for example, for gravity loads. This is owed to the fact
that earthquake forces are applied suddenly, are relatively short, and change in
direction many times during the earthquake. Thus, the magnitude of the earthquake
forces is only part of the information a structural engineer needs to know to properly
design a structure against these forces.

2.4.4 Design for Earthquake Forces

Because of the unpredictability of earthquake forces, the uncertainty of their
occurrence, and the devastating effects they may produce, the design of an
earthquake-resistant structure is an elaborate process that requires the participation
of architects, seismologists, geologists, soil engineers, foundation engineers, and
structural engineers. In general, it involves many of the following steps:

(a) Identification of the sources where future earthquakes are likely to occur with
the aid of historical information, seismological data, and geological studies
(b) Determination of the probable size of future earthquakes based on the
attributes of the identified seismic sources
(c) Definition of the distance and orientation of each seismic source concerning
the structure’s location
(d) Establishment of semi-empirical equations that correlate ground motion
characteristics with earthquake size, seismic source orientation and distance,
and site soil conditions with the help of instrumental and observational records
from previous earthquakes
(e) Dynamic analysis of the soil deposits at the structure’s site to quantify the
ground motion amplification that may be induced as a result of their flexibility
(f) Selection or modification of structural configuration, structural system, and
structural materials to minimize undesirable structural responses and best
resist the expected earthquake forces
(g) Dynamic analysis of the structure and its components to estimate the
maximum values of the internal forces and deformations that may be
generated by a ground motion with the established characteristics
(h) Analysis of foundation soil to assess its susceptibility to earthquake effects

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(i) Verification of analytical results using laboratory tests of scaled models using
shaking tables, or field tests of full-scale models using artificial means to
generate ground vibrations
(j) Configuration, proportioning, and detailing of the members and connections of
the structure by the estimated maximum internal forces and deformations
(k) Improvement of foundation soil properties to reduce soil’s susceptibility to
earthquake effects

2.4.5 Historical Background

Robert Mallet, an Irish civil engineer, is often cited as the first earthquake engineer,
and his report on the 1857 Naples earthquake is considered to be the first scientific
investigation that included observations of the seismological, geological, and
engineering aspects of an earthquake.

Modern research on earthquake-resistant structures, however, began in Japan in

1891, the year of the Nobi earthquake (7000 deaths; also known as the Mino-Owari
earthquake), with the formation of an earthquake investigation committee set up by
the Japanese government. It was this committee that first proposed the use of a
lateral force equal to a fraction of the total weight of a building to account for the
forces exerted on buildings by earthquakes.

Similar developments in Italy after the devastating Messina earthquake in 1908

(58,000 deaths) led to the appointment of a committee composed of practicing and
academic engineers to study the earthquake and the formulation of practical
recommendations for the seismic design of buildings. In its report, this committee
recommended that the first story of a building is designed for a horizontal force equal
to 1/12 of the building weight above and that its second and third stories be designed
for a horizontal force equal to 1/8 of the building weight above.

These Japanese and Italian disasters thus gave birth to practical considerations for
the earthquake design of structures and earthquake engineering as a new branch of
engineering.

In the United States, interest in earthquakes and earthquake engineering began after
the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, California (1000 deaths), which caused great
damage and loss of lives. At that time, however, California was still sparsely
populated and, therefore, the interest generated by this earthquake was not enough
to motivate public officials to develop earthquake design regulations. It was only after
the 1933 earthquake in Long Beach, California, that American engineers became
fully aware of the dangers of earthquakes, and a great impetus was given to the
study of seismology and earthquake-resistant designs. As they became fully
interested, the first inquiry was to find out the nature of the motion of the ground
during an earthquake. Special instruments were designed and deployed at various
areas of high seismicity to record such a motion permanently. Congress charged the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey with the responsibility to study and report strong
earthquake motions. At about the same time, new building codes were drawn up and
enforced. The California Legislature passed the Field Act, which made it mandatory
for all school buildings to be designed and built to resist earthquakes.

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Shortly after, the State of California adopted the Riley Act, which made it mandatory
to design most buildings in the state for a lateral load equal to 2% of the sum of their
dead and live loads. The Pacific Coast Building Officials (to become later the
International Conference of Building Officials) published the nation’s first seismic
design provisions in 1927 in its Uniform Building Code.

Ever since earthquake engineering has unfolded at a steady pace and its principles
spread all over the world. It has rapidly evolved into a science-based discipline, with
a large body of knowledge and institutionalized research and educational programs.
Although learning takes place at a very slow pace due to the infrequency of large
earthquakes, advances in methods of dynamic analysis and experimental research
have provided engineers with valuable data to gain, year after year, a further
understanding of earthquakes and the effects of earthquakes in civil engineering
structures and facilities, and to develop new devices and techniques to protect these
structures and facilities from such effects. As a result, cities around the world and the
people living in them are little by little becoming less vulnerable to the devastating
effect of earthquakes.

2.5 Types of Earthquakes

In the most general sense of the word, an earthquake is nothing else but a
phenomenon that involves the motion or shaking of the earth’s crust. In this general
sense, an earthquake may be, therefore, caused by:

(a) tectonic forces (the forces involved in the formation of the earth’s features),
(b) volcanic activity,
(c) conventional and nuclear explosions,
(d) the sliding or fall of a large soil or rock mass (such as in the case of landslides
and the collapse of mines and caverns),
(e) a meteorite impact,
(f) the filling of reservoirs and wells

The earthquakes produced by volcanic activity, a soil or rock mass collapse, a

conventional explosion, a meteorite impact, or the filling of reservoirs and wells are,
for the most part, of a relatively small size and affect only an area of limited extent.

Earthquakes generated by a nuclear explosion may be strong, but the factors that
generate these earthquakes are known and may be controlled.

Earthquakes generated by tectonic forces may be exceptionally large and may affect
a large geographical region at once. Most of the catastrophic earthquakes that have
occurred through historical times have been of the tectonic type.

2.6 Earth Structure

The earth is roughly spherical, with an equatorial diameter of 12,740 km and a polar

velocities at the equator due to the earth’s rotation. Its mass is ∼4.9 × 1021 kg,
diameter of 12,700 km, the higher equatorial diameter caused by the higher

which implies an average specific gravity of 5.5. As the specific gravity of the rocks
at the surface of the earth is between 2.7 and 3, it may be, thus, inferred that the
materials in the interior have higher specific gravities.

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In a macroscopic scale, the interior of the earth is divided into four concentric layers:

(a) inner core - lies at the center of the earth with a radius of ∼1216 km. It is
thought to be solid, is composed of nickel and iron, and has a specific gravity
of ∼15.
(b) outer core - further toward the surface is the outer core with a thickness of
∼2270 km. It appears to be in a liquid state and is composed mainly of iron,
oxygen, and silicon. Its specific gravity is estimated to be between 9 and 12
(c) mantle - mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of 2885 km and
is composed of dense granitic and basaltic rocks in a viscous, semi-molten
state, the result of temperatures as high as 2000°C (for comparison steel
melts at 1500°C). It has a specific gravity between 4 and 5 and is divided into
the upper mantle and the lower mantle to reflect the existence of a
discontinuity in the properties of its composting materials.
(d) crust - the crust thickness ranges between 25 and 60 km under the continents
and between 4 and 6 km under the oceans. In addition to being thinner, the
oceanic crust is also, in general, more uniform and denser than the
continental crust. The crust is composed of granitic and basaltic rocks.

Internal structure of the earth.

Cross-section of the earth’s crust under the oceans and continents.

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2.7 Plate Tectonics Theory
The theory of plate tectonics postulates that the earth’s crust is fractured and thus
divided into a small number of large and rigid pieces, referred to as plates. The size
of these plates varies from a few hundred to many thousands of kilometers. Their
location, as well as their given names, is shown below:

Major tectonic plates of the earth and their general direction of movement.

The theory of plate tectonics also postulates that these plates float on the semi-
molten asthenosphere and that they move relative to one another. At some
locations, these plates are moving apart (diverge) and at others, the plates are
moving toward each other (converge) or sliding past each other, as shown above.

Plate tectonics theory also asserts that plate motion is responsible for the long-term,
large-scale formation and changes occurring on the earth’s surface and for most of
the seismic and volcanic activity around the world. It claims, further, that earthquakes
take place near these plate boundaries as a result of the stresses that build up in the
earth’s crust as the plates tend to move and interact with one another.

The theory of plate tectonics has evolved from the theory of continental drift originally
proposed by the German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1915. Wegener’s theory of
continental drift proclaimed that the earth’s surface was not static, but dynamic, and
that the oceans and continents are in constant motion. He based his assertion on the
similarity between the coastlines, geology, and life forms of eastern South America
and western Africa, and the southern part of India and the northern part of Australia.
He believed that 200 million years ago the earth had only one large continent that he
called Pangaea (see below) and that this large continent broke into pieces that
slowly drifted toward the current position of the current continents.

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Although the theory of continental drift was received with contempt when it was
originally proposed, today this theory and that of plate tectonics have become widely
accepted and acknowledged as one of the greatest advances in the earth sciences.
Their acceptance has come as a result of studies conducted after the 1960s, which,
with the help of a modern worldwide network of earthquake-recording instruments,
the developing of new techniques such as deep-water echo sounding, and a detailed
exploration of the ocean floor, have provided a strong supporting evidence of the
historical movement of the continents postulated by the theory of continental drift.

Moreover, precise geodetic measurements have shown that the plates identified by
the plate tectonics theory are indeed moving relative to one another and that this
motion is between 1 and 13 cm/year.

2.8 Plate Interaction, Formation of Earth’s Surface Features, and

Earthquake Generation
When two plates diverge, a rift is developed, creating a condition where molten
basaltic magma from the asthenosphere rises to lift the plate edges and create new
crust. Most of the known plate divergence occurs in what is now the ocean area.
This process of plate divergence, known as sea-floor spreading, has been
responsible for the formation of the mid-oceanic ridges and rises (submarine
mountain chains) as well as the deep valleys in between. Earthquake and volcano
activity is involved along the boundaries of these diverging plates, although the
earthquakes that occur there are usually of low magnitude. Earthquakes are
triggered when the tensional forces that produce the plate divergence fracture the
newly formed crust. Spreading ridges may protrude above the ocean as in the case
of the island of Iceland, where, with its 150 volcanoes, volcanic activity is nearly
continuous

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When two plates converge, the plates either collide head-on or one dives beneath
the other. Where an oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, the oceanic
plate, being thinner and heavier, tends to be pushed below the continental plate
(dips) to form what is known as a subduction zone. In this process, the edge of the
oceanic plate below the continental one melts and becomes part of the
asthenosphere. The creation of new crust where plates diverge is thus balanced by
an equivalent loss at a subduction zone, which together complete a continuous cycle
that replaces the ocean floor every 200 million years or so.

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Where plate edges slide past each other, the crust is neither created nor destroyed,
nor do changes occur on the surface of the earth. The boundaries where this type of
interaction occurs are often called transform faults. A transform fault develops where
the axis of a spreading ridge or a subduction zone has been offset. As it may be
observed from the jagged lines and erratic curves that identify the spreading ridges
and subduction zones, transform faults are a rather common occurrence, a condition
brought about by the irregular fracturing of the lithosphere. The sliding of one plate
against another generates earthquake activity but no volcanism. Earthquakes in
these boundaries typically occur at shallow depths, that is, between 5 and 40 km
below the surface.

The overall interrelationship between the relative motions of the tectonic plates,
together with some of the most important features on the earth’s surface, is
illustrated below:

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2.9 Earthquake Faults

When the boundaries between the earth’s tectonic plates manifest themselves on
the surface of the earth, they are seen as long uneven fractures or fissures on a rock
formation whose sides have moved relative to each other. Geologists call these
fractures or fissures as faults and identify them by the abrupt discontinuities on the
structure of the adjacent rock and the irregularities on the earth’s surface features
along the fault line. Faults may range in length from several meters to hundreds of
kilometers, extend to considerable depths, and exhibit displacements of several
meters. In many instances, faults are not characterized by a single fissure, but by a
major fissure and an intricate series of fractures that branch out beyond the edges of
the tectonic plates. They resemble the failure plane of a concrete cylinder tested in
the laboratory and the multiple cracks that surround this failure plane. A well-known
example is the San Andreas Fault and its complex network of subsidiary faults.

The existence of a fault at some location on the earth’s surface is indicative that a
relative motion took place between its two sides at some time in the past. In some
faults, this motion takes place gradually and in others intermittently during several
intervals. The motion takes place intermittently when the rock along the fault locks
and undergoes a displacement only at those times when the rock breaks apart.
Earthquakes occur at these faults and thus they are identified as earthquake faults.
In some of these faults, however, the last displacement has occurred tens of
thousands of years ago and are thus considered to be inactive faults.

When the two sides of a fault move past each other, the relative motion is horizontal
and the fault is called a transcurrent or strike-slip fault. Strike is the angle measured
from the north made by the horizontal line defined by the intersection of a fault plane
with the earth’s surface. Thus, the relative motion (slip) in strike-slip faults occurs
along the strike of the fault. A strike-slip fault is considered to be of the left-lateral
type if, as seen from either side, the other side of the fault slips toward the left.
Conversely, the fault is considered to be of the right-lateral type if it slips toward the
right. Slippage of a strike-slip fault leaves offset streams, trees, and fences.

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If, on the other hand, the two sides of a fault press against each other or pull away
from each other, then the relative motion is primarily vertical. In this case, the fault is
called a dip-slip fault because the slip occurs along the direction of the fault’s dip. Dip
is the angle formed by the plane of the fault concerning the surface of the earth. If in
a deep fault the upper rock block moves downward, the fault is called a normal fault.
If, on the other hand, the upper rock block moves upward, then the fault is
considered to be a reverse or thrust fault. The slip in normal faults occurs in
response to extensional strains and results in a horizontal lengthening of the crust. In
contrast, the slip in a reverse fault occurs in response to compressional strains and
produces a horizontal shortening of the crust.

2.10 Faulting and Seismic Zones of the Philippines

An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden
movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface.

The earthquakes originate in the tectonic plate boundary. The focus is the point
inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and
the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus is called the epicenter.

There are two ways by which we can measure the strength of an earthquake:
magnitude and intensity. Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an
earthquake at the focus. It is calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument
called a seismograph. It is represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0). Intensity
on the other hand is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in
a certain locality. It is a numerical rating based on the relative effects on people,
objects, environment, and structures in the surrounding. The intensity is generally
higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals (e.g. II, IV, IX). In
the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is determined using the PHIVOLCS
Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS).

2.10.1 Types of Earthquake:

There are two types of earthquakes: tectonic and volcanic earthquakes. Tectonic
earthquakes are produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
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Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes are called
volcanic earthquakes.

2.10.2 Earthquake Monitoring System:

At present, PHIVOLCS operates 101 seismic monitoring stations all over the
Philippines. These stations are equipped with seismometers that detect and record
earthquakes. Data is sent to the PHIVOLCS Data Receiving Center (DRC) to
determine earthquake parameters such as magnitude, depth of focus, and epicenter.
Together with reported felt intensities in the area (if any), earthquake information is
released once these data are determined.

2.10.3 Earthquake Hazards

2.10.3.1 Ground Rupture:

Deformation on the ground that marks, the intersection of the fault with the earth’s
surface.

Effects: fissuring, displacement of the ground due to movement of the fault

2.10.3.2 Ground Shaking:

Disruptive up, down, and sideways vibration of the ground during an earthquake.

Effects: ground shaking are damage or collapse of structure; may consequently

cause hazards such as liquefaction and landslide.

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2.10.3.3 Liquefaction:
Phenomenon wherein sediments, especially near bodies of water, behave like liquid
similar to quicksand.

Effects: sinking and/ or tilting of structure above it; sand boil; fissuring

2.10.3.4 Tsunami:
Series of waves caused commonly by an earthquake under the sea.

Effects: flooding; coastal erosion; drowning of people and damage to properties

2.10.4 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances.
Scarcely
I Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
Perceptible
Water in containers oscillates slowly.
Felt by a few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects
II Slightly Felt swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates
noticeably.

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Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
Felt by many people indoors especially on upper floors of
buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck.
III Weak Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people.
Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers
oscillates moderately.
Felt generally by people indoors and by some people
outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. The vibration is felt
like a passing of a heavy truck. Hanging objects swing
Moderately considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors
IV
Strong rattle. Floors and walls of wood-framed buildings creak.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers
are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillates
strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many
sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some
run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout
the building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining
V Strong
utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light, and
unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from
filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
The shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.
Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some
people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat
tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted.
Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very
VI Very Strong old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are
slightly damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly
to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are
noticeably shaken.
Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it
difficult to stand on the upper floors. Heavy objects and
furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old
or poorly-built structures suffer considerable damage.
Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some
VII Destructive cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or
concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral
spreading, and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken
strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose
saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and
behave like liquid).
People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
damaged. Concrete dikes and the foundation of bridges are
destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are
Very
VIII bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted, or
Destructive
overturned. Utility posts, towers, and monuments mat tilt or
topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted, or
broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man-
made structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides

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Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly
near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be
observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or
stopover dikes or banks of rivers.

People are forcibly thrown to the ground. Many cry and

shake with fear. Most buildings are damaged. bridges and
elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed.
Numerous utility posts, towers, and monuments are tilted,
toppled, or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted, or
IX Devastating broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings
and sand boils are widespread. the ground is distorted into
undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some
toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out.
River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and
banks.
Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive
landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence, and
Completely uplifting of landforms and many ground fissures are
X
Devastating observed. Changes in river courses and destructive
seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled,
broken, and uprooted.

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2.10.5 PHIVOLCS – Active Faults and Trenches

2.10.6 Earthquake Monitoring

The Institute's National Earthquake Monitoring and Information aims to provide
accurate and timely information on significant earthquakes and tsunami events that
may significantly impact the Philippines; and to ensure the accessibility and integrity
of earthquake data.

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Earthquake monitoring in the country has been enhanced with the operation of
ninety-two (92) Seismic Network, ten (10) Seismic Stations of which were
commissioned in 2016. With 64 stations in 2010, PHIVOLCS-DOST surpassed its
target of establishing an 85-station network by end of 2016.

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2.10.7 Philippines Earthquake Model

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