CHAPTER II

CONCEPTS OF NEEDS IN ESP

I. Teaching English for Specific Purposes

The main aim of the teaching and learning

process is to enable the learners to acquire information in
its general sense. Concerning ESP Basturkmen (2006:
133) states the existence of five broad objectives on
which specific teaching process is based and should be
reached:

-To reveal subject-specific language use.

-To develop target performance competencies.
-To teach underlying knowledge.
-To develop strategic competence
-To foster critical awareness.

The researcher shall examine these objectives

one after the other.

a- Reveal subject-specific language use: this objective

aims to demonstrate to the learners how the language is
used in the target setting.

b- Develop target performance competencies: this

objective is concerned with what learners do with
language and the needed skills to be competent. ―This
orientation can be categorized as a proficiency objective,
according to Stern‘s classification (1992)

c-Teach underlying knowledge: the aim is to focus on

developing students‘ knowledge of fields of study or
work in addition to their language skills. ―The objective
of teaching underlying knowledge can be classified as a

English for Specific Purposes Page 13

cultural knowledge objective, according to Stern‘s
categorization (1992 (Basturkmen, 2006: 137).

d- Develop strategic competence. ―Strategic

competence is the link between context of situation and
language knowledge (Basturkmen, 2006: 139) and
enables successful and efficient communication.

e- Foster critical awareness: ―This objective can be

linked to the cultural knowledge and affective objectives
in Stern‘s (1992) classification‖ (Basturkmen, 2006: 143)
and aims at making students conscious and culturally
aware of the target situation.

It is evident that great similarity exists between

the objectives established by Stern (1992) for language
education and the ones stated by Basturkmen for ESP
context. The teaching /learning process associated to
appropriate methodology may result in mastery of
language by correctly using it in the context.

A. ESP Teaching and Learning Processes

The methodologies of ESP teaching conform to

the same model of the language teaching process as does
any other form of language teaching. That is to say, the
basic teaching activities are these;

Shaping the input; Encouraging the learners‘

intention to learn; Managing the learning strategies and
Promoting practice and use.

In ESP teaching, some basic elements have to be

taken into consideration, the most important of which are

English for Specific Purposes Page 14

the learner needs, goals and motivation. Furthermore
learners‘ attitudes towards learning and learning
strategies are emphasized and seen as fundamental to the
ESP process.

The ESP teacher in the classroom is―…a

knowledge provider and a facilitator of students‘
learning and no more as a resourceful authority.
However, he/she is more concerned with designing
suitable syllabi and courses for different learners with
various needs and fields. ―Thus, whereas course design
plays a relatively minor part in the life of General
English teacher, courses here usually being determined
either by tradition, choice of textbook or ministerial
decree, for the ESP teacher, course design is often a
substantial and important part of the workload‖
(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987: 21).

As the students are cited in the core of the

learning process they have to be dynamic contributors in
their learning either in the classroom or out of it.
Students use the adequate and favourite learning
strategies and put a rapid and durable learning rhythm to
achieve the stated objectives. They are more intrinsically
than extrinsically oriented. ―Learning is more
individualized than standardized and students are more
open to new ideas. They take responsibility for their own
actions and accept related consequences‖. (Kashani et al
2007: 87).

ESP teaching/ learning processes necessarily go

through different stages.

English for Specific Purposes Page 15

 B. Stages in the ESP Teaching Process

Dudley-Evans and Johns (1998:121) maintain

that ―The key stages in ESP are needs analysis, course
(and syllabus) design, materials selection (and
production), teaching and learning, and evaluation. ESP
course design is the product of a dynamic interaction
between these elements which―… are not separated,
linearly-related activities, rather, they represent phases
which overlap and are interdependent.

Dudley-Evans and St. Johns illustrate the theory

and the reality of the stages in ESP process through these
cyclical representations:

Figure 2. Stages in the ESP process: Theory

Evaluation

Ne
Assessment

Course
Teaching/Learning

Figure 3. Stages in the ESP process: reality

Evaluation

Ne
Assessment

English for Specific Purposes Page 16

 Cour
Teaching/Learning

Teaching/Learning

It is well demonstrated that the basic elements in

the ESP teaching process are interconnected and there is
no differentiation between theory and reality ―the
simplicity and clarity of figure 1 is in reality more like
figure 2 (Dudley-Evans and St. Johns, 1998: 121).
Therefore, the achievement of ESP courses are: those
where thesyllabus and the material are determined by the
prior analysis of the communication needs of the learner
(Mumby, 1978: 2),and those in which the aims and the
context are determined principally or wholly not by
criteria of general education but by functional and
practical English language requirements of the learner
(Strevens 1977 :90).

However, designing effective ESP course is

governed by further parameters that have to be examined
first. According to Miliani (1994), after his exploration
of the Algerian context, stated that four essential points
have to be studied and analysed as a pre-design process,
which consist of:

a- Situation analysis: it envelops the general

requirements of both learners and institutions, their
profiles and attitudes, also the existing materials.

English for Specific Purposes Page 17

b- Setting Aims and Objectives: the results of learners
needs identification and analysis (NIA) lead to setting up
general statements and what would be achieved at the
end of the courses.

c- Generating Syllabus Content: organising the syllabus

content ―through the sequencing of materials whose
layout and presentation should form a continuum‖.
(Benyelles, 2009:58).

d- Assessment: gathering data regarding syllabus before

or during the course implementation let to readjust the
content of the syllabus.

In the same vein Graves (1996, qtd. in

Xenodohidis, 2006) suggests a systematic syllabus
design consisting of six steps. Those steps are:

1. Conducting needs assessment, followed with needs

analysis (both of the process sometimes just called needs
analysis).

2. Determining the goals and objectives of the course.

3. Conceptualizing the content.

4. Selecting and developing materials and activities.

5. Organizing the content and activities.

6. Evaluating

Figure 4. Graves’ Model of Syllabus Design (2000)

English for Specific Purposes Page 18

 From the quoted descriptions of ESP teaching
process it is viewed that in the first instance, learners‘
needs have to be identified and analysed. Therefore, the
development of an ESP course should be in line with
learners‘ requests and wants. Thus, needs outcomes will
operate as a guide for the teacher in designing a suitable
syllabus, producing course materials as well as teaching
and testing methods.

A detailed description of each step follows:

II. Needs Analysis

An essential component of ESP as an enterprise

is the analysis of potential or actual needs. In general
terms, needs analysis (also called needs assessment)

English for Specific Purposes Page 19

refers to the activities involved in gathering information
that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum
that will meet the learning needs of a particular group of
students. In the case of language programmes, those
needs will be language related.

For example, when a curriculum is being

developed from scratch for a completely new language
programme, the best place to start is with needs
assessment. Thus, application of needs assessment will
create a sound foundation for further discussion of the
curriculum.

A. Reasons for Conducting a Needs Analysis

A needs analysis (or needs assessment) is a

systematic approach for studying the state of knowledge,
ability, interest, or attitude of a defined audience or
group involving a particular subject. It is used by
professionals to learn about important issues and
problems faced by our learners in order to design
effective educational programmes.

A needs analysis also provides a method to learn

what has already been done and what gaps in learning
remain. This allows the teacher to make informed
decisions about needed investments, thereby extending
the reach and impact of educational programming.

The goals of need analysis are nearly always the

same. The first goal is to learn what our audience already
knows and thinks, so that we can determine what
educational system is needed. A second goal is to

English for Specific Purposes Page 20

understand what we can do to make our educational
system more accessible, acceptable, and useful to our
learners.

A Needs Analysis, thoughtfully performed by

Cawley (2009: 3), provides the following:

 Impact: Insights about how education and

training can impact the audience;
 Approaches: Knowledge about educational
approaches that may be most effective;
 Awareness: of existing programmes and of gaps
in available training to enable efficient use of
resources;
 Outcomes: Information about the current
situation that can be used to document outcomes;
 Demand: Knowledge about the potential demand
for future programmes and textbooks
 Credibility: that the programme is serving the
target audience, an important part of
communicating greater competence and
professionalism to funding authorities who want
to know a programme or textbook‘s impact.

A needs analysis is conducted so the target

audience can verify its own level of knowledge and skill,
its interests and opinions, or its learning habits and
preferences. Collecting and analyzing needs analysis
data allows the investigator to describe the ―gap
between what exists and what is needed in target
situation. Filling that gap becomes the purpose of the
next generation in education in general and the aim of
syllabus course design in particular.

English for Specific Purposes Page 21

 Needs analysis, in the formal and technical
sense, is relatively new in language teaching circles.
However, needs analysis have been conducted
informally for years by teachers who wanted to assess
what language points their students needed to learn.

Indeed, the various activities usually called

―approaches, are different expressions of this desire to
figure out what students need to learn. Information
sources for such informal needs assessments might
include scores on an overall language proficiency test,
facts gathered from a background questionnaire that asks
where and for how long students have had previous
language training, or impressions gleaned from teacher
and student interview about the students‘ cognitive and
linguistic abilities.

In more formal terms, needs assessment is

defined by Richards et al. (1985) as the process of
determining the needs for which a learner or a group of
learners requires a language and arranging the needs
according to priorities. In the same vein, Stufflebeamet
points out that it is ―the process of determining the
things that are necessary or useful for the fulfilment of
defensible purpose.(Stufflebeamet al., 1985:16).

Needs analysis can be seen as crucial to an ESP

course, especially when the course is of limited duration.
The designer of an ESP course has to decide exactly how
specific the language needs of the students are. For
scientific English course, for example, potentially all the
structural patterns of English need to be taught, using
scientific terms rather than everyday vocabulary. One

English for Specific Purposes Page 22

main purpose of conducting a needs analysis is,
according to Gardner and Winslow (1983):to produce
information which when acted upon, makes courses
better adapted to students‘ needs and part of object of
formal needs identification is to back up one‘s proposals
with quantitative evidence of their importance…in many
cases, concrete evidence of particular needs, such as
these surveys, could be directly used as part of the course
validation/ approval procedure.( Gardner and Winslow,
1983:76).

One of the primary questions that can be

included in a questionnaire while conducting a needs
analysis is whether students will use English to pass the
exam as a university requirement or in workforce after
graduation. Indeed, in this case our intention is to
prepare learners for the future not for passing exams
because we rely on the results of the needs analysis,
which has to be done before designing the ESP course.
ESP needs analysis positions a solid foundation for a
stable ESP syllabus. Since needs analysis has been run
for the targeted group to collect data about their learning
needs, then, the process of core courses designation will
take place. Designing a course for any ESP system needs
a considerable amount of general English along with an
integrated functional terminological language matted in
the targeted ESP course which is based on the needs
analysis.

Needs analysis is neither unique to language

teaching nor within language training but it is often seen
as being ―the corner stone of ESP and leads to a very
focused course‖(Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998: 122).

English for Specific Purposes Page 23

Although there are various ways of interpreting ‗needs‘,
the concept of ‗learner needs‘ is often interpreted in two
ways:

 What the learner wants to do with the language

(goal-oriented definition of needs) which relates
to terminal objectives or the end of learning; and
 What the learner needs to do to actually acquire
the language (a process-oriented definition)
which relates to transitional/means of learning.

Traditionally, the first interpretation was widely

used and accepted. However, in today‘s globalized
teaching and learning contexts, ESP courses tend to
relate to both at the same time but tend to focus on the
process-oriented approach in aligning students‘ needs
with present working scenarios.

In view of these concerns, Dudley-Evans and St

John (1998:145) discuss criteria for ESP course design
and put forward useful steps for ESP teachers and course
designers to consider. They list these concerns
surrounding course design in the form of the following
questions:

 Should the course be intensive or extensive?

 Should the learners‘ performance be assessed or
non-assessed?
 Should the course deal with immediate needs or
with delayed needs?
 Should the role of the teacher be that of the
provider of knowledge and activities, or should

English for Specific Purposes Page 24

 it be as facilitator of activities arising from
learners‘ expressed wants?
 Should the course have a broad focus or narrow
focus?
 Should the course be pre-study or pre-experience
or run parallel with the study or experience?
 Should the materials be common-core or specific
to learners‘ study or work?
 Should the group taking the course be
homogeneous or should it be heterogeneous?
 Should the course design be worked out by the
language teacher after consultation with the
learners and the institution, or should it be
subject to a process of negotiation with the
learners?

By asking these questions prior to planning

course design, the ESP teacher can be better prepared,
more so if the teacher has to balance out some of these
parameters which are linked to institutional and learner
expectations (Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998).

In most instances, the content of any ESP course

should be determined by a comprehensive needs analysis
as this first step is seen as being absolutely crucial if ESP
practitioners wish to design a course that will maximally
benefit their learners (Wright, 2001). In the literature of
needs analysis, some of the following aspects are often
recommended by experts:

 Placement testing (administering tests designed

to assess general English ability and ability to
perform adequately in work contexts – this

English for Specific Purposes Page 25

 might help determine the starting level of
courses in the ESP course)
 Linguistics needs analysis (to identify skill
development, linguistic structure, lexical items,
language functions and levels of formality)
 Learning needs analysis (identify learners‘
attitudes towards different kinds of
methodology, learning tasks and activities); and
 Learner perceptions analysis (discover learners‘
perceptions of themselves and others as part of
their company culture, and their relationships
with people from other company cultures).
(Adapted from different sources)

The notion of needs analysis in ESP has been

expanded in different ways by different scholars.
Chambers (1980, qtd. in Basturkmen 2010 : 18) for
instance, states that: ―Needs analysis should be
concerned with establishment of communicative needs
and their realisations, resulting from an analysis of the
communication in target situation - what I will refer to as
target situation analysis

(Dudley-Evans and St-John (1998: 125) also offer a

current concept of needs analysis‘:

A. Professional information about the learners: The tasks

and activities learners are/will be using English for –
target situation analysis and objective needs.

B. Personal information about the learners: Factors

which may affect the way they learn such as previous
learning experiences, cultural information, reasons for

English for Specific Purposes Page 26

attending the course and expectations of it, attitude to
English – wants, means and subjective needs.

C. English language information about the learners:

What their current skills and language use are – present
situation analysis – which allows us to assess (D).

D. The learners‘ lacks: The gap between (C) and (A) –

lacks.

E. Language learning information: Effective ways of

learning the skills and language in (D) – learning needs.

F. Professional communication information about (A):

Knowledge of how language and skills are used in the
target situation – linguistic analysis, discourse analysis,
genre analysis.

G. What is wanted from the course.

H. Information about how the course will be run – means

analysis

B. Needs Analysis and its Components

There have been several surveys about the

different approaches to NA in EFL since the term was
first introduced by West in the 1970s, but almost all of
them concern ESP mainly because of two reasons:

1. Early NA focused on English for Occupational

Purposes (EOP) which later changed to Academic
(EAP). (West, 1994:1)

English for Specific Purposes Page 27

2. The belief that GE learners‘ needs cannot be
determined (Seedhouse, 1995: 59) because it is taken for
granted that GE learners learn the language in a TENOR
(Teaching English for No Obvious Reason) situation.
(Abbott & Wingard,1981).

Nowadays NA is an umbrella term covering

several components.

b.1.Target Situation Analysis

The term, ―Target Situation Analysis‖ (for short

TSA) was first introduced by Chambers (1980: 29). For
him TSA is ―communication in the target situation.‖
TSA is a form of Needs Analysis, which focuses on
identifying the learners‘ language requirement in the
occupational or academic situation they are being
prepared for (West, 1994). Robinson (1991:8) argues
that ―a needs analysis, which focuses on students‘
needs at the end of a language course can be called a
TSA.

b.2. Present Situation Analysis

Present Situation Analysis (for short PSA) may

be posited as a complement to target situation analysis
(Robinson, 1991; Jordan,1997). If target situation
analysis tries to establish what the learners are expected
to be like at the end of the language course, present
situation analysis attempts to identify what they are like
at the beginning of it. According to Robinson (1991:8),
―PSA seeks to establish what the students are like at the
start of their language course, investigating their

English for Specific Purposes Page 28

strengths and weaknesses. Dudley-Evans & St-John
(1998: 124) state that ―PSA estimates strengths and
weaknesses in language, skills, learning experiences.

b.3. Deficiency Analysis

What Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define as

lacks can be matched with deficiency analysis.
According to Allwright (1982, cited in West, 1994), the
approaches to needs analysis that have been developed to
consider learners‘ present needs or wants may be called
analysis of learners‘ deficiencies or lacks. From what has
already been said, it is obvious that deficiency analysis is
the route to cover from point A (present situation) to
point B (target situation), always keeping the learning
needs in mind. Therefore, deficiency analysis can form
the basis of the language syllabus (Jordan, 1997) because
it should provide data about both the gap between
present and target extra linguisticknowledge, mastery of
general English, language skills, and learning strategies.

Table 1 Necessities, lacks and wants (Hutchinson &

Waters, 1987:58)
OBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE
(i.e. as perceived (i.e. as
by course perceived by
designers) learners
The English To reluctantly
NECESSITIES needed for cope with a
success in second-best‘
Agricultural or situation
Veterinary
Studies
LACKS (presumably) Means of doing

English for Specific Purposes Page 29

 areas of English Medical
needed Studies
for agricultural
or Veterinary
Studies
WANTS To succeed in To undertake
Agricultural or Medical
Veterinary Studies
Studies

b.4. Strategy Analysis or Learning Needs

Analysis

This type of needs analysis has to do with the

strategies that learners employ in order to learn another
language. This tries to establish how the learners wish to
learn rather than what they need to learn (West, 1998,
cited in Songhori, 2008:12).

Allwright was the first to make a distinction

between needs, i.e. the skills which a student sees as
being relevant to him/her; wants, i.e. those needs on
which students put a high priority in the available limited
time, and lacks i.e. the difference between the student‘s
present competence and the desired competence. His
ideas were adopted by Hutchinson and Waters (1987),
who advocate a learning-centred approach in which
learners‘ learning needs play a vital role. Arguably, they
advocate a process-oriented approach, not a product-or
goal-oriented one. What learners should be taught are
skills that enable them to reach the target, the process of
learning and motivation should be considered as well as
the fact that different learners learn in different ways
(DudleyEvans & St-John.1998).

English for Specific Purposes Page 30

 b.5. Means Analysis (MA)

MA attempts to study the local situation i.e. the

facilities, teachers and teaching methods in order to see
how the language course can be implemented. (Holliday
& Cook 1982 cited in Jordan, 1997: 27). Means analysis
is mainly used for the purpose of designing a curriculum
rather than a syllabus design.

C. Needs Analysis Process (NA)

Dudley-Evans and St-John (1998: 125) defined

Needs Analysis (NA) as ―professional information
about the learners: The tasks and activities learners
are/will be using English for […] target situation
analysis and objective needs. They also consider NA as
the process through which personal information such as
wants, means and subjective needs are retrieved. In
addition, they regarded NA as the process of deciding
the learners‘ English language skills, finding information
related to linguistic, genre, discourse, determining what
is expected out of the course, and finally establishing
how the course will be administered and run. Needs
Analysis can be detailed to include many important
factors. One of the current theoretical frameworks of
needs analysis was presented by Dudley-Evans and St-
John (1998).

English for Specific Purposes Page 31

Figure 5. Needs analysis Components (Dudley-Evans
and St John:1998)

They believe that an environment situation plays

a major part and it seeks to comprehensively inform the
course designer about the learners. The figure illustrates
the theoretical framework suggested by Dudley-Evans
and St-John (1998). This model can be viewed as the
most comprehensive model for ESP needs analysis. This
model of ESP needs analysis (1998: 125) focuses on (1)
learners‘ professional information, (2) learners‘ personal
information, (3) learners‘ language information about the
target situation, (4) learners‘ lacks, (5) learners‘ needs
from course, (6) language learning needs, (7)

English for Specific Purposes Page 32

communication information in the target situation, and
(8) environmental information.

Another way to look at needs is to make a clear

cut division between present knowledge/ required
knowledge, objective/subjective needs, and
perceived/felt needs (Dudley-Evans and St-John 1998).
The difference between present and required knowledge
goes back to the gap between present know-how and
exigencies of the target situation. The difference between
objective/subjective and perceived/felt needs lies in the
nature of data based on the nature of sources used to
collect the data required for NA, using outsiders and/or
insiders views Dudley-Evans and St-John (1998). For
example, tests are used to elicit objective needs and
interviews to subjective ones. Very roughly, lacks fit into
present knowledge, necessities fit into required
knowledge, and wants fit into subjective needs.

D. Steps in conducting Needs Analysis

There are different steps to follow while

conducting a needs analysis in order to have reliable and
valid results;

a) Defining the purpose of NA, i.e. defining the

aims and what is it that you want to learn from NA

b) Delimiting the student population, i.e. who is

the target audience? Whose needs are you measuring,
and to whom will you give the required information?

c) Deciding upon Approach(es) and

Syllabus(es), i.e. the how and what the students need to

English for Specific Purposes Page 33

learn in the course of a particular programme of
language instruction (Brown, 1995). The content or the
syllabus of the programme can be everything from
structural to functional to task-based and so on (Long
and Crooks, 1992; White, 1988; Wilkins, 1976).

d) Recognizing Constraints, i.e. the framework

imposed by learners, teachers, and the situation.

In order to put forward a balanced argument on

NA and the steps taken to conduct Needs Analysis, a
framework has been proposed by Brown (2009) and
explains the stages of a comprehensive Needs Analysis.
This framework consists of three general stages with ten
steps. Brown‘s framework can be illustrated as follows:

Need Analysis (NA) Process

A B
Get Ready to Do NA Do the NA Research

In fact, Brown presents his framework in a linear

fashion, but a cyclical shape was adapted by
Mohammadi &Nacer (2013).The logic behind this
modification goes back to the time of NA and the
interaction among its different stages. A Needs Analysis
might be done before a course starts, at the beginning of
a course, be on-going during the course or at the end of a

English for Specific Purposes Page 34

course if it is going to be repeated with a different group
of learners (Nation and Macalister, 2010). It is especially
at this point that NA tends to be circular, shaping and
reshaping the future courses and adding to their efficacy.

The framework goes as follows:

A Framework for doing NA (Adapted by

Mohammadi&Nacer, 2013:1015)

Get ready to do NA
Do the NA research

Use the NA results

This figure exposes the major and general stages

of doing a Needs Analysis. These stages come along
with ten steps:

A. Get ready to do NA

1. Define the purpose of the NA

2. Delimit the student population
3. Decide upon approach(es) and syllabus(es)
4. Recognize constraints
5. Select data collection procedures

B. Do the NA research

English for Specific Purposes Page 35

 6. Collect data
7. Analyze data
8. Interpret results

C. Use the NA results

9. Determine objectives
10.Evaluate the report on the NA project

E. Methods for Gathering Needs Data

Needs assessment makes use of both subjective

and objective information. Different instruments can be
used to collect data about as questionnaires, interviews,
tests, and observation.

E.1. The Questionnaire. The questionnaire is

viewed as list of a research or survey questions asked to
respondents, and designed to extract specific
information. It serves four basic purposes: to
(1) collect the appropriate data,
(2) make data comparable and amenable to
analysis,
(3) minimize bias in formulating and asking
question, and
(4) to make questions engaging and varied.

Moreover, a common understanding amongst

scholars is that the questionnaire is an instrument used to
collecting and recording information about a particular
issue including a list of questions. For the fulfilment of
this purpose, the questionnaire can be completed in one
of the following two basic ways: (a) with the absence of
researcher i.e. the respondents are given the
questionnaire to answer with no reference or help of the
researcher. (b) with the presence of the researcher. This
last is referred to as an interview (structure, semi-

English for Specific Purposes Page 36

structure, or unstructured). This does not deny that the
questionnaire cannot be answered with the presence of
the researcher.

1.1 Strengths of Using The Questionnaire

The following Strengths motivated the

researcher to use this instrument as a data collection
method (Kemper, 2003)
 Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other
content from research participants inexpensive
(especially mail questionnaires and group-
administered questionnaires)
 Can administer to probability samples
 Quick turnaround
 Can be administered to groups
 Perceived anonymity by respondents possibly
high
 Moderately high measurement validity for well-
constructed and well-tested questionnaires
 Low dross rate for closed-ended questionnaires
 Ease of data analysis for closed-ended items

Furthermore, the main advantages of the

questionnaire is that it is relatively easy to analyse and
familiar to library staff and managers. Yet, it allows the
researcher to get in touch with a large sample of the
given population and can be contacted at relatively low
cost as it is simple to administer. Additionally, the
format of the questionnaire is likely to be familiar to
most respondents; which in return make it simple and
quick for them to complete it as they will have time to
think about their answers and are not usually required to
reply immediately

1.2 Types of Questionnaire

English for Specific Purposes Page 37

 Most of us know the importance of questionnaires in
collecting survey data from a large audience, but are
uncertain about the placement of different types of
questions in questionnaire. There are different types of
questionnaires possible that pollsters can send to their
audience, and the format of questionnaire depends
entirely on what information is to be extracted from
respondents. Two types of questionnaire can be listed
here: open-ended and closed-ended. This categorization
is – of course, based on the nature of the questions
included.

 Open Ended Questionnaire

This format make the participants feel free when

expressing their opinions about the topic or the issue
they are asked about. In addition to this, the questions
used have no predetermined set of answers. This means
that the respondent is free to answer whatever he/she
feels right. If so, the researcher can obtain true, insightful
and even unexpected suggestions. In other words,
reliable and visible data can be ensured.

 Closed Ended Questionnaire

In this type, multiple choice questions are used. In

other word, the participants are exposed to
predetermined number of answers for each question.
However, that number is not limited i.e. there is no rule
of how many answers should be provided. One of the
main advantages of including this type in case studies is
the opportunity to perform preliminary analysis as the
research will have a bird-eye view about what will be
provided as answers.

English for Specific Purposes Page 38

 1.3 Questionnaire Design

A careful consideration has been given to the

design of the research questionnaire. This was to ensure
greater validity and reliability of the information
obtained. However, it was not an easy task since efforts
were needed in developing the different stages of the
design. The following figure illustrates more:

Figure 8
Questionnaire Design

1.4 Samples of questionnaires

Sample 1 Questionnaire designed by Bensafa

(2015)

Students’ Questionnaire

Dear students, the following questionnaire is

addressed to gather information about your difficulties in
writing and thus design the appropriate writing course in

English for Specific Purposes Page 39

the future to help you write scientific paper to be
published in scientific journals. So would you please
answer the following questions.

A. General Overview about the Learning Career

I. How many years have you been studying English in

the department? ___________________

II. Do you think that English is important in your

studies( choose one of the following answers)
A. Yes B. No C. to some
extent

III. Your teachers of English, have they been subject

specialist or language teacher?………………

IV. How do you rate your knowledge of the following

skills? (use X to choose the right column)
Weak Acceptable Good Very
Good
Reading
Listening
Speaking
Writing
Grammar
Vocabulary

V. What do you most need in your studies? (Circle the

needed skill)
A. Reading B. Listening
C. Speaking D. Writing

VI. What do you consider your writing skill? (Circle the

right answer)

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 A. Weak B. acceptable
C. good D. very good

VII. Do you have an idea about the following concepts:

formal and informal
A. No B. Yes

If yes explain
_____________________________________________
_______________________

VIII. What about the level of formality in your writing?

(cycle the right answer) A. Formal B. Informal

IX. Are you satisfied with your level in writing? (Use X

to choose)
A. No B. Yes

B. Description of the writing course

X. Which type of writing assignments your teacher gives

you? (Use X to choose)
Paragraph
Essay
Abstract
Summary
Description of a physical
phenomenon
Analysis of a theory
Others... (mention them)
XI. What are the difficulties you generally encounter
while writing? (Use X to choose)
Sentence structure
Lack of vocabulary
Grammar
Format

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About the content
Organizing the content
Language used

C. Description of the scientific writing course

XII. Have you ever written a scientific paper?

A. No B. Yes, how many?
____________

XIII. What do you know about how to write a

scientific paper?

XIV. Are there any particular criteria to writing a

paper about physics?
A. No B. Yes (please explain)
___________________________________________

XV. Have you received any training on writing about

physics?
A. No B. Yes (please explain)
___________________________________________

XVI. How much difficulty you experience in writing

the following sections of the scientific paper in English.
(Use X to choose)
Section of the paper none little some quite a
a lot lot

1. The abstract
2. Introduction
3. The theoretical
framework
4. Instruments and
methods
5. exposing the

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results
6. discussion of
results
7. Other sections
8. conclusions
9.
Acknowledgements.
10. The response to
peer reviewers’
comments

Can you please suggest any further recommendations or

comments?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________

Thank you for your collaboration

Sample 2. Questionnaire designed by Haddam (2008)

Teachers’ Questionnaire
Dear colleagues

The following questionnaire is only an

instrument of research which contributes greatly to the
achievement of my magister thesis that aims at
conducting a needs analysis to propose an English
programme for students in the Institute of Biology.

Thank you for your co-operation

Mrs F. Haddam

English for Specific Purposes Page 43

General Instruction. Please tick (*) in the appropriate
box the chosen answer or give a full answer where
needed.

Question 1: Gender -Male

-Female

Question 2: What degree do you have? -

Licence -Magister -Doctorate

Question 3: What is your field of specialism?

-Linguistic -ESP -
Literature -Civilisation

Question 4: How long have you been teaching at the

university?
-At the English Department, _____ years
-At the ‗Institute Peripheriques’, _______ years

Question 5: Did you have any special training in ESP?

-YES -NO

Question 6: Do you find the amount of time assigned to

the module of English you are teaching appropriate
(ESP course)? -YES -NO

Question 7: What amount of time would you suggest for

the module of English (as an ESP TEACHER?)
-Explain, briefly why:
_____________________________________________
___________________

Question 8: How would you describe your students‘

attendance (in ESP course)?
-Regular -Average
-Irregular

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Question 9: How would you describe your ESP‘ students
in the course?
-Highly motivated -Motivated
-Not motivated at all

Question 10: Is there any objectives and syllabus provide

by the administration for the module of English you are
teaching (in an ESP department)?
-Objectives (YES/NO) -
Syllabus (YES/NO)
-If ‗yes‘, what are, briefly the main points of
such objectives and /or syllabus?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________

Question 11: Which type of teaching materials did you

use?

Question 12: On which ground did you select your

teaching materials?
-Relevance to the topic -
Difficulty of English

Question 13: What did you focus most on in your

teaching?
-Grammar -Comprehension -Writing
-Reading -Pronunciation
-Terminology and translation

Question 14: Did you conduct a formal needs analysis‘ at

the beginning of the course (in ESP course)? -YES
-NO
-If yes‘ state, briefly what you consider to be the most
important results of this analysis:

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_____________________________________________
_____________________________________

Question 15: Did you conduct an informal ‗needs

analysis‘ at the beginning of the course (in ESP course)?
-YES -NO

Question 16: Did you enjoy your experience as an ESP

teacher? -YES -NO

Question 17: What would you suggest to improve the

teaching of English in the Institute Pripherique‘?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________

Thank you.
E.2. The Interview. Semi-structured or structured
interview are data collection instruments or techniques.
The researcher has a list of key themes, issues, and
questions to be covered. In this type, the classification of
questions can be changed depending on the direction of
the interview. A guide (rubrics) is also used, but
additional questions can be asked. (Kajornboon, 2004).

2.1 General Objectives

This instrument is routed in the history of data

collection instruments. Corbetta (2003:270) presents the
semi-structured interview as follows: ―The order in
which the various topics are dealt with and the wording
of the questions are left to the interviewer‘s direction‖.
Within a given topic, Corbetta added that: The
interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he
thinks, to ask the questions he deems appropriate in the
words he considers best, to give explanations and ask for
clarification if the answer is not clear, to prompt the

English for Specific Purposes Page 46

respondent to elucidate further if necessary and to
establish his own style of conversation.

The strengths of this type of interview are the

additional questions that can be asked and the ones that
have not been anticipated in the beginning of the
interview. Note taking or tape recording can help the
researcher to report the interview. This gives him more
opportunities to check out the views and opinions of the
interviewees. In this vein, Gray (2004:217) notes that
―probing is a way for the interviewer to explore new
paths which were not initially considered‖.

In the same path, David and Sutton (2004:87)

argue: ―Having key themes and sub- questions in
advance lies in giving the researcher a sense of order
from which to draw questions from unplanned
encounters.

Besides, Cohen (2006) raised the point that

many researchers like to use semi-structured interviews
because questions can be prepared ahead of time. This
allows the interviewer to be prepared and appear
competent during the interview. Additionally, the
instrument allows informants the freedom to express
their views in their own terms. Furthermore, semi-
structure interviews can provide reliable, comparable
qualitative data and encourages two-way
communication.

Those being interviewed can ask questions of the

interviewer. In this way it can also function as an
extension tool confirms what is already known but also
provides the opportunity for learning. Often the
information obtained from semi-structured interviews
will provide not just answers, but the reasons for the

English for Specific Purposes Page 47

answers. Also, when individuals are interviewed they
may more easily discuss sensitive issues help field staff
become acquainted with community members. Outsiders
may be better at interviewing because they are perceived
as more objective, i.e., using both individual and group
interviews can optimise the strengths of both.

In sum, the researcher conducting a semi-

structured interview is free than the one conducting a
structured interview (kajornboon, 2004) in which the
interviewer has to adhere to a detailed interview guide.
Harrell and Bradley (2009:16) summarize the strengths
of this instrument:

 Positive rapport between interviewer and

interviewee. Very simple, efficient and practical
way of obtaining data about things that can‘t be
easily observed (feelings and emotions, for
example).

 High Validity. People are able to talk about

something in detail and depth. The meanings
behind an action may be revealed as the
interviewee is able to Speak for themselves with
little direction from interviewer.
 Complex questions and issues can be discussed /
clarified. The interviewer can probe areas
suggested by the respondent's answers, picking-
up information that had either not occurred to
the interviewer or of which the interviewer had
no prior knowledge.
 Pre-Judgment: Problem of researcher
predetermining what will or will not be
discussed in the interview is resolved with few
"pre-set questions" involved, the interviewer is

English for Specific Purposes Page 48

 not "pre judging" what is and is not important
information.

 Easy to record interview (video / audio tapes).

2.2 Samples of Interviews

Sample.1 Interview designed by Lamri (2015)

Dear Colleague:

I am conducting research in the field of teaching Legal

English at university level. I would be grateful for the
contribution that you may provide as teacher in the field
by answering this interview.

Part One: Setting Information

1. What is your position in the university? - Part-time
teacher, Full-time teacher
2. What is your post-graduate field of specialization?
3. For how many years have you taught ELP?
4. To what level (s) have you taught ELP?
5. Did you receive any training to teach ELP?

Part Two: Present Teaching Situation

6. What is the nature of the English language course you
are teaching?
General English Legal English
Others (Please specify) __________
7. What sub-skills in reading do you emphasize in your
teaching?
8. What is the time allocated to the teaching of English
per week? How much time do you devote to reading?
9. To what extent are you satisfied with the syllabus
provided? If unsatisfied, what are your reasons?

English for Specific Purposes Page 49

10. Which reading strategies do you teach to your
students?
11. Do you believe in any kind of cooperation between
English teachers and subject specialists?
12. Do you give activities around the topic before the act
of reading in order to facilitate it?
13. Do you supervise your students‘ reading process in
class?
14. Do you give home reading activities to your
students?

Part Three: Students’ Academic Needs Identification

15. Do you proceed to a NIA of your students?
16. What is your focus when teaching reading?
Reading academic papers,
Reading law texts,
Reading legal letters,
Reading in general

17. What are the main weaknesses that you have

observed in your students‘ when performing reading
comprehension activities;
 Lack of Linguistic Competence:
A. The ability to recognize the elements of the
writing system;
B. Knowledge of vocabulary;
C. Knowledge of how words are structured into
sentences

 Lack of Discourse Competence:

A. Knowledge of discourse markers
B. How they connect parts of the text to one
another

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  Lack of Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge
about different types of texts and their usual
structure and content

 Lack of Strategic Competence: the ability to:

A. Skim the main idea of the text.
B. Scan and identify text structure, confirm or
question predictions.
C. Guess from context the meanings of unknown
words.
D. Paraphrase the information and ideas in the
text

18. Are the causes of the above mentioned weaknesses

due to:
A. Insufficient teaching time devoted to ELP
B. Insufficient teaching time devoted to reading
activities
C. Lack of materials (lesson books, exercise
books etc…)
D. Students‘ negative attitudes towards the
English language
E. Others (Please specify)
_____________________________________________
_________

19. At which level do you think students have the

greatest difficulty of comprehension?
A. at the Phonological level,
B. at the syntactic one
C. or at the , lexical level?

Part Four: Readiness for Blended Learning

20. Do you use audio-visual aids in the classroom?
Which ones?

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21. Do you use internet (in order to send lectures,
language activities, instruction) in your teaching?
22.Would you like to use the blended approach to teach
ELP?
23. Do you think that it is possible to use this approach
in the present situation? Why?
24. What do you suggest to your students to overcome
their reading difficulties?
Thank you for your collaboration

Sample 2. Interview designed by Bensafa (2016)

Teachers’ Interview

Dear teachers, the following interview is addressed to

gather information about the difficulties master students
of physics encounter for writing their research papers.

I. Teachers’ Profile
1. How many years have you been teaching English?
2. Are you a language teacher or a subject specialist?
3. Which skills do you most focus on while teaching
English in the department of physics?
A. Reading B. writing
C. speaking D. listening
4. Have you received any training in teaching English for
students of physics?
II. Issues, tensions, and challenges associated with
writing
1. According to you, what is the importance of the
writing skill compared to the other language skills?
2. Which assignments do you generally suggest to you
students?
3. Do you teach your students about writing a scientific
paper? 4. What are the common difficulties your students
often experience while writing their papers about
physics?

English for Specific Purposes Page 52

5. What are the possible reasons you may list for those
difficulties your students face?

III. Methodologies and techniques to assist students

overcome their difficulties in writing research papers.
1. Do you raise your students’ awareness about the
necessity to make efforts to writing a research paper?
2. In what ways do you motivate your students and
realize that their writing skills are important for their
future careers?
3. While teaching about writing; do you use any model
of a research paper to follow? If yes explain
4. Do you read and discuss with your students their
research papers in your class?
5. Based on your own professional experience, what
would you please suggest particular recommendations or
activities for you students to overcome their difficulties
to writing their research papers?

Thanks for your collaboration

E.3. The Tests. Test as an instrument is a valuable

source to gather data and to evaluate the influence of a
variable under specific conditions with specific subjects
i.e. it can provide information about the learners‘ skills
competence, the teaching procedure and the teaching
materials. In this view, Bachman (1990) suggests that in
addition to measuring learners‘ performances, tests can,
also be considered as a kind of research instrument used
to analyse the teaching and testing situation ―...in a
language programme a number of things are evaluated
other than learner proficiency. These may include the
effectiveness of particular methods or materials...
learner/teacher satisfaction, teaching effectiveness, etc‖
(CEFRL: 177)

English for Specific Purposes Page 53

 3.1 Samples of Tests

Sample reading Maze test designed by Lamri (2015)

Curriculum-Based Measurement: Maze Passage:

Examiner Copy
Student/Classroom: __________________ Examiner:
____________ Assessment Date: _______

Passing an Act
Professional English in Use Law

All Acts must be submitted to both Houses of

parliament in the draft from of a Bill. The legislative
process involves three readings (in) both houses. At the
first reading, (the) title is read to members of
(Parliament) (MPs); at the second reading, MPs (debate)
proposals.

Then a standing committee will (scrutinize) the

provisions in the Bill and (may) amend it to ensure that it
(enshrines) the principles debated and approved at (the)
second reading. This is reported back (to) MPs. At the
third reading, the (bill) is represented. The Bill then goes
(through) readings in the upper house. The (actual)
drafting of the legislation is undertaken (by)
Parliamentary Counsel. Finally, a bill must (receive)
Royal Assent from the monarch before (it) becomes law
on a specified date. (In) fact, this stage has been reduced
(to) a formal reading of the short (title) of an act in both
Houses (of) parliament and is now a formality.
(Government) Bills are introduced by the Government;
(Private) Members Bills are proposed by MPs. (Both)
methods may result in Public Acts (that) govern the
general individuals or institutions.

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Readability Estimation
Formula Value
Dale-Chall 7-8
Flesch Index 64.8/100 (plain English)

Curriculum-Based Measurement: Maze Passage:

Student Copy
#/Correct: ____ #/Errors: ____
Student Name: ____________________ Classroom:
____________ Date: _______

Passing an Act
Professional English in Use Law

All Acts must be submitted to both Houses of

parliament in the draft from of a Bill. The legislative
process involves three readings (release, in, basin) both
houses. At the first reading, (the, face, over) title is read
to members of (Parliament, goat, broken) (MPs); at the
second reading, MPs (went, upset, debate) proposals.
Then a standing committee will (scrutinize, prevent,
food) the provisions in the Bill and (fought, may,
amused) amend it to ensure that it (son, solemnly,
enshrines) the principles debated and approved at
(vanish, rain, the) second reading. This is reported back
(square, save, to) MPs. At the third reading, the (bill,
side, throughout) is represented. The Bill then goes
(dirty, husky, through) readings in the upper house.

The (madly, actual, mend) drafting of the legislation is

undertaken (rest, by, flown) Parliamentary Counsel.
Finally, a bill must (neatly, took, receive) Royal Assent
from the monarch before (it, promptly, sky) becomes law
on a specified date. (Wood, Prevent, In) fact, this stage
has been reduced (to, opinion, began) a formal reading of

English for Specific Purposes Page 55

the short (title, morning, straight) of an act in both
Houses (of, reject, soft) parliament and is now a
formality. (Basket, Government, Glamorous) Bills are
introduced by the Government; (family, Private, clearly)
Members Bills are proposed by MPs. (Both, Amuse,
Credit) methods may result in Public Acts (that, cord,
went) govern the general individuals or institutions.

E.4. Observation. The observation method is a research

tool often used to measure and collect data
about people‘s attitudes and behaviors in a natural
setting and in a systematic manner.

According to Stallings (1980: 469) common

elements exist in almost all observational situations:

 a purpose for the observation

 operational definitions of all the observed
behaviors
 training procedures for observers
 a specific observational focus
 a setting
 a unit of time
 an observation schedule
 a method to record the data
 a method to process and analyze data

4.1. Sample Observation

Classroom observation checklist designed by Mahi
(2021)

Observation Report
Institute National de Formation Supérieur des Sages-
Femmes
Classroom Observation Report

English for Specific Purposes Page 56

Observer: ______________________________
Session number: _____________________
Course: ________________________________
Date/ Time of observation: _____________

This form is used by the observer to report the

findings from the classroom observation. It includes a
checklist for both the teacher and learners of Medical
English for Nurses at INFSSF institute. It aims at
investigating the practice of CS in the ESP teaching
situation and spotting learners attitudes towards their
teacher‘s adoption of this practise.
a) Teacher’s Checklist:

Occurrences of learners‘ Yes No Comments

CS during English session
1. Translating
2. Explaining (Help-
switching
3. Explaining task
instruction
4. Providing illustrations
5. Increases learners‘
comprehension
6. Emphasizing important
points
7. Clarifying
misunderstood points
8. Teaching time
management
9. Attract attention
10.Reinforce a request
11.Motivating learners‘
involvement
12.Easing tension and

English for Specific Purposes Page 57

injecting humor
13.Shifting to new topics

b) Learners’ Checklist:

Occurrences of learners‘ Yes No Comments

CS during English session
1. Lack of content
knowledge
2. Lack of linguistic
competence
3. Lack of fluency in
conversing
4. Expressing their
opinions and ideas
5. Conveying precise and
meaningful information
6. Communicating with
other classmates
7. Habitual expressions
8. Emphasis a point
9. Mood of the speaker

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