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ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
Modelling of an Electric Vehicle
1
N Madhav Sai, 2 Lekshmi S, 3 Manitha P V
123
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita School of
Engineering, Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India.
3
[email protected] Corresponding Authors: Lekshmi S, Manitha P.V., Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa
Vidyapeetham, India,
[email protected],
[email protected] Abstract. Electric Vehicles (EVs) are considered to be as an essential aspect in the immediate
term to reduce global emissions and to improve local air quality. The automobile industry will
have a substantial transformation in the upcoming five to ten years than it has in the last few
decades. The development of technologies promoted a better eco-friendly version of EVs.
Electric cars in short are the thought of batteries on wheels and are the future of motoring.
Growing concerns over the limited supply of fossil fuels led to the invention of electric cars
which truly rely upon the use of an electric drive system rather upon the Internal Combustion
Engines. In addition, electric cars diminished the pressure of massive carbon emissions, urban
pollution, greenhouse gases, and city noises. This paper proposes an investigative study on
electric vehicle modelling, simulation, and step-by-step control design for an effective
environment. For the purpose of modelling and simulation of an electric vehicle
MATLAB/SIMULINK software is used.
1. Introduction
Development of automobiles with electric motors is one of the greatest innovations by mankind. Control
of carbon emissions has been an emerging challenge over the last decade. The modern automobile
industries around the world are still the cause for massive greenhouse gas generation and the reason for
the depletion of the ozone layer. The substantial usage of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles
deteriorated fossil fuels. The research in transportation led to the invention of an Electric Vehicle which
indeed was an appreciable choice for the mode of transportation [1-2]. Electric Vehicles (EV) are
decarbonized, minimizing the soot and smog, and are the better version than ICE because of their lighter
weight and better performance in regard to their acceleration. The effective usage of power by the
principle of regenerative braking had a considerable advantage amongst the vehicles in the market.
Electric vehicles can be easily charged either from local charging stations or from home ports or by
renewable energy sources, preserving the limited fossil fuels. Electric vehicles will be unaffected even
though the fuel supplies are disrupted or fuel costs increase abruptly. Electric vehicles laid the hold of
precedence over other considerations for car enthusiasts because of their torque generation. Rapid torque
is generated by the electric and magnetic fields of an electric car. The current-placed operator in a
magnetic field encounters a force that causes the arm to rotate, leading to the EMF (Electro-Motive
Force) anti-electric force [3].
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
EVs are capable of being quicker than IC engines and they can even sustain higher speeds for longer
periods of time. EVs have lesser moving parts, so they are able to run more efficiently eliminating the
drivetrain loss and being able to use a lot more of their horsepower [4]. The EV industry is realizing that
the car needs to sustain its efficiency over the long haul, which led to several kinds of EVs namely
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEV). In this work, basic modelling of an electric vehicle is built using suitable entities which control
the commands from driver input. Motor creates an efficient transformation of energy stored in batteries
of an EV to generate motion [5]. The motion developed in the vehicle enables the vehicle's body to
function, thus travelling to a distance within a certain period of time.
Braking is an essential factor to be considered while designing an EV. This process is achieved when
a machine or an electrical device restricts its movement. It is usually necessary to drive the car quickly
and smoothly according to a given speed schedule. In a mechanical process, the braking action is
performed with a force of contradictory force between the rotating parts and brake pads. On the other
hand, in electric braking, brake torque is being opposed to the movement of the rotating parts which is
developed during braking operation. Electrical systems are much more efficient, accurate and have
smooth control by which quick stop is possible comparatively [6].
2. Classification of electric vehicles
Electric Vehicles revolution is speeding up rapidly that it would be the future of motoring. EVs are
broadly classified into the following types.
2.1. Battery electric vehicles
Battery Electric Vehicles commonly referred to as Electric Vehicles are fully electric vehicles that are
powered only by rechargeable batteries and do not have a petrol engine. All the power needed to drive
a car comes from a battery pack that can be recharged from the grid. The impact of BEV on the
environment is prioritized over internal combustion engines because they have zero emissions and do
not generate any harmful tailpipe emission vehicles [7]. They are capable of fast charging and L2
charging (A specific charging unit which is mounted on a wall and possess around 240 charging volts
and 40-amp). The three main considered elements of battery electric vehicle are zero-stroke electric
motor, battery or series of built-in batteries (with their different types of configurations) and unusual
transmission of motor energy to the wheels. In fact, few BEVs park car in the wheel arches. Electric
driving is more efficient than fire engines and steam locomotives because it is much easier to convert
electricity into electrical energy.
2.2. Hybrid electric vehicles
Hybrid Electric or HEV cars have both gas-powered engines and an electric car engine to drive the
car. All the required battery power is obtained by attaching the reset brakes, which saves the stored
energy in the battery when the vehicle goes through a reduction. The lost power in the brakes helps the
fuel engine during acceleration. In traditional combustion engines, these brakes are lost through heat in
brake pipes and rotors and HEV cannot enter grid for renewal of energy. HEV increase the efficiency
of the vehicle and lower carbon dioxide emissions therefore leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions.
The essential idea of the hybrid electric vehicle is that the two types of proposing system work (Internal
combustion engine and Electric motors) in a harmony. The internal combustion engine has two modes
of operation which are to provide the mode of power and to help charge the batteries of vehicles.
2.3. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles or PHEV consist of both an engine and an electric motor, which can
charge their batteries by the method of regenerative braking. They have a much larger battery than
HEVs. Unlike HEVs, PHEV can be able to plug into the grid for recharge. PHEVs travel with the
assistance of gas engines. In case if the electric car runs out of power, the electric car switches to a
2
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
complete gas-powered engine and can travel several kilometres. These vehicles are relatively new and
are quite a priority for car enthusiasts because of their dual functioning [8]. The advantage is that it has
the potential to add all the electricity. The three most important elements considered are an internal
combustion engine, zero-emission electric engine (supports multiple engines) and a battery or a series
of batteries.
When a user drives a PHEV, the primary power considered would be electric, indicating the electric
system to be at the first priority. If the electric car cannot provide any power from the batteries, the car
switches to gas-powered and takes it over [9]. In a PHEV, the gas-powered engines support electric
motors when high acceleration is needed. PHEV offers the user the best advantage while travelling long
distances. The development of the electric industry for the better performance of electric vehicles has
always been progressing. Electric vehicles are a suitable option for the replacement of internal
combustion engines if the fossil fuels are depleted.
3. System architecture
A general architecture of electrical vehicle is represented in Figure 1. The architecture comprises of
Drive input, Controller, Motor, Battery and Vehicle Body. Plug-in Drive input which inputs accelerator
and control brake pedal positions. Smart controller that processes the inputs and determines the vehicle
commands such as acceleration, braking, energy regeneration, state of charge of the battery. Based on
the driver inputs, motor (an actuator element) that implements the controller commands. Battery, a
storage unit which stores energy required to transmit to the controllers, sensors and motor and vehicle
body which can be propelled or driven by any kind of energy [10].
Figure 1. Block diagram of electric vehicle model
4. Entities
The foremost components of MATLAB/SIMULINK which are necessary for the functioning of
modelled electric vehicle are discussed in this section. The main objectives and specifications of the
elements along with the ports of each are explained in brief.
4.1. Signal builder block
The signal-building block allows to create an alternate group of direct signal sources and apply it to
the model. It enables to quickly turn off signal groups in and out of the model to facilitate testing. In the
Signal Builder window, signals are designed and defined by waveforms. The removal of the signal
building block could be a square wave pulse.
3
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
4.1.1. Outputs:
Signal 1 – First Output Signal (scalar, vector, matrix)
4.2. Longitudinal Driver
Longitudinal Driver is a block that controls the long-term tracking controller that produces
acceleration and deceleration commands based on the direction and speed response. The block generates
standard acceleration and braking commands that can vary from 0 to 1. The block is used to illustrate
the driver's powerful response or to execute instructions needed to follow a long-term driving cycle.
4.2.1. Input ports
Vel Ref-Input hole associated with vehicle input speed(m / s), VelFdbk -Input port with speed
response from the vehicle that helps to control the system and Grade input port which correspondes to
facial inclination of degrees.
4.2.2. Exhaust holes
Information - Exit port associated with bus signal acceleration, speed reduction, speed error, etc.,
AccelCmd - Exit port associated with acceleration commands with respect to the input signal and
DecelCmd - Exit port associated with download commands refers to the installation drive.
4.3. Controlled pwm voltage
The controlled PWM Voltage block controls the pulse-wide modulated power source (PWM) to
control the voltage applied to the H-Bridge according to the requirements.
4.3.1. Input ports
U - Control Signal, unitless
4.3.2. Storage of Ports
Ref + - Signal hole for active voltage measurement, Ref- - Negative signal hole, PWM - Pulse -
Electrical signal width and Ref - A hole associated with the ZERO voltage reference
4.4. H-bridge
The H-Bridge block represents the H-bridge driver. The output of the H-Bridge block is a controlled
electrical power based on the input signal from the PWM port. If the input signal has a large value that
enables the maximum voltage limit value, the H-Bridge output is turned on and has a value equal to the
Output voltage amplitude parameter value. If it has a value less than the allow value of the threshold
voltage , the block keeps the loading circuit using one of the following Freewheeling mode modes either
by one semiconductor switch and one free dice or by two freewheeling diodes or by two semiconductor
switches and one diode freewheeling [11]. The first and third options are sometimes referred to as
synchronized functionality.
The signal at the REV port determines the size of the output. If the signal value in the REV port is less
than the value of the Reverse threshold voltage parameter, the output has a positive polarity; otherwise,
it has a negative polarity.
4.4.1 The H-Bridge has the ports as
‘+’ -Saving port associated with good loading connections is often connected to a good car port, ‘-‘-
Maintenance of the port associated with the negative load connection is usually connected to the
negative motor terminal, PWM - Maintenance of the port associated with the PWM (Voltage pulses)
signal. REF - Preservation of the hole associated with a change in the electric field polarity of the Bridge
output signal. REV - Preservation of the hole associated with the power control of the polarity of the
4
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
bridge output signal and BRK - Maintenance of the power connection associated with the power supply
when applying the brakes, thus facilitating the process of attaching the control brakes [12].
4.5. DC car
It converts electrical power to move mechanically
4.5.1 Storage of Ports
‘+’ - The ports receive an electrical signal associated with the motor positive terminal, ‘-‘ -Port
receiving electrical signal associated with negative motor terminal, C - Vehicle storage hole associated
with vehicle size and connected to a rotating reference block and R - Equipment storage associated with
the Rotor shaft of a vehicle producing the required input into the transmission system.
4.6. Simple Gear
A simple gear block is used to connect the car to the rear axle of the car. It represents the gearbox that
connects the input shaft to the base gear and the output from the Foller gear.
4.6.1. Port ports:
B - a hole associated with the input shaft (car shaft) and F - hole associated with the output shaft (axle
/ contrast)
4.7. Motor Vehicle Body
Modeling the longitudinal force, parallel to the ground and parallel in terms of the movement that the
body of the two-axle car should move.
It enables to imagine that an electric car can be kept inside the sound and the normal balance.
4.7.1. Input ports:
W-Head air speed, m / s (scale), Beta-Road Incline Angle, rad (scale), CG- Center of Gravity, m (vector
two elements), M-Mass, kg (scale) and J - External inertia time, kg * m ^ 2 (scale)
4.7.2. outlet ports:
V- Longitudinal Velocity, m / s (scale), NF-Front axle Force Normal, N (scale) and NR-rear standard
axle Force, N (scale)[13].
5. State of charge
State of Charge (SOC) denotes the standard battery charge for its capacity. SOC is almost equal to a
fuel indicator that is built-in Internal Combustion Engines. SOC is usually represented in form of
percentage where one hundred percent refers to full capacity and zero percent as null capacity. Since
lithium-ion batteries lose their efficiency comparatively quicker, the highest charge limit is set either to
80 or 85 percent, and the highest discharge is fixed up to 10 to 15 percentage. Estimation of battery SOC
is a key feature in the battery management system, which enables the user to predict the level of charge.
SOC can be calculated from equation (1).
𝜇
𝑆𝑜𝐶 = 𝑆𝑜𝐶0 − ∫ 𝐼(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝐶
where 𝑆𝑜𝐶0 is the initial value of SoC, I(t) is the battery current and C is the total capacity and µ is
Coulomb efficiency [5]. Generally, the value of µ is close to one for lithium-ion batteries.
6. Specifications
The entities are modelled in a specific manner in order to obtain the desired outputs. The entities are
required to follow the necessary conditions and specifications for efficient functioning of the model.
5
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
Table 1. illustrates the specifications and parameter values of the entities
considered for the simulation of the model.
Component Parameter Value
Longitudinal Driver Proportional gain, Kp: 15
Integral gain, Ki: 1
Velocity feed-forward, kff: 0.05
Grade angle feed-forward: 0.01
Controlled PWM Voltage PWM frequency: 1000 Hz
Battery Type: Lithium-Ion Nominal Voltage: 50V
Battery Rated Capacity: 50 Ah
Initial State of Charge: 100%
Battery Response Time: 30s
Vehicle Body Mass: 600kg
H-bridge Enable threshold voltage:0.001 V
PWM signal amplitude: 1 V
Reverse threshold voltage: 0.0001V
Braking threshold voltage: 0.0001V
7. Simulations and results
This section provides a complete version of details on the main theme of the work. The simulation
model shown in Figure 2. represents the basic modelling of an electric vehicle in MATLAB Simulink
platform. The electric car follows the desired input (indicator speed). Depending on the input, the electric
vehicle's range forecast can be evaluated and the time taken to achieve that, is determined. The average
speed of the electric vehicle can also be calculated based on the responses obtained.
6
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
Figure 2. Simulink Model of Electric Figure 3. The Simulink Model of Driver Input
Vehicle Subsystem
7.1. Driver Input
Figure 3. represents the Simulink model for driver input sub system. The signal builder block outputs
a wave pulse which is controlled and commands are generated based on their enabled threshold voltage.
Figure 4. Simulink Model of Battery Pack Subsystem
7
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
Figure 5. The Simulink Model of Vehicle
Body Subsystem
7.2 Battery Pack
Electric Vehicle Battery pack is composed of Cells, Modules and Pack
7.2.1 Electric Cell:
A basic unit of Li-ion battery that exerts electrical energy by charging and discharging is referred as
Cells or Electrical cell.
7.2.2 Electric modules:
A combination of cells assembled in the form of a module to prevent external shocks and vibrations
is called as electric modules.
7.2.3 Battery pack:
The final battery consisting of battery management system and a cooling system is installed to the
electric vehicle as shown in Figure 4.
Li-ion batteries with the initial state of charge of one hundred percent has been used in the model.
Discharging and charging level of SOC is being obtained through simulation.
7.3 Vehicle body
The vehicle body comprises simple gear, differential, and magic wheels which help in the motion of
the vehicle based on the rotation of the shaft as shown in Figure 5.
8
ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
Figure 6. The plot of reference speed and Figure 7. State of charge of a battery
actual speed
Figure 6. depicts the actual and reference speed waveforms. The reference speed given is accelerated up
to 400 seconds and is uniform until it reaches 600 seconds. The vehicle decelerates and is motionless
after 1000 seconds. In Figure 6. the blue-colored plot is the reference speed and the red-colored plot is
real speed or actual speed of the vehicle and it can be inferred that the actual speed follows the reference
speed of the electric vehicle. Due to the loss of energy, a deviation occurs in the actual speed and
reference speed.
The battery has discharged non-linearly up to 600 seconds and for the remaining 400 seconds, the
battery has charged according to the feedback as observed in Figure 7. The speed of the vehicle during
acceleration increases, thereby resulting in the discharge of the battery (up to 600 seconds). The battery
gets charged by the principle of regenerative braking, when the vehicle undergoes deceleration (600 –
1000 seconds) which has been observed in Figure 6.
The SOC implemented in the model has an initial state of charge of a hundred percent. The maximum
efficiency can be achieved by setting the limit of the highest charge value to eighty percent and the
highest discharge point at thirty percent, thereby giving a longer life to the battery.
The electrical vehicle covers a distance of about 13.42km. The stop time for the simulation has been set
to 1000sec (i.e., 0.277778hrs). The average speed is the total distance covered divided upon by total
time. Hence, the average speed of the vehicle is about 48.31 kmph.
8. Conclusions
The basic model of a battery-powered electric vehicle has been simulated in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK software. The results of the proposed simulation model are analysed and it has
been observed that the results obtained are in accordance with the theoretical approach. The simulation
has been able to give an appropriate idea of the range prediction for an electric vehicle. Super Capacitors
can be used as a part of battery pack which improves vehicle acceleration, overall drive efficiency,
thereby improving driving range and reduces life cycle costs and capital costs. The fast charging of EV
by integration techniques using DC-DC converters and wind energy as a source to charge the electric
vehicles and also using solar energy as a backup fuel to charge the battery station can be included in the
further study, which is beneficial while travelling long distance . Additional supply by solar cells and
using waste heat energy can result in an effective environment. There is further scope in this research
work by incorporating the principle of regenerative braking and hence analysing the efficiency of the
electric vehicle.
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ICE4CT2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2312 (2022) 012055 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2312/1/012055
9. References
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