1-1, 1-2. 1-3. 1-4, SURVEYING DEFINITION OF SURVEYING PLANE AND GEODETIC suRvEy ing 1. Plane Surveying TYPES OF SURVEYS ; 1. Cadastral surveys 6. Industria Surveys 2. City Surveys 7. Mine Surveys 3. Consénuction Surveys _&, Photogrammetric. Surveys 4. Forestry Surveys 9. Route Surveys 5. Hydrographic Surveys 19, sees Surveys DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING TNSTRUMEMT: 1. Astrotabe 8. ee 2. Telescope 9 Vernier Transit Semicincumferentoryavex NO man is surveying. p, a a ea S has alwa. rough the centur; earliest cima trac Bea that today it |* fiipaneles ane eee ae expan eee gineering construct; uses of tndertake any tife of surveying. Planning q, not Involve some tYpe OF surveys, and Constry,. based on the tevin. Professionals in the air. nteolled by surveyiNg: 17°3s geologists, aret lds of enginesliturists, and geographers are con. sores a means of planning and executing Ls ie rts practiced design are fon te 69 rent fle fezee, foresters, teened with surveyin cts. z thelr respec ver’ a wide range in scope and complexity, of simple structures or the surveyiy from it “patcels of land to the extensive (and difficuip ges, highways, canals, dams, railroads, wharves, missile . f and’ rocket launching sites, drainage and irrigation sys: : tems, or the survey of relatively large portions of the earth's surface. Surveying is also requixed for the laying out of industrial equipment, preparing forestry and gedit Tecoma cPoeitloning massive and complex machinery, iy : = huiyes SuacHipn Of lite anaidi:planes, Jaseweumaeeys co Survey and exploration of extrati i i Cre ates errestrial bodies such as course which ‘tnk logically, to plan, and to arrange the pro- tly manner for ‘re. F = 3 | n1. “surveying 1s the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth's surface by means Of measo- Cements in the three elements of space; namely, distancey. Birection, and elevation." - Rayner and Schmidt. 2. gurveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles fetween lines, of determining the direction of lines, and ef establishing points by predetermined angular and linear feasurenents." - Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail : 3. "Surveying is the art of making such measurements GE (the relative positions of points on the/surtace of “the farth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artifi- eiall'featuces may be exhibited) in. their correct /horSzonted or vertical relationships." - Clarke~ 4. "Surveying 1s that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any por’ tion of the earth's.surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of ac~ curately delineating the whole on paper." ~ Webster- 5. "Surveying is the science or art of making such neasurements as are necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the farth, or te establish sucH points." - Breed, Hosmer, and Bone. 6. "surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points." — Brinker and Wolf. eying. 7) e centu: today ae construction Planning ang nd construce sin the dig. ists, archi- exS are cone nd executing complexity, e surveying nd difficult sions, brid= ‘ves, Missile igation sys— ions of the ox the laying ry and geolo- schinery, in ell as in the jies such as he study of may never ac- course which ly, to plan, ange the pro- nner for re- provide the also develop of the sub- such that it From the different definitions given above, it is ob— vious that surveying activities during the earlier part of the decade have only been limited to suryeys on or near the surface of the earth. Times, however, have changed and modern surveying techniques are now ration and in the mapping of extra as the moon, mars, and in the nets, stars, and other heavenly bi | reliability. The author believes that th at deal about now much wider and complex in e s trained to should be redefined more appr ts should be science of determining angular ing numerical establish the form, extent, — 1S. All these points, lines, and areas on of earth or on other extraterrestr mathematics and the use of spec nigues. / A and technical characteris~ arth's surface or boundaries ns have been are liste{ , at surface, and £1 Vhg eoy to be a Plimited extent thar . siderstved are Of deg. with regard tt %% coz aren 18 d15reg0r Level Line fs cme boun sean tcteighe,_ the dkrectton of | iets hematicallY be tne same at ali points igh : d to Pe all angles are cons dere? ac: plano 110 che surveys 8M | ments ty \ oan tn is of wide scope and application, detez Th, land, surveying are employed jp vas of Pit engineer ing, scientific, 3 ta ‘elona under veys under’ eographic, naviga 7 ANd gy, te architecturaly othe required degree of aceuray | Sna 2 the controlling factor in most surveys, 7 re a 4 basis for t ship t Pographic maps, [ x of observation out an an | reference i othersurfaces Shag nited extent that tere j. With regard tg the corners, and areas. Th level line is lo. | bounderies of municipal ye direction ge "Si. | dictions tall points yigthe 2. City Surveys - are surveys of the areas in and near les are Considereg 1 | a city for the Purpose of planning expansions or imptove- to | ments, locating Property lines, fixing reference monuments, @ application Getermining the physical features and configuration of the are employed i, The | land, and preparing maps scientific, Ya 3. Construction Surveys - these are surveys which are avigational, ang°c™ | undertaken at a construction site to provide data regerdire d degree of accurt® | S848, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration) most surveys, 8cY | amd the location and elevation of structures which ace of areajepiea nee Mo | concern to engineers, architects, and builders. sss) extrema tenons 7 Forestry Surveys -a type of survey executed in sie Lora ‘CCuracy connection with forest management and mensuration, and the €8S Of some Production and conservation of forest lands. 5. Hydrographic Surveys - refer to surveying streams, nage: of Mi ebeueMmm 1abe2)) ¥eucrvoira >, hahors) scandy Spticeharwpoatenra? Shape of the earth, water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the esy, are of high | shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the involve the'solving J) floviof streams. They are of general importance In conngee matics particularly | tion with navigation, development of water supply and re- one applications of | Sources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydro- electric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation. of a national cha~ &- Industrial Surveys - sometimes known as optical nent agencies to | tooling. It refers to the use of surveying techniques in accurate base and | ShiP building, construction and assembly of aircrart, lay- ‘uments and methods | Ot and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in surveys provide va other Epeueriss where very accurate dimensional layouts 2a of 12 | are required. * tion ana ej agee 7. Mine Surveys - are surveys which are performed to Subordinate sur- | Getermine the position of all underground excavations ana | as plane Surface, mine structures, to fix ‘surface boundaries of joints are CoE mining claims, determine geological formations, or below g rege. | late excavated volumes, and establ el other related mining work. 8. Photogrammetric Surve: make use of photographs taken Cameras either from airplanes Surveys are also made to fix the 8, towns, and provincial juris- detic surve, ys are tes, tapes, and ecently, newly de- h ments are obtained fron the cated Polen ane Ml conjunction’ with Linteca grou cated systens are 9. Route Surveys - im shorter | alignment, grades, earthwork g tal and artificial objects in i design, and construction of hig) canals, transmission lines, and 10. Topographic Surveys = etermining the shape of the elevation of natural and arti "Mowing are the 5 ‘ures shown include such nS Fo nEveYS which tains, rivers, lakes, °8 ang poe Purpose and works of man, such sunderies? | unicipalities, and briagly: Tes, B ed gradual be P 5 were deve ere veyiig instruments cay “the Roman empize. This ;* Romans 1s Clearly denose ying 3 that, | uring theering ability of iti of structures f gurve: lieve’ pout: in surkaple , engi 0te oxtensivfo exist even up to these mogs,’| fn truments trated | °Ynich contin many surveying ins ang bulla iter viii be noted thee me yn were| earlieruitsed inf sive cons fevices evolved, fron | “Nvtruments were the early for," devices 6 following ini a | pies astronony, one vesent-day surveying instrume | 2 Pa hus is consi, i : olabe of Hipparchus NS idey_ : a hee ee cw of the measuring instrument, Se bee AoW epaaanelene elpeac teas developeg that : @ further improved by Ptolemy. The s pone as hal cee tal icivele' Git ial ga tten e ieeeaaeenye z sur tdet andl halanbyiayelnaea bene op ewan ete roeE staff, a Wooden rod about 1.25 meters long with an adjustable cross ; arm at right angles to it, |The known length of the arms of the cross staff allow distances and angles to be determined by proportion. It was originally designed for determining the altitude of stars, 2. Telescope. The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo cons- Hane opie qreeeacting. telescope for, astronomical -fabserme ° tions (Fig.1-1). However, it was only when cross hairs for ‘I fixing the line of duced, that the teles. 4 Cope was used in ea: struments. 3. Transit. line: - Plane Table. Or uments used getached to a trip be leveled or rots of Fauld be rotatea 4, For measurin he Graduations fn otis apertureonsider— truments evelopea emy. The d at its staff, a e cross~ arms of termined ermining 1607 is eo cons= observa— airs for teles— 1-2) is tly from to put hat has nt. strument angles, ts. urveying a board it can perfect- and £0r sts eS~ ard and plane- isc with sighting desired ie groma Sighting % Fig. 1-1, Early Transit.points. It consisted basically of cross arms fixed at right angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a vertical staff. Plumb lines were suspended from the ends of the arms, By employing the grona two lines at right angles to each other Gould be established on the ground where it is set up. f. Libella. The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be the first users of the libella (Fig. 1-7). The instru- ment had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from ite orets “nd WaS used to determine the horizontal. archeolo- gists are of the belief that the horizontal foundations | of fhe _Steat pyramids of Egypt were probably defined by this device. 8. Vernier. The vernier (Fig. 1-8) is a short auxillary Scale [placed alongside the graduated scale of an inetead Tent, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or jeast division of the main scale can be determined precise- iy without having to interpolate. It was invented i, 1631 by a Frenchman mame Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or Tetrograde vernier. 10. Diopter. an instrument developed by the Greeks onetime! sin (130 8.¢., and known to ba their most famous surveying instrument. The diopter (Fig. 1-9) was used for leveling, laying off right angles, and for measuring hori- zontal and vertical angles. Since the telescope was not yet invented during the time the diopter was used, Peep sights were employed . for sighting and in aligning the device. 11. Compass. The magnetic compass (Fig. 1-10) came into wide use during the 13th century for determining the direc- tion of lines and in calculating angles between lines, It was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass fensists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to Point toward magnetic north and gives a reading which is dependent upon the position of the: graduated circle, 12. Gunter's Chain. The Gunter's chain (Fig. 1-11), Which was invented by Sir Edmund’ Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner of instruments used for taping distances. It is &6 £t long and contains 100 links, so that distances may be fecorded in chains and in decimal parts of the chain. Bach Part, called a link, is 0.66 £t or 7.92 inches long. 13. Chorobates. This instrument was “designed for le- veling work. It consisted of a horizontal straight-edge about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and a groove 2.5 ince’ eR, 2nd 1.5m long on top (Pig. | I-az), water tie poured into the groove and when the bar is leveled so that water Stood evenly in the groove without. spilling, a horizontal line is established. s f 14. Merchet. The merchet was a device for measuring time and meridian. It was first used by the Chaldeans in bout 4,000 B.c. It consisted of 4 slotted palm leaf through which to sight and a bracket from which a plumb bob Diem uspended. By sighting through the alee and past the Plumb bob string, a straight line could be projected, Ronn Crone, SOOVPGRUNW—O ewe I,Fig. 1-10. Eanty Compass.1. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE -2. DISTANCE BY PACING 3. DISTANCE BY TAPING |. DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY 1. Stadéa Method 2.. Subtense Bar slethod q DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS. 6. DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL Devices 1. Odometer 2. Measuring wheet 3. Optical Rangesinder “7. DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY 6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEUS See between t, mee jpexations op See understood t, points ake at ditt pojgontal 2ength bet, {instances Measure. ny “nese distances, ne ipeix equivalent ing distance. The] fh the measurement is Dost, and other con. the met! iret Steyn y geplonee a eee Faktronic rement. In t 7 - BES elton senecaz ay 8 combination Of seth to advantage. 6-2. DISTANCE BY PACING. » Pacing consists of counting the number of steps OF paces in “E'fequized distance. A pace is defined as the length of a Step. in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or fron toe to toe (Fig. 6-1). In surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps; and if the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the lengt! known. Counting strides instead ferred by surveyors. A stride is | a double step. Because of its it is one of the most valuab rate length of to adjust 1 meter the 1 This can length on number of pace is es sable to to deter : is then 4 average _ expressed r'S) a sur~ ‘£ methods counted, step is mes pre- Paces or cations, asurement 18 sufficient, ently accur. for, ctails and traversing issance Surveys, logy, forestry, se. conditio; sverage By |g? 900d pacer will qty in pacing distances with a rel it: 700, Results Ke Dee. ely iamaen rea distepatteined witht gace incounting, it wiij¢, gear be fp exxor. To pace a distance it 4 ine length of ‘one!aipace: this ts tefcrra tit, Cate factor. There ‘are two methods that can be used t rate one's pace. One method is to determine the average Jength of an individual's normal step. The other method is fe adjust one's pace to sone predetermined length, such as The length of a pace varies with different persons. his can be detexminediby walking/along a line oF known length on level ground at a uniform gait, and counting the maber of Paces it takes to negotiate the stretch. The lace pace is estimated|tolthe nearesiiqiarter gaceviife isianvic sable to do this in at least five or more trials in’ order to determine the average number of paces. The pace factor is then determined by dividing the known distance by the average number of paces required to traverse it. It is expressed in meters per pace. Any unknown distance may then be approximately calculated by determining the number of Paces (preferably the average) one ta " il and multiplying this by one's pace fac It is important to walk natur one's pace and in pacing distances. C )valk along a straight line. As or right of the line will definite Pacing. Also, an attempt to make length is tiring and will only gi the length of a pace will vary wi he roughness of the ground, shoes used, fatigue on the part the terrain, as well as the age the pace will also differ when | Pacing downhill will produce £ game distance uphill. In genera ftcreases as any of these factor! ‘Peed, 2 i tap) if, the distance to be paced it ‘able to bring along a mechanical | umber of paces taken. A device, fand “carried to register {ice used is the passomete © pacer. This device vi. ‘me'either foot touche! the numb x which 11 regi the grt co; the | moe Ta No. pably 1 distance, yy APTN oe 18 MeO rhor}2ONEES Detween t easuated saying ontsprated on the tape. te Sorin Ofopind 8 Gnascates “widely used 4, gistarnent whic! sages, canals, a, dams; engineering activi, as no) the precautio, and asuremen® fit with which tap, recioe ah vary £rom a relative gaping petter- be Ee aes were used BY sur. and vvof the steel tape only e use ne twentieth century, g oF the chain was Used for Pee at very old American distances measured i well see a distance sien the stein. A s0r¥eyOE 20" 5 ch. The procedure of a {hen called "chaining," a term Carried-over messuremetime when che Gunter's chain was introduced in the | tarly 1600. The term has apparently survived such that it still continues to be associated with the operation of mea- suring lines with tapes. The persons undertaking measure- nent were then referred to as chainmen. a ae elah deeds and plots wil _ &4. DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY, Machynetry (or tacheonet; ing horizontz i mee aT goHta) distancesjs brought, Into coincidence ip Mais he theweane ona ¢i9s 5), the corres ond inc fan Gtaduated scare on the eanias i ginder | For distances less than s a ican 00 meters th, € optical range- Providin, gre obtainable precision (gu iMY & Precision Ba °f about 1/59, hn) y . Strespondingly din: the Loe jength increases beyong its Such devices | : ‘es re Paeianecratee in reconnaissance erevsiic plane © Work = es Be by nore eee Bere AG measurements ob. si FIG 65. Coincidence of sptie énages, (a) Unfocused image ©1. DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY. ‘The term photogrammetry aa oe ae “Qh a photograph. ‘The type Se pick aoa ‘fSken from an aircraft with aris ae Vertically towards the cori Cise cameras and Photogrammetric eave fances can be measured on pho| Mout 1/3000 to 1/5000. "8. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. =m cou | DISTANCE BY PAGING. poe ‘ot da "0s paced by a surveyor for Co oe eancrol “The number of paces for each '"9 tabulation. D, what is sength of line CD win in walking an unknos Assuming that the tape th the relative precision ofnumber of tris taken. 98 line AB) * eae -6 2 by = 312 paces +52 + 53) suns 909584 14 Determi = 312/6 a pr = L/M, = 45m/52 paces . sume * = 0.865 m/pace (pace factor of surveyor) Mp = b) Determining Unknown Distance. 2 a 2 6 (number of trials taken on Line CD) e zi PD Sumer (771 + 770+-768 + 770 +772 + 769) : ae Determ ae sya = 4620/6 T= = 770 : faces, {mecn number of paces. to walk line CD) PD eee a ; Perce * 770 rN : (paced length of 11 Ine cD) ¢) Determining Relative Precision. TD = 667.6 ; Om : ' i : ngth of lirentage of error In the measurement if th of XYis rere Stal e taped length of XY is. olution petermining Pace Factor, L = 90.0m — (length of course) Ries (number of trials token) gum, = (51 + 525+ 51.5 +52.5 + 51.5) = 259 strides or 518 paces M,= Sum, /n, = 51875 103.6 paces (mean number of paces to walk the course) pr = L/M, = 90M/103.6 paces = 0,869 M/pace (pace tactor of pacer) ) Determining Unknown Distance. ngs 4 (number of trials taken on XY) gum, = (88.5 + 89 + 88 +87) = 352.5 strides or 705 paces M,= Sum,/np = 705/4 = 176.25 paces (mean number ot paces to walk line XY) PD = Mg(PF) = 176.25 paces (0.869 m/pace) = 153,2m (paced length of tine xv) ¢) Determining Percentage of Error. TD = 150.5m (taped distance) PD = 153.2m (paced distance) Stes 5 - 153.2 Percentage of Error = (T2=PP 100%) = HESES ESA 100%) = 1.79% 4. DISTANCE BY STADIA, A stadia rod held at a distant point B is Sighted by an instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair read~ - iigs were observed as 1.300m and 0.900m, If the stadia ind the instrumen is zero, determine tjt is an electro-optical device which was develo; py Erik Bergstrand, a Swedish physicist. Tha panes resulted from attempts to improve methods for measuring the i yelocity of light. The geodimeter, which is set up at o1 a station, projects a pulsating visible light beam to a 4 geflector (at another station) which returns the light to \ i ‘the instrument. Its use is based upon the known velocit: light. The technology developed for this system be possible a comparison between the transmitted and reflected light such that the time required for the light beam to i make its return to the instrument is determined. In some models, the’ maximum range varies from 5 to 10 km during daytime and up to about 25 to 30 km at nightime. The measurable range usually depends on atmospheric conditions. The precision of measurement attainable is about 1/200,000 of the distance. It is important that the } stations are intervisible and that a clear line of sight exists. 7-3. TELLUROMETER. In 1957, Dr. T1.L. Wadley of South Africa, announced his invention of the tellurometer which was to be the world's second EDM instrument. The tellurometer utilized high frequency microwave transmission and was capable of ed accor- | measuring distances up to 80 km day or night. It consisted Measuring | of two interchangeable 13-kg units, one being set-up on e classi- each end of the line to be measured. A series of radio ification | waves is transmitted by one of the units toward a receiver cal type | set up over the other end of the line. The impulses struments | generated during transmission are run through the circuitry L, light: fof the receiving unit.and are transmitted back to the sending unit. Since distances are computed on the basis of the velocity of xadio waves, it requires an accurate measurement of the: total time taken by the impulse to travel. fromyone station to another and back. The recorded time is indicated control panel of the transmitting unit. ‘ is It takes instrument during a“ capes? > peasurind 7-3), 2180 RROWn ag a type® ig. 1°?)2;ppon of Stee: eo) the connonly 90 reed t422 ace of rip per 30 ae \ steel TPE: gor! oP hs waters. are 32! seveyorte or engirars, 20d MG, and taiy steel tAPes are im prope: O.5, £0 200 CB Oe 0, 40) Pedommons USPC E 2 meters long to et ste! tera, bengrht tape 18 Bh, in 1008 Fined £Or most conven~ 6. A ta des engineering work. giase re 8: 8 Zerong tional measuremen' ciably glass ¢rical a wires ractic surveys as tions guch ¢ in bui: 9. Lote Thong use in 10. Wooden Handle eaten non-co corros 2. Metallic Tape. x wove + Metallic tape: Boren tapes. They are made of water orore’ 1ometimes called | 7-5. 7 Bronze “wirse' en iougitudinally small by linen fabric into increase its strength aaah copper, or The ¢£ reduce stretch- © work. Pally for nea mal " 5 PS, art! z pate nown Signal of lir hexage Pointe “May be » Markec SS | ents.apes are used only for Eye work and for chatting) the langeh GrtscheeneTiaelae {ney az aboutiten| tines ‘as axpensiva as, seainery tapes. The use of inva pensive as ordinary el ix tapes will require ve; handling since the alloy is soft and somewhat ane aera 3 a kind of tape which gets easily bent and ddunieniee Be eee este Beier: Gype) of) he asunirigs taya which has er tie omewhere between ost { gorieteene am et ie 6. Pe. This tape is made by weaving fiber- , in a longitudinal and transverse pateerne ease i nd flexible and will not shrink or stretch appre- ciab! th changes in temperature and humidity. A fiber- ies tape is best suited for use in the vicinity of elec- jrical equipment. icy Wires. Before thin flat steel tapes were produced, Byices were utilized in measuring lengths. They are still fractical to use in special cases as in hydrographic sirveys- @. Builder's Tape. Are tapes having smaller cross sec— tions and are lighter in weight than the engineer's tape. fich tapes are graduated to suit commonly used dimensions in building construction. 9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape. A rust-proof tape designed for vse in the vicinity of salt water. 10. Nylon-coated Steel Tape. Is a flexible crack resis7 tant steel core tape with a coating of permanently bonded | non-conducting nylon. It is designed to be resistant to corrosion and is immune to rust. i 1-5. TAPING ACCESSORIES - The following are the different accessories used in taping “Work, 4a), which are also 1. Range Pole. Range known as flags ox lim Signals to indicat of lines, hexagonal, Pointed. The us!“ry :called surveyor's arrows or taping pins. in the ground to mark the ends ct! neasured” tape or partial tape lengths, and may also be used in ice of wooden hubs or stakes. Most pins are made of heavy ye apout 30 cm long, are pointed at one end, have a round jap ae the otter end, | and painted with alternate red and ‘ e ie eee naar. n pins carried on a steel ring or "4, %ension Handle. This device, which is a oas a spring scale, is used at one end of a eapaiecea tte wring the application of the correct amount of pull on the tepe curing Measurement. ‘The spring balance is attached jetveen the handle and the tape, and a clip is fitted to the end ring of the tape. Tension handles (Fig. 7-4d) are qly used in precision taping. they are usually dispensed with in measuring distances requiring ordinary precision. 5. Tape Thermometer. In precision taping, thermometers are used to determine the temperature of the air and the poroximate temperature of the tape during measurement. Those used inthe field are about 10 to 15 cm long, and are wually graduated from -30 degrees centigrade to +50 deg- 'rees centigrade in 2-degree or 5-degree divisions. It is fastened to the tape by means of clips (Fig. 7-4e) and is lept in a protective metal case when not in use. 6. Plumb Bob. In taping, plumb bobs are used for pro- jecting the tape ends to the ground when the tape must be suspended above the measured line. Plumb bobs (Fig. 7-4£) tsed should weigh at least 0.25 kg and must be attached to a 1,5-m long string or cord which is free of knots. They re made of bronze with a pointed end which could be un- screwed for replacement. 1, Wooden Stake or Hub. Stakes or hubs (Fig.7-4g) are made of 5 cm x 5 cm by 30 cm wood to mark points, corners, “ stations on the ground. These temporary markers are re- uized in staking out a building or structure, running the centerline of a proposed road, and in staking out any line ot grade. The top of the hub is usually marked by driving nail or tack into/its center. - - on ng of a metal sighting signee? the tube has a peep shted object. A horizontal the bubble is centered whi aegei®, Used to keep the tape distting over rugged terrait opegtrence in elevation of Thecttions where itwe 1 cir tt gives percent grader cle 18 added tue of ¢ tied hae Brass Tube gency A kit usual flux and are Re The splice is Y meal Part of the eae of a Used j bi On opeuzveving are cm J upon 5 he slope (or fall) oe repairs to dy contains placed*| MEASUREMENT | OF HORIZONTAL _| DISTANCES ___ COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY 1. Head Tapeman 2. Recorder 3. Flagman 4, Rear Tapenan 4-2. THE PROCEDURE OF TAPING 1. Atéigning the Tape . Stretching the Tape © Plumbing Marking Full Tape Lengths . Tablying Taped Heasuxements Measuring Fractional Lengths $-3, BREAKING TAPE 8-4, SLOPE TAPING : CORRECTIONS IN TAPING «CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRE eeSue) 3 gavin ng distances ¥y ation he ind ment {8 nay , p Or aed gield, the taps, ja tne Pitated SFr ndividuall 4 gee 1 960"! fol | jeve the ely gists OF sible for the acc, on: exson Fe8POM™ ith the tape, y - the Pers Sourements vee or stations pena, yineat of po , a ipod of 212.5 ene Batt pectons 10NG 7700s or te racy 2! ol 0 el of tearing Be opetgarries the Ze the | e PF 4 18 record of al? measurcmently Skaty er ~ weeps 2 120080, 08 2 proce sure. . soservations f2Ke? CUS] 1 measurements made by the eee nso checks PY ore, mistakes, and blunders. See oss mistaguty is to hold the range a ct ercon vane GOEL 1800 Te nels th ments and assists in clearing out 3, Flags pole (or flagpole) 2 in making measure! fapenen erructions along the line to be measured. costrutions ioe the person whose duty is to assist 3. Plus the head tapenan during a taping operation. He is the one weeds, low vio holds the 30-mend or any intermediate meter mark of it will be tthe tape during a measurement. ground dui instead be or chest) ¢ tape is m plumb bob % is being D. §-2, THR PROCEDURE OP TAPING. ‘The usual procedure 4 i selected tay tape, stretchi: m mild, marking and cecordingi Cpe eRaEGE ARO ae OEE Tape. When _ bob point. keds 1 Lite is to be measured, ‘tape leng t "edlate points to mesynh ted Tks, ngths 1. Migni tess eee, and pulls the ta j ee*ine eingers and See ee act ren Nee ey alee win 4nto cng oan mark’ the zero-meter end/ot Gattabae pene head) tapamaniestainiay pili tha ceau/capamenstana pe noiding the tape precisely on the mark.” ; steady and firm pull, generally between ‘ and 7 k ‘plied on one end of the tape during stretching. No peasurement should be made without stretching the tape ince tapes are correct) in length only wiidn)a\ standaze pe js appl cs 3 oat £ the tape is stretched less than the required © pene) all recorded measurements will turn Bate fone eee A The tape will correspondingly be too long" + pull applied is greater than the standard pull, To maintain a steady pull, the leather thongs at the fape's end should be wrapped comfortably around one hand- & fim pull could also be made by holding on to a chaining pin slipped through the eye at the end of the tape, or by Paing a tape clamp. An efficient method-of communication must continue to be established between the tapeman tc ‘ob- tain accurate results, save time, and avoid jerking the tape. 3. Plumbing. When the ground is covered by obstacles, yeeds, low brush, and irregularities in the ground surface, it will be difficult or impossible to lay the tape on the ground during measurement. Both ends of the tape should instead be held above ground (about the level of the waist or chest) and in a horizontal position. Also, each end of tape is marked by positioning a plumb line (defined by a plumb bob and string) held by both tapemen. When the point, is being plumbed over soft ground, the plumb bob is dropped anda pin is carefully set in the hole made by the plumb bob point. If the length to be measured is less than a full tape length, the head tapeman moves, the plumb line to a selected point on the tape where it can be stretched hori- tontel ly, ne oveeIe epacnened Or scars ground mark. When the tape is aligned, stretched, and ready for mar— king, the rear tapeman continu ols : r the ‘fixed point while the hea the line and marks it on # important. The head tape! his body parallel to the tape apart. His forearm should should snug it comfortably 29% During the measurement, — the tape is held nearly hor) Used to check if the tape Sf same elevation so as to obtal @ hand level is not availa horizontal by eye: “held hor izoi the recorder. _head tapeman, ground TP yired Bull on ter set 0” "Morte the Teeside it. The arisen erly: ts 8 iven a” oaite the Pte’ in propery and sef6 "ground oF g. a ry he ~ ere ell the 20f0 ically in Sted. If tI ae he taper be se e 1k was done nd tanda! w Y emen' s chaining ony nt angles ee he measure! Mi is acceptable. The eer PO stant, tt stsatistied tM "point marker oe on the ground \ penan a reat pil ed by ti dinaly, ne signalt 22 the zea Cae eae canna rear, faotupenan nove. f2E stop ectared until a partial | s line. " head tapema of the tape length. TiS "i sone ‘on a hard sur- In meastl tape length is to Of "taping woul ‘or on steel rails arried ahe In sone insconcrece or asphalt road, d, the end of head tape | ace such as 2 concrete oF a88N817 ETO used, he ees q ilzoad. Since P ns (keels), chalk, | the slop along a ra Lee ee repeats Syl a ce: is market oye tape lengths is recorded beside the ; nt. The nu e sree te keep count of the number of full tape lengths mea: sured. 4 5. Tallying Taped Measurements. At the initial point the rear tapenan holds one pin and the head tapeman begins . with ten pins carried on his steel ring. This is the reason ] ity 2. set of eleven pins is normally used during taping operations, The first pin which the rear indicates that one tape length has tapeman holds already been measured, Possession (not coun- total So far been measured. t (11th) pin, a tally then accumulates ten t oes to the head ‘ontinued. cereals bea Usual) om op/ art of the measurement that mistakes tapemen cur, tape should exercis OY ficular measurenent. ee head tapeman, quired pull beside 18. the ind or give: re the head sagaKING TAPE. ; done accors eptable. The js standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above nthe gtoung fittq” and to a at one or both ends when taping on agged bY the ing ox uneven terrain surfaces, This requires the mea~ an equivalent sent of shorter distances which are accumulated to to- ila partial Ya full tape length. The procedure is referred to as 2 line. peaking tape”. § na hard sur- bevn measuring down a slope, the zero end of the tape is 1 steel rails yried ahead. When the full tape length is stretched out, in taping fre- eme care during 3, the end of head tapeman lays the tape on the ground and returns up rls), chalk, Ji slope to pick up the tape at some meter mark which will sd beside the Wijioy him to hold horizontally a convenient length between engths me: jnself and the rear tapeman. The tape is usually held at yout the level of the waist or chest. After the head tape- jan plumbs his end of the tape and marks its projection on ground, he drops the tape and proceeds down the slope to hold the tape horizontally at some other convenient me~ x mark. The rear tapeman also leaves his end of the tape hind. and moves forward to hold the meter mark earlier ld by the head tapeman. The procedure is then repeated for a number of segments until the whole tape length is teasured out. i nitial point eman begins s the reason ting taping peman holds a measured, (not coun= s the total ’n measured. rin, @ tally mlates ten - : |_Ptumb Line othe head ‘ ‘Tape Horizontal * wed. Thus, m pe lengths used, each r been mea~ 20m mark on tope ast segment be a mea- pe length. peman comes j lf at the Te t used in such! jG amisure gl. AS an ex ad opposite | When the 39-m end of the 5 oa ae wy fhe head tapeman rece pull Mont", te tape HOE + of centi- Corresponding 20-m a © and proceeds down 'f the line ber of the The number ‘ subtract- observesmeter®’ ocedure of alcula- g OF ci up Keeping or. Them men accompany’ B iikely tO eee breaking tn the AS acai at whe! ng breaking tape | mistaKee arg align the down slope j y erEOE ait tendency to ROO, "oeten unabl natu} the tape and algo It Ww ing 11st ni tapema) tap f the tapi mark accurately WO taert,_ the correc ‘een magnifies the Hogs te attic Wind oftpely alfficult. points on ke accurate taping @% 77 a than measuring Fee ae room a elope 1s often preferred LST As oan tg fhe rear tapenan ca nis end 66 the up a slope since t an can, nol round while toes eee aey Che 'head tapenan. When taping up a slope the ¢ the other int may beset firmly on the ground bu’ e a sl held’ by the Year tapenan eonevhat wavers Or uy Geis the analy ras citereats procedure to breaking tape is to measure| the line (or only by a sequence of partial lengths where the tape can be} computed usil Ghigniently ‘held horizontally. The measured ‘segments, | pythagorean tl which may be of equal or unequal lengths, are then added up Tar geazmine the total length of the line. In this particue Jar procedure eve; Properly recorded measured néeds to: be were dist 5 is the meas ry horizontal segment and carefully added, 4-4. store taping, Long tape for measuring Several extra formal end gr qucs® extra grE the procedure of taping 1s the same as on level und. ‘The measured slope distance is then reduced to its rcesponding horizontal distance by simple computation: perform the computations, either the difference in eli tion between the two ends of the tape (or terminal points the line) or the angle of inclination of the slope mea- ,ement must first be determined. The difference in ele jon may be obtained by running a line of levels between terminal points. Aclinometer, transit or theodolite y be used to determine the angle of inclination. In Fig. 8-2, if the angle @ is known, the horizontal gistance between points A and B can be computed from the dos, SCosce ss ts. dpe EQUI viere @ is the horizontal distance between the two points, sis the measured slope length between the points, and {s'the angle of inclination from the horizontal. If the difference in elevation, h , between the ends of the line (or tape) is known, the horizontal distance is computed using the following expression derived from the pythagorean theorem deel ieee Eq (2) Long tapes, 50 to 150 meters in length, are suitable for measuring along slopes. Some especially made tapes have ‘teveral extra centimeters of length graduated beyond the tormal end graduation. A slope angle is marked on each of these extra graduations. For example, when taping on a 15- @egree slope, the full tape length is horizontally obtained by measuring the greater length ‘the 15-degree slope |€rk. When using this type of nts, No horizontal correction need tO lengths. In slope taping, the slope and once down the & ®easurements is reduced to ce and is taken as the To increase the a "cessary to measure th Possible. 3