MODULE 3: Human Behavior in Organization

TOPICS
LEARNING, PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION
- Learning
- Perception
- Attribution
LEARNING & BEHAVIORISM
- Learning and Behaviorism are very much related to each other
- But before we know how related they are to each other, let us define each of the two
terms

LEARNING
- It is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

BEHAVIORISM
- It is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment

- Also known as behavioral psychology

LEARNING

- When a person behaves differently from what he previously, it can be said that there is a change
in person’s behavior. With change, we may now say that there is learning

THREE THEORIES OF LEARNING

I. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

- It refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with
a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) – from Wikipedia
- It is defined as a type of learning which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that
was originally evoked by another stimulus. A stimulus is something that incites action. - from a
book
- Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.
Variables in Classical Conditioning
US - Unconditional Stimulus
UR – Unconditional Response
CS - Conditional Stimulus
CR - Conditional Response
CC explained…
- The unconditional stimulus is something that reliably results in a natural response (unconditional
response).
- As soon as the neutral stimulus (e.g. bell) is presented with the US (e.g. meat), the neutral stimulus
(bell) now becomes a conditional stimulus (CS).
- If the CS and UCS always occur together, then the two stimuli would become associated over time.

II. OPERANT CONDITIONING

- It is a type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards and avoid punishment.
- Also called as “Instrumental conditioning”
- It was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to
as Skinnerian conditioning

Operant conditioning is how we learn to associate our own behavior with a consequence
There are four possibilities:
- Positive Reinforcement (+R)
- Positive Punishment (+P)
- Negative Reinforcement (-R)
- Negative Punishment (-P)
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
- Kids gets +dessert for eating all his vegetables – kid +eats vegetables more often
- Employee gets a +reward for finishing project on time – he +finishes projects on time
more often
- Kid gets +money for getting an excellent report card – kid gets +good marks more often

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
- Kid doesn’t get -dessert for not eating vegetables – kids +eats vegetables more often
- Employee stops getting -long lunches for not finishing project on time – employee
+finishes project on time more often
- Kids loses -free time for not studying – kid +studies more often

POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
- Kids gets +scolded for not eating vegetables – kid -leaves vegetables untouched less
often
- Employee gets +yelled at for taking long lunch – employee takes -long lunches less often
 - Kid is +grounded for failing a class – kid
-fails class less often

NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
- Kids doesn’t get -dessert for not eating vegetables – kid does not -eat vegetables less often

- Employee doesn’t get -holiday for taking long lunches – takes -long lunches less often
- Kid doesn’t get to -play on the computer for not studying – kid -does not study less often

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

- Classical conditioning involves automatic or reflexive responses and involuntary. Unlike
with operant conditioning, people’s behavior is voluntary.
- Classical conditioning involves adjustment to events for stimuli over which the
concerned person has no control. In contrast, operant conditioning involves adjustment
to situations in which action of the person determines what happens to him.

III. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

- It is also called as “Social Learning”, defined as the process of observing the behavior of others,
recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result.

Social learning theory - combines cognitive learning theory (which posits that learning is
influenced by psychological factors) and behavioral learning theory (which assumes that
learning is based on responses to environmental stimuli).

How Social Learning is Achieved

1. by observing what happens to other people
2. by being told about something
3. through direct experience

PERCEPTION
- It is defined as the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond
to information from their environment
- The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
1. The perceiver – the person who perceives the target based from his past experiences, needs
or motives, personality, values, and attitude
2. The target factors – any person, object, or event that is perceived by another person
- contrast, intensity, repetition, size, motion, speed, etc.
3. The situation factors – surrounding environment
- time, work setting, home setting, social setting, etc.

ATTRIBUTION PROCESS

ATTRIBUTION
Attribution Theory – is the process by which people ascribe causes to the behavior they
perceive
-” It deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for
events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal
judgment” (Fiske, & Taylor, 1991)

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS
Fundamental Attribution Error
- Refer to the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors in the behavior of others
- E.g., the area manager of a retailing firm blames one of the store managers for failing to
attract a sufficient number of customers rather than the poor location of the store

Self-Serving Bias
 - Is an attribution error whereby people tend to attribute their achievements to their
inner qualities, whereas they attribute their failures to adverse factors within the
environment.
E.g.
- Marco is an employee of a state university, who himself and his superior are members of a
fraternity. This relationship became a major factor for his promotion. He thinks that he is more
qualified than the others.
- After 5 years, he failed miserably in his job. When his superiors were replaced, he was demoted,
he then blames his co-employees.

OTHER PERCEPTUAL EFFECTS

Selective Perception

- Happens when a person selectively interprets what he sees on the basis of his interests,
background, experience, and attitudes.

Halo Effect

- Occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of
the person or situation.

Contrast Effects

- Evaluations of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
- E.g. A lady declared as the 3rd prettiest in a certain place, but could be number 1 in another
place

Psychological Projection

- It is a theory in in which the human ego defends itself against unconscious impulses or qualities
(both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to
others.
- For example, a person who is habitually rude may constantly accuse other people of being rude.
It incorporates blame shifting.

Stereotyping

- Refers to judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person
belongs.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE PERCEPTIONS

 1. Awareness of perceptual biases
2. Improving self-awareness
- Applying Johari Window
3. Meaningful interaction
- Close, frequent interaction toward a shared goal
- Equal status
- Engaged in a meaningful task

JOHARI WINDOW
- Is a technique that aims to help people understand their emotional and physical relationship with self
and other people.

GLOBAL MINDSET
- An individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to
process complex cross-cultural information.

- awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices in the world
- capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures
- ability to process complex information about novel environments
- ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking

DEVELOPING A GLOBAL MINDSET

1. Self-awareness activities – understand own values, beliefs, attitudes
2. Compare mental models with people from other cultures
3. Cross-cultural training
4. Immersion in other cultures