Science 10 Notes

Quarter 3: Biology

Structure of the Nervous System

The nervous system connects all body parts and transmits signals from
one part to another. It is a system of cells, tissues, and organs that
regulates the body’s responses to internal and external stimuli.

There are around 47 miles of nerves in your body. One nerve cell may
be connected to 1000 more. Your nerve impulses can travel up to 390
feet per second.

Major Divisions & Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System – main processing center for the

entire nervous system.

a. Brain – organ located in the skull which functions as the distributor of information for the body. A mass of 100 billion

neurons located inside the skull.

 Cerebrum – large upper part of the brain that controls concious activity, memory, intelligence, muscles and thought.
Wrinkled with countless folds and grooves and covered with an outer layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex. Divided
into 4 lobes:
o Frontal Lobe – decision making, motor movement, problem
solving, and planning.
o Temporal Lobe – memory, emotion, hearing, and language.
o Parietal Lobe – reception and processing of sensory information
or input from the body.
o Occipital Lobe – vision.
 Cerebellum – large part under the cerebrum that controls posture,
balance, and coordination. Muscle coordination is developed here
as well as the memory of physical skills. • If the cerebellum is
injured, your movements become jerky.
 Brain stem – connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls the automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate,
digestion, and blood pressure.
- Made up of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.
o Medulla oblongata controls involuntary activities such as heart rate and breathing.
o Pons and midbrain act as pathways connecting various part of the brain with each other.

(Sometimes called the reptilian brain because it resembles the entire brain of a reptile.)

b. Spinal cord – channel for signals between the brain and body and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input
from the brain.

2. Peripheral Nervous System – connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.

- These neurons can regenerate if damaged. •31 pairs of spinal nerves •12 pairs of cranial nerves.

a. Somatic Nervous System – is associated with the voluntary control of the body movements. Relay information between

skin, skeletal muscles, and central nervous system – You consciously control this pathway by deciding whether or not to

move muscles.

(Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System)

 Spinal nerves - the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between
the spinal cord and the body.
 Cranial Nerves – the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
 Sensory Nerves (afferent)- Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system. (Organs – sensory receptor;
Muscles – effector)
 Motor Nerves (efferent) - Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system.

b. Autonomic Nervous System - associated

with the involuntary control of body
movements. -Relay information from central
nervous system to organs, smooth muscles,
glands and cardiac.It controls in times of
stress, such as the flight or fight response.
c.
 Sympathetic – is activated when the body is
in a dynamic role or stressed that will result to
increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of
pupil, sweating, etc.
 Parasympathetic – maintains body functions
and restores body to normal and relaxed
mode.

The Nerve Cell

The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. Nerve cells are called
neurons. There are billions of neurons in the body. Some exist alone. Others
are joined together to form organs like the brain and spinal cord. Neurons
are cells that conduct impulses.

There are twelve to fourteen billion of neurons in one part of the brain
alone. A neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus. Projecting out from
the cell body are root-like structures. These are the dendrites and axons.

Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body, are branch-like extensions that receive impulses and carry them toward cell
body. A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body. A single dendrite can be over one meter
long.

Axons carry impulses away from the cell body. single extension of the
neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body.
 The axon branches out at ending to send impulses to many different neurons. Larger axons are enclosed by sheaths of
myelin produced by Schwann cells – major type of glial cells in the PNS.
 Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath between Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier. (Allows the fast generation of a fast
electrical impulse along the axon.)

Dendrites receive impulses from many other axons. Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of
muscle cells. Axons can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerves.

 Neuroglial cells provide physical support, insulation (myelin), and nutrients for neurons.

Classification of Neurons (by STRUCTURE)

 Multipolar - Many processes arising from cell body

- Brain or spinal cord.
 Bipolar - 2 processes (1 from each end of cell body)
- Ear, eyes, nose.
 Unipolar - Single process extends from cell body--
Outside of brain & spinal cord.

Classification of Neurons (by function)

 Sensory Neurons – (afferent) have specialized

receptor ends that sense stimuli and then carry
impulses from peripheral body parts to brain or
spinal cord. Can be unipolar or bipolar.
 Interneurons – lie entirely within the brain or spinal cord; direct incoming sensory impulses to appropriate parts for
processing and interpreting.
 Motor Neurons – (efferent) carry impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effectors (muscles, glands). Interneurons and
motor neurons are multipolar.

Control of Body Processes through the Nervous System

The Nerve Impulse

A nerve impulse is an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron. Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals
or impulses. Thoughts, emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve impulses in the neurons. A nerve
impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction. A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity, but an
electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.

A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another. When

a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it produces the
chemical, called neurotransmitter, to be released. The chemical
crosses the space between neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite.

The nervous system is assisted by 5 sense organs: ears, nose, tongue, and skin. These sense organs are constantly receiving
information from the environment and sending messages to the brain. These senses aid in the survival of human beings. A
stimulus (plural: stimuli) is any factor in the environment that may trigger a nerve impulse. A response is a reaction to a
stimulus. A stimulus is received by the body and a response is made.

An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in order

to survive.
Only the axon of the neuron releases neurotransmitters that cross the space between neurons. Reaction time is the length of time
between application of a stimulus and detection of a response.

Neurons are specially intended for information processing and signaling. They relay and receive messages (impulse) between the
brain and body, and within the brain and spinal cord.

Motor neurons transmit impulses from the brain to muscles, glands, or other neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Sensory neurons transmit impulses from sensory nerves (receptor cells) to the Central Nervous System (CNS).

How is an impulse transmitted?

1. Stimulus excites sensory neuron.

2. Depolarization (a change in charge due to

sodium ions) creates a wave of changing charges
down the axon.

3. Impulse moves across synapse (tiny space

between one neuron’s axon and another’s
dendrites) with the help of neurotransmitters.
 Male Reproductive System

 Mitosis is the type of cell division that occurs in non-reproductive cells. It produces exact copies of the parent cell.
 Meiosis is cell division that occurs in reproductive cells; gametes. It produces egg and sperm cells with half the genetic
material of the parent cells. 23 chromosomes are contained in gametes; this is so that when egg and sperm meet, they
produce offspring with 46 chromosomes.

The male reproductive system’s main function is to create sperm and deliver it to the female reproductive system.

Male Puberty:

- Starts at around age 12-13.

- Hormonal changes stimulate an increase in growth rate, alterations in behavior, enlargement of the genitals, and the
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair.
- Boys begin their final growth spurt later than girls; they have a longer period of steady growth and usually attain a
greater adult height.

Male Puberty Changes:

- Growth spurt occurs.

- Acne may appear.
- Larynx enlarges, voice deepens. - Some breast enlargements may occur.

- Facial hair appears. - Muscles develop.

- Shoulders broaden. - Pubic hair appears.

- Underarm hair appears. - External genitals enlarge.

- Perspiration increases. - Sperm production begins.

- First ejaculation occurs.
Organs:
- Long bone growth stops.

 Penis
 Urethra
 Vas deferens
 Scrotum
 Testes
 Urinary bladder

External Organs:

 Penis - external reproductive organ, urethra passes through

the penis and allows urine and semen to exit the body. The external male reproductive organ that is made up of spongy tissue
that has blood flow going through it. The penis removes urine from the bladder and also delivers/ deposits sperm to the
female reproductive system. The glans is the sensitive nerve ending near the tip of the penis.
- 3 parts: a root, body (shaft), and glans penis. The urethra, which extends throughout the length of the corpus
spongiosum, opens through the external urethral orifice at the tip of the glans penis. A loose fold of skin, called the
prepuce, or foreskin, covers the glans penis.
 Scrotum - a sac or pouch which holds the testes. The
function of the scrotum is to maintain the proper
temperature of the testes. Sperm is destroyed unless a
temperature of 97 degrees is maintained. Muscles of the
scrotum help with temperature control – 2 degrees lower
than body temperature. Sperm develop best several
degrees below 98.6.

Internal Organs:
 Bladder - holds urine prior to urination. Urine leaves the bladder via the urethra.
 Urethra - a tube which allows urine and semen to exit the body. Connects to the bladder.
- Urine passes through the urethra, a tube that starts at the bladder and ends at the opening of the penis.
- Sperm also pass through the urethra during ejaculation but not at the same time as urine is carried.

 Vas deferens - a tube which connects the testes to the urethra and allows
semen to exit the b ody. The next portion of a hollow tube that sperm pass
through. It carries sperm from testes to urethra. The vas deferens can be up

to 12 inches long.

 Testes - two glands which produce sperm and hormones (testosterone).

Male begin producing 100+ million sperm a day once they reach puberty.
 Epididymis - A tightly coiled tube where sperm mature as they pass
through. The epididymis can be up to 700 feet long.
 Seminferous Tubules - Tightly coiled tubes inside the testes where sperm are made.

Testosterone C19H2802 - The male sex hormone that influences sperm production. During
puberty, testosterone causes facial and body hair to grow, shoulders to broaden and voice to
deepen.

 Foreskin - A piece of skin that partially covers the tip of the penis at birth.
Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin from the tip of the penis.

Vasectomy - The severing and tying off of the vas deferens. Once the vas deferens is

severed, sperm will not be able to be ejaculated out of the penis.

 Seminal Vesicles - Found near the base of the urinary bladder. Produce thick
secretions that nourish the sperm and help sperm move easier. Makes up most of the
components of the sperm.
 Prostate Gland - Encircles the urethra near the bladder. About the size of a
walnut. Secretes a thin, milky fluid that protects the sperm from acid in the
female reproductive system.
 Bulbourotheral Gland/Cowper’s Gland - Found near urethra below the
prostate. Prior to ejaculation this gland secretes a thick and clear fluid/ mucus
that neutralizes, protects and lubricates the sperm from acid in the male urethra.
 Bladder - A triangular sac that stores urine before it is excreted out of the body.
 Sphincter Valve - A small piece of skin, a muscle that holds back urine or semen
so that both do not come out of the body at the same time.

Prostate Exam - An examination that is performed to identify any irregularities in the prostate. Exams help in early detection of
prostate cancer. Prostate cancer occurs primarily in older males and is the 2nd most common cancer in males in the U.S. For
every 3 men diagnosed with cancer this year 1 will have prostate cancer.

Testicular Exam - A self exam that men should perform once per month once they have reached puberty to detect any lumps,
swelling, pain, or discomfort in the scrotum or abdomen.

Erection - When the penis becomes hard and firm. The blood vessels in
the penis fill with blood. Allowing the penis to penetrate the vagina.
The penis must be erect in order for ejaculation to occur.
Ejaculation - When sperm are released from the penis. One ejaculation contains 40-300 million sperm. It is normal for a male to
ejaculate during sleep, this is called nocturnal emissions or “wet dreams”.

 Semen (Semenal Fluid) - Sex cells that are produced in the testes and are
used to fertilize the egg. Sperm swim at the rate of 1-4mm per minute or
60-240mm per hour. 50,000 sperm are produced each MINUTE in mature
men.
- The fluid expelled during orgasm. Mixture of secretion from
epididymis, seminal vesicle, prostate, and bulbourethral gland.
- Major constituents of semen: • Sperm • Fructose • Clotting and
anticoagulant factors • Prostaglandins • Spermine

 Fructose - Fructose produced by the seminal vesicles provide a source of

energy for the sperm. Clotting and anticoagulant factors produced by seminal vesicles and prostate. Semen clots like blood.
About 15-30 minutes later, anticoagulant factors dissolve the clot.
 Prostaglandins produced by the prostate and
seminal vesicles; stimulate peristaltic contractions of
the female reproductive tract that may help draw
semen into the uterus.
 Spermine is a base that reduces acidity of the female
vagina, increasing the survival rate of sperm.

Semen - Sperm cells from epididymis are present at a

count of 50-120 million sperm/mL. Sperm count
decreased from 113 million sperm/mL in 1940 to 66
million sperm/mL in 1990. Semen volume dropped by
19%. < 20-25 million/ml = infertility (sterility).

Path of Sperm:

Testes - Epididymis - Vas deferens - Prostate Gland - Seminal Vesicle - Sphincter Valve - Bulbourethral gland - Urethra -
Ejaculated out of Body.

Fate of Sperm Cells:

- Capacitated (test tube?),

viable for 2 days (egg:
12-24 hr)
- Only ~ 100 reach the
destination.
- Only one sperm fertilizes
the egg.

Refractory Period:

A period following ejaculation and

lasting anywhere from 10 minutes to a
few hours impossible to attain another erection and orgasm.

The primary sex organs (gonads) are those that produce gametes (sperm and eggs).

Male: Testes

Female: Ovaries

Secondary sex organs - essential to reproduction. Features not essential for reproduction but attract the sexes to each other.
Male: ducts, glands, penis

Female: uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

Female Reproductive System

- Produces female sex cells, receives sperm cells from the male, and nurtures the development of and provides
nourishment for the new individual.

General Physical Changes:

 Axillary & pubic hair growth, Changes in body conformation (widening of hips, development of breasts), Onset of first
menstrual period (menarche), Mental changes.

Structure and Function:

Primary reproductive organs - produce ova. Accessory ducts - transfer

ova and sperm. Accessory glands - add secretions. External genitalia -
receive sperm from male.

Internal Female Structures:

 Vagina - It is an elastic fibro-muscular tube and membranous

tissue about 8 to 10 cm long. Stratified squamous epithelium.
Lying between the bladder anteriorly and the rectum posteriorly.
The vagina connects the uterus above with the vestibule below.
The upper end is blind and called the vaginal vault. The vaginal
lining has multiple folds, or rugae and muscle layer. These folds allow the vagina to stretch considerably during childbirth.

The reaction of the vagina is acidic, the pH is 4.5 that protects the vagina against infection.

Functions of the vagina: To allow discharge of the menstrual flow. As the female organs of coitus. To allow passage of the fetus
from the uterus.

 Uterus - Is a hollow, pear-shaped muscular organ. The uterus measures about 7.5 X 5 X 2.5 cm and weight about 50 – 60 g.
Its normal position is anteverted (rotated forward and slightly antiflexed (flexed forward). The uterus divided into three

parts:
1. Body of the uterus - The upper part is the corpus, or body of the uterus.
The fundus is the part of the body or corpus above the area where the
fallopian tubes enter the uterus. Length about 5 cm.
2. Isthmus - A narrower transition zone. Is between the corpus of the uterus
and cervix. During late pregnancy, the isthmus elongates and is known as
the lower uterine segment.
3. Cervix - The lowermost position of the uterus -- “neck”. The length of the
cervix is about 2.5 t0 3 cm. The os, is the opening in the cervix that runs
between the uterus and vagina. The upper part of the cervix is marked by
internal os, and the lower cervix is marked by the external os.

Layers of the Uterus:

 Perimetrium - Is the outer peritoneal layer of serous membrane that covers most of the uterus. Laterally, the perimetrium is
continuous with the broad ligaments on either side of the uterus.
 Myometrium - Is the middle layer of thick muscle. Most of the muscle fibers are concentrated in the upper uterus, and their
number diminishes progressively toward the cervix. The myometrium contains three types of smooth muscle fiber:

a) Longitudinal fibers (outer layer) - Which are found mostly in the fundus and are designed to expel the fetus efficiently toward
the pelvic outlet during birth.
b) Middle layer fibers - These fiber contract after birth to compress the blood vessels that pass between them to limit blood loss.

c) Inner layer circular fibers - Which form constrictions where the fallopian tubes enter the uterus and surround the internal os.
Circular fibers prevent reflux of menstrual blood and tissue into the fallopian tubes. Promote normal implantation of the
fertilized ovum by controlling its entry into the uterus. And retain the fetus until the appropriate time of birth.

 Endometrium - Is the inner layer of the uterus. It is responsive to the cyclic variations of estrogen and progesterone
during the female reproductive cycle every month.

Two or three layers of endometrium: Compact layer, The basal layer, The functional or Sponge - is shed during each menstrual
period and after child birth in the lochia.

The Function of the uterus:

Menstruation - the uterus sloughs off the endometrium.

Pregnancy - the uterus support fetus and allows the fetus to grow. Labor and birth - the uterine muscles contract and the cervix
dilates during labor to expel the fetus.

Parts on the inside:

Uterus - Sometimes called the womb. Muscular organ about the

size of a pear. Where developing baby, called a fetus, grows and
is fed. Where the period comes from.

Cervix - The lower part of the uterus. Makes mucus to keep

sperm alive. Has opening where sperm enter uterus and where
the baby comes out of the uterus.

Vagina - Warm, soft, moist passageway joining outside and

uterus.

 Fallopian tubes - two tubes extended from the cornu of the

uterus to the ovary. It runs in the upper free border of the broad ligament. Gamete transport (ovum pickup, ovum transport,
sperm transport). Final maturation of gamete post ovulate oocyte maturation, sperm capacitation. Fluid environment for

early embryonic development. Transport of fertilized and unfertilized ovum to the uterus. Length 8 to 14 cm average 10 cm.
It’s divided into 4 parts.
1. Interstitial part - Which runs into uterine cavity, passes through the myometrium between the fundus and body of
the uterus. About 1-2cm in length.
2. Isthmus - the narrow part of the tube adjacent to the uterus. Straight and cord like , about 2 – 3 cm in length.
3. Ampulla - Which is the wider part about 5 cm in length. Fertilization occurs in the ampulla.
4. Infundibulum - It is funnel or trumpet shaped. Fimbriae are fingerlike processes, one of these is longer than the
other and adherent to the ovary. The fimbriae become swollen almost erectile at ovulation.
 Ovaries - Oval solid structure, 1.5 cm in thickness, 2.5 cm in width and 3.5 cm in length respectively. Each weigh about 4–8
g. Ovary is located on each side of the uterus, below and behind the uterine
tubes. Secrete estrogen & progesterone. Production of ova.

Structure:

 Cortex, Medulla, Hilum

Support structures:

The bony pelvis support and protects the lower abdominal and internal
reproductive organs.

Muscle, Joints and ligaments - provide added support for internal organs of the pelvis against the downward force of gravity
and the increases in intra-abdominal pressure.

Bony Pelvis Is Composed of 4 bones:

 1. Two hip bones - Each or hip bone is composed of three bones:

- Ilium - It is the flared-out part.

- Ischium - It has a large prominence known as the ischial tuberosity on which the body rests while sitting.

- Pubis – ventral and anterior also known as pubic bone.

2. Sacrum - Is a wedge-shaped bone consisting of five vertebrae. The anterior surface of the sacrum is concave. The
upper border of the first sacral vertebra known as the sacral promontory.
3. Coccyx - Consists of four vertebrae forming a small triangular bone.

External Female Structure: Vulva

Mons Pubis - Is rounded, soft fullness of subcutaneous fatty tissue, prominence over the symphysis pubis that forms the anterior
border of the external reproductive organs. It is covered with varying amounts of
pubic hair. "mound of Venus".

Labia Majora - The labia Majora are two rounded, fleshy folds of tissue that
extended from the mons pubis to the perineum. It protects the labia minora, urinary
meatus and vaginal introitus.

Labia Minora - It is located between the labia majora; are narrow. The lateral and
anterior aspects are usually pigmented. The inner surfaces are similar to vaginal
mucosa, pink and moist. Their rich vascularity.

Clitoris - The term clitoris comes from a Greek word meaning key. Erectile organ. It’s
rich vascular, highly sensitive to temperature, touch, and pressure sensation.

Vestibule - Is oval-shaped area formed between the labia minora, clitoris u Contains the external urethral meatus, vaginal
introitus, and Bartholins glands.

(Bartholin’s Glands (aka: Vestibular Glands) - The Bartholin's glands are located on
each side of the vaginal opening. They secrete fluid that helps lubricate the vagina.
Sometimes the ducts of these glands become obstructed. Fluid backs up into the gland and
causes swelling (Bartholin's cyst).

Perineum - Is the most posterior part of the external female reproductive organs. And is
composed of fibrous and muscular tissues that support pelvic structures.

Accessary glands -opening into the vestibule or

lower vagina. keep the vagina moist and provide
most of the lubrication for intercourse.

Mammary Glands - Modified sweat glands that

produce milk (lactation). Amount of adipose
determines size of breast. Milk-secreting glands
open by lactiferous ducts at the nipple . Areola is
pigmented area around nipple. Suspensory ligaments -
suspend breast from deep fascia of pectoral muscles (aging
& Cooper’s droop). Mammary line is a thickened ridge of
embryonic tissue that extends from the axilla to the groin.

Breast:

Prolactin from the pituitary gland stimulates the synthesis of milk.

Oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland stimulates milk ejection.

Lymphatic Drainage - Lymph nodes draining the breast are located in the axilla.