BGGCT-133

GENERAL CARTOGRAPHY
Indira Gandhi National
Open University
School of Sciences

Block

1
INTRODUCTION TO CARTOGRAPHY

UNIT 1
BASIC CONCEPTS 9

UNIT 2
MAPS 21

UNIT 3
MAP SCALE 37

Glossary 50
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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Course Design Committee

Prof. H. Ramachandran Prof. Vijayshri Dr. Satya Raj
Discipline of Geography, Former Director Discipline of Geography
University of Delhi School of Sciences School of Sciences
Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Sachidanand Sinha Prof. Mahendra Singh Nathawat Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Centre for the Study of Department of Geography Discipline of Geography
Regional Development School of Sciences School of Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi
Prof. N.R. Dash Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik Dr. Vishal Warpa
Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography Discipline of Geography
The Maharaja Sayajirao School of Sciences School of Sciences
University of Baroda, Gujarat IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Milap Chand Sharma Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra
Centre for the Study of Discipline of Geography
Regional Development School of Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik & Dr. Satya Raj (Unit - 1) Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik (Unit - 2)
Geography Discipline, School of Sciences Geography Discipline, School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra & Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik (Unit - 3)
Geography Discipline, School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor
Prof. Mahendra Singh Nathawat
Geography Discipline, School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators – Dr. Vishal Warpa and Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao

Print Production
Sh. Sunil Kumar
A.R. (P), School of Sciences, IGNOU
Acknowledgements: Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao for designing the cover page and Mr. P. Bala Prasad for
artwork.

July, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at MaidanGarhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, SOS,
IGNOU.

Printed at

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BGGCT- 133
GENERAL CARTOGRAPHY

Block 1 Introduction to Cartography

Unit 1 Basic Concepts

Unit 2 Maps
Unit 3 Map Scale

Block 2 Map Projections

Unit 4 Introduction to Mal Projections

Unit 5 Cylindrical Projections
Unit 6 Conical Projections
Unit 7 Zenithal Projections

Block 3 Sources of Data

Unit 8 Sources
Unit 9 Census and Sample Surveys
Unit 10 Remotely Sensed Data

Block 4 Map Reading and Interpretation

Unit 11 Topographical Maps

Unit 12 Representation of Climatic Data
Unit 13 Weather Maps

Block 5 Representation of Data

Unit 14 Graphs and Diagrams

Unit 15 Maps

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 BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTION TO CARTOGRAPHY
We, human beings, always think what we want to do. During this process knowingly or
unknowingly, we try to map the various kinds of information of things or phenomenon. We
have been trying to explore the new world in this universe and mapping them more in
scientific way since long. In this endeavour we significantly achieved to reduce the entire
globe onto paper to digital smart screens now. Study of maps and map making are known to
be the domain of Cartography. We can understand that the Cartography is a fundamental
element in the human society and culture since human evolution.

The nature of cartography not only considers the study of early map as a part of the
humanities, but it is also concerned with access to and the shaping of knowledge takes place
in multidisciplinary fields particularly in earth system sciences. Geographers study
cartography more fascinatingly than any other discipline as core subject of geography which
deals with human society on one hand and natural environment on the other hand.
Cartography subject has slowly been developed from wooden carved blocks to engraved
copper plates in older days and now three dimentional models with GIS enabled technology
became apperent every where as smart maps. Cartography is a dynamic subject and its
scope is also widening with contemporary issues and increasing technological problems in
our day to day activities.

This block introduces you to the cartography dealing with the nature, history and evolution,
maps and map scales and their types spread in three units.

Unit 1 Basic Concepts:

Studying the subject of cartography essentially needs the proper knowledge in the fields of
Arts, Science, and Technology. Cartography not only explains the process of making maps
but also deals with charts, graphs, globes, and relief, etc. The subject matter of cartography
enables a cartographer or a map maker to develop and create a simplified visual model for
the real world phenomenon. In this unit, we have deliberated on the basic concepts, history
and evolution of cartography.

Unit 2 Maps:

Maps are essential tools that can be widely used for understanding the variability and
characteristics of world’s spatial phenomena. You must have seen and used various types of
maps for example topographical map, cadastral map, atlas map, and wall map. We have
explained particularly map types, history of maps, map elements and usage of maps in this
unit.

Unit 3 Map Scale:

You can find a scale on every map because map scale is an essential element in map making
process. It helps to measure the distances between any two places on the map. Scientifically
or technically speaking, without a scale any drawing or sketch is not at all be considered as a
map. In this unit, keeping in view of the importance of map scales, we have introduced the
methods of representation, construction and reading of map scales.

We hope that after studying this block, you will be able to better understand the basic
concepts of cartography, what are maps and their types, usage of maps, and map scales in
particular.

Our best wishes are always with you in this endeavour. 5

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UNIT 1

BASIC CONCEPTS

Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.4 Earth as a Cartographic
Problem
Expected Learning Outcomes
Spherical Earth
1.2 Definition, Nature and Scope of
Cartography Ellipsoidal Earth
Geoidal Earth
1.3 History and Evolution of
Cartography 1.5 Summary
The Ancient Period 1.6 Terminal Questions
The Medieval Period 1.7 Answers
The Modern Period 1.8 References/Suggested
Further Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Cartography is the art and science of making maps. In the ancient times,
techniques employed for map making were manual using hand tools, making it
a time consuming and difficult method of geographic representation. However,
with the advancement of technology, cartographic techniques have continually
been changing in order to meet the demands of contemporary issues,
mapmakers and map users.

Many of you have studied the Practical Work in Geography at intermediate or

+2 level education. It is generally dealt under the subject of Cartography as a
part of Geography courses. This unit will introduce you to some of the
essential concepts of cartography. You will study about nature, scope, and
history and evolution of cartography from Sections 1.2 and 1.3. This unit will
also discuss in brief about the earth as a cartographic problem in Section 1.4.
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Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define cartography;

 explain the nature and scope of cartography;

 discuss the history and evolution of cartography; and

 suggest cartographic solution to mapping the earth.

1.2 DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF

CARTOGRAPHY
Definition
Cartography creates simplified visual model of complex real world either on
two or three dimensional surface as maps using science, technology and arts
for easy presentation to the diverse user communities.
It communicates geographical properties graphically. Raise Erwin (1962)
defined cartography as “the art and science of making maps, charts, globes,
and relief models”. Arthur Robinson and others (1978) defined it in a little
limited sense as “a technique, fundamentally concerned with reducing the
spatial characteristics of a large area- a portion or all of the earth, or another
celestial body- and putting it in a form that makes it observable.” F.J.
Monkhouse (1970) defined it as “in its widest sense, the whole series of map
making, from an actual survey of the ground to printing of map in a more
limited sense the drawing of map.” J. Smith (1984) defined as “the science of
constructing maps and charts. It includes the making of original surveys, the
selection of suitable map projections and decisions on colours, layer tinting
and other visual representations.”
Nature
“As a synonym for mapmaking, cartography is often construed to include the
collection of geographical information through systematic surveys, formal or
otherwise of the physical landscape or its human occupants. In an institutional
context, cartography might refer narrowly to the production of artwork for
printed maps or more broadly to the overall mission of a commercial firm such
as McNally or a government agency such as the Ordnance Survey” (Dictionary
of Human Geography, p. 67). Cartography is the combination of all – science,
technology and arts and as defined above, the nature of the cartography is
scientific, technological and artistic and therefore, it may be referred to as
interdisciplinary. It adopts the scientific approach in data preparation like the
logical foundation in conceptualizing any map right from the extent, projection,
themes, classification, and presentation. It involves geography, geology,
geodesy and surveying, engineering, mathematics and geometry, algebra, etc.
as scientific disciplines and techniques.
Similarly, the technology is also deeply involved with it. It may vary from the

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extremely rustic to the most sophisticated ones today made possible by the
unimaginable advancements of computers and other related devices. These
may include computers and graphic technology, electronic theodolites,
electronic total station (ETS), (remote sensing, geographical information
system (GIS), global positioning system (GPS) along with communication
technology. The art is inherent in the nature of cartography because it needs
good presentation for easy communication to the intended readers.

Scope
Scope of cartography is wide. It includes the conceptualization of various
aspects including extent, scale, projection, themes, field survey and its
methods, data capturing and compilation, analysis and representation, etc. It
starts with physical features or phenomena to cultural features and
phenomena. It captures the real existence or visible objects like physiography,
water, rail and roads, forest, settlements, fields, crops, etc. and also abstract
things like environment, literacy, empowerment, and the level of awareness,
etc. It starts with an extremely small scale to plot level mapping or building
level mapping. It includes a very simple geographic projection system to a very
complex projection system for the conversion of spherical earth surface into
the two dimensional representation on the plain paper. At visualization level, it
can do both- 2D and 3D. 2D visualization gives only two dimensions or flat
surface whereas 3D gives third dimension i.e. height also. It gives paper output
as well as output on soft copy or digital format. It is static and dynamic nature
as cartography uses GIS enabled cartography which supports in both real time
query and mapping. Its scope is also widening with changing issues as well as
technology.

SAQ 1
What is cartography? Explain.

1.3 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF

CARTOGRAPHY
The history of cartography can be traced back to the Babylonian era in 2300
B.C. This work was also notable in ancient Greek as they were well aware of
the spherical earth till 350 B.C., later on accepted by all. Later on, Ptolemy (85-
o o
165 AD) depicted the world from 60 N to 30 latitudes in his world map and
created a landmark. It has travelled from wooden carved blocks in printing
work of 15th Century to engraved copper plates during 16th Century (the age of
exploration) to modern day hi-tech printing. However, the modern cartography
emerged during the World War I with the use of Aerial Photography. It was both
scientific and accurate. The ultra modern form of cartography emerged with
the emergence of GIS during 1970-80s, where database and final presentation
are kept separate from each other. Earlier in paper map, both data and
presentations were used to be kept together.

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1.3.1 The Ancient Period (upto 600 AD)
Mankind since its early period has developed the practice of making some
drawings of their surroundings using various medias ranging from earth and
parts of trees to metallic objects. It was present in advanced form among
Egyptians, Babylonians and Greeks alike. In fact, the seed of the modern
cartography had been sown by the Greek Geographers like Aristotle,
Anaximender, Hecateus, Herodotus, Eratosthenese, Hippartus, and Ptolemy,
etc., who recognized the earth as spheroid with latitudes and longitudes.
Anaximender prepared the first world map followed by Herodotus, Eratosthenes
and Ptolemy. They were the first to develop the projection system.

Ancient Romans are known for Peutinger Table (Tabula Peutingeriana) or

Peutinger Map that mainly shows the road networks in the Roman Empire (Fig.
1.1). In India, the cartographic roots go back to the Vedic period (1500-500 BC)
and in the ancient period (upto 600 AD) with astronomical contributions
rendered by great scholars Aryabhatta, Varahmihira, Bhaskara, etc. The
important discoveries like the rotation of the earth and the calculation of earth’s
circumference are the major contributions.

Fig. 1.1: Tabula Peutingeriana or Peutinger Map.

(Source:http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s
roman300s.html)

1.3.2 The Medieval Period (600-1500 AD)

The art and science of map making was termed as ‘Cartography’ in this period.
Like geography, the origin of the word ‘Cartography’ goes to two words-Charte
(Map in French) and Graphie (Writing in Greek) coined in 1839 by a
Purtuguese scholar Manuel Francisco de Barros e Sousa Viscount of
Santare´m, who used it to describe map study in the same way as
historiography refers to the history of historical writing (Wolter, 1975)
(Dictionary of human geography, p. 67). In this period, the print technology,
especially with the advent of copper plate printing technology made significant
progress in cartography during 15th and 16th Centuries. This enabled the
duplication extremely easier and quick process compared to the manual A to Z

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exercise to produce every copy of a map. It progressed with the exploration of
new world by various voyagers. These gradual developments finally
culminated into new map products like Atlas and other map types.
Subsequently, thematic cartography came into existence when socio-
economic survey and population Censuses were started. It was greatly
followed by the mapping of physical features.

It is regarded as the ‘Renaissance Period of Cartography’, with significant

contributions in the development of cartography especially in the western
world. This period witnessed important development due to the advancements
in mathematical geography by Arab Geographers. It was the era of great
travelers like Columbus, Marco Polo, Magellan, Darke, etc., and their
contributions in the preparation of maps of various explored lands.

1.3.3 The Modern Period (1500 AD onwards)

The cartographic instruments like ‘Theodolite’ and ‘Plane Table’ were also
developed in the last quarter of the 16th Century. The navigational maps with
compass directions called ‘Portolan Charts’ was pioneered by the Italians.
During this period, for the first time, North America and South America were
shown cartographically separate by Waldseemuller in 1507. Mercator in 1569,
developed the cylindrical orthomorphic projection which was a landmark
achievement.

Fig. 1.2: Mercator’s World Map, 1569.

(Source: https://www.math.ubc.ca/~israel/m103/mercator/mercator.html)

The development of survey and cartographic instruments drove cartography to

its higher path. It is an era of production of maps and atlases which especially
originated in the western world. By this time, for the mapping of physical
features and resources, the formal survey departments were enacted and the
thrust was laid on the detailed survey, preparation and production of maps.

In India, the Survey of India was set up in 1767 two years later the
establishment of British Ordnance Survey in Britain (1765). Survey and
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Mapping in third world in these early stages was primarily due to the resource
exploitation and for the benefits of colonizers only. Later on, everywhere the
national atlases started as an outcome of cartographic activities. There has
been unprecedented advancement in Cartography during the 20th Century.
After the advent of aerial photography, the situation post World War-I gave new
dimension to cartography in topographical 3D survey and mapping. It made
possible the survey and map making of inaccessible remote areas, which
were otherwise inaccessible. At the same time, it made survey and
cartography quite faster.
The fast development computing and printing technology revolutionized map
making and printing across the globe. These advancements have been added
by the amazing achievements in space science and imaging along with other
geospatial and survey tools like Aerial Photography, Remote Sensing, GIS,
GPS, ETS, etc. The subject of cartography has achieved newer heights where
survey and mapping has virtually become real time with unimaginable scale
and resolutions (mainly spatial and temporal).
You may know that remote sensing is the acquiring of data about an object
without touching it. The remote sensing data is available in different resolutions
like spatial and temporal. Spatial resolution in remote sensing refers to the
minimum size of an object captured by a remote sensing sensor. The details
of the information in an image depend on the spatial resolution of the image.
Whereas, temporal resolution refers to the time taken by a sensor to revisit
and scan the same area.
Cartography is the final stage of a work done in remote sensing and GIS in
terms of logical presentation of output as digital or printed maps. It is the
science and art of presenter (cartographer) as how best it can be presented
for meeting its objective. The advent of very high resolution satellite data in
various forms like multispectral stereo data (IKONOS, QuickBird, OrbView,
Cartosat), Light Detection and Ranging, (LIDAR) and Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission (SRTM) which give information at very-very high
resolution at much faster rate with 2D and 3D surfaces. It enables very large
scale mapping with more than photo quality information. These new
development have given new heights to cartography. India also recorded
remarkable achievements in this field due to fast advancements in the space
technology (aerial photography and satellite remote sensing with Resourcesat
and Cartosat series) and computing along with printing technology. In fact, the
designation of cartographer has evolved with these developments to computer
cartographer to Laboratory Technician/GIS expert and changing courses from
cartography to GIS laboratory work, etc.
With all above developments, the automated cartography made significant
advances in data collection/capture, presentation which otherwise was very
tedious task.

SAQ 2
Can you make a difference between early mapping techniques and present
day cartography?

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In this unit so far, you have studied about nature and scope of cartography and
history of cartography. You know that cartography is both an art and science of
map making. It is an art because it needs an artistic skill to prepare a map and
it is science because it involves testable explanations, knowledge of
mathematics and use of sophisticated techniques and modern technology.
Have you ever thought that while making a map, we actually have to cater to
the problem of representing a portion of the curved surface of earth on a flat
piece of paper? This is the central problem of cartography which you will study
in the next section.

1.4 EARTH AS A CARTOGRAPHIC PROBLEM

While preparing a map, we first select a suitable map projection which lessens
the distortions of transferring the features of spherical earth on a flat piece of
paper. You will learn about map projections in detail in Block-2 of this course.
Before that, let us first learn about the shape of earth. There is a lot of
ambiguity regarding the correct shape of earth, whether it is spherical,
ellipsoidal or geoidal. To a layman these terminologies are synonymous.
However, to a geographer or earth scientist each of these terms is having
different meaning. Let us get acquainted with these terminologies here.

1.4.1 Spherical Earth

A sphere is defined as the set of points in three-dimensional space so that all
are located at the same distance ‘r’ (radius) from a given point which is
supposed to be the centre. Twice the radius is called the diameter, and pairs of
points on the sphere on opposite sides of a diameter are called antipodes.
Refer to Fig. 1.3 to see a sphere with radius ‘r’ and AB as antipodes or points
diametrically opposite to each other.

Fig. 1.3: A sphere.

(Source: Modified after https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere#/media/
File:Sphere_and_Ball.png, Public Domain)

It is important for you to know that the earth being a member of the solar
system, its shape, size and movements are directly governed by its relation to
other planets. Many thinkers of ancient times attempted to describe the shape
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of the earth which ranged from highly erroneous flat disc of Homer to sphere
shape of Pythagoras. It was Eratosthenes who first demonstrated that the
earth is sphere in shape. He did this by measuring the angle at which sun’s
rays fell at two places on the same longitude but at different latitudes. He
observed that during the summer solstice, mid-day sun’s rays reached straight
to the bottom of a well at a place called Syene. However, at the same time he
noticed that sun’s rays were not directly overhead but making an angle q with
the vertical at a place called Alexandria which was on the same longitude as
Syene. Refer to Fig. 1.4 to understand it better. He found the angle q that sun’s
rays made with the vertical at Alexandria to be 7°12'. He found the linear
distance between Syene and Alexandria to be about 805 km. With the help of
all this information he calculated the circumference of earth to be about
40,070 km. However, his measurements were not so accurate but considering
the instruments he used in those times, it was very near to accurate.

You may carefully study the following hint for understanding about the angle ().

Hint: Angle ‘’, is equal to the angle formed at the centre of earth between
Syene and Alexandria. Since the angle ‘’ is representing 805 km of the
circumference, so 360o would represent the entire circumference of earth.

Fig. 1.4: How Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of earth.

(Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasablueshift/9411406224, CC BY 2.0)

With further discoveries regarding the shape of earth, it was found that earth is
not a perfect sphere but a spheroid. Let us learn about it.

1.4.2 Ellipsoidal Earth

Contrary to sphere, which is based on a circle, a spheroid (or ellipsoid) is
based on an ellipse. An ellipse is oval-shaped defined by two radii. The longer
radius is called the semi-major axis, and the shorter radius is called the semi-
minor axis. The amount of polar flattening is given by the ratio, F = (a-b)/a,

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where ‘a’ is the equatorial radius and ‘b’ is the polar radius (Refer to Fig. 1.5).
Rotating the ellipse around the semi-minor axis creates a spheroid. Thus an
ellipsoid or spheroid is a three-dimensional shape created from a two-
dimensional ellipse. So, ellipsoid is responsible for polar flattening and
equatorial bulge. A spheroid is also known as an oblate ellipsoid of revolution.

Semi-Minor Polar Axis

Semi-Minor Polar Axis

Semi-Major Equatorial Axis Semi-Major Equatorial Axis

Axis of Rotation
Fig. 1.5: Ellipse (left) and Ellipsoid (right).
(Source: Diagram created by the author- Dr. Satya Raj)

The first scholar to give the nearly appropriate shape of earth was Thomas
Issac Newton in 1786. He described earth as an oblate spheroid, which
means that earth is having equatorial radius greater than polar radius. One
important thing to be remembered here is that the ellipsoidal surface is smooth
and it assumes the earth to be homogenous, as if there are no relief features
on earth. The geoid on the other hand accounts for this variation in relief. Let
us learn about it.

1.4.3 Geoidal Earth

Although the terms geoid or ellipsoid/spheroid are used interchangeably, there
are some basic differences between them. Geoid is defined as the surface of

Fig. 1.6: Geoid and Ellipsoid (Reb40 2013, Creative Commons, Public Domain).
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png)
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the earth’s gravity field and approximates the mean sea level. At any point, it is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity. Since the mass of earth is not uniform
at all points, the direction of gravitational force changes and hence, the shape
of geoid is also irregular. If the earth would have been devoid of all relief
features, that is, mountains, and ocean basins, etc, then the geoid surface
would have matched the ellipsoid exactly. Refer to Fig. 1.6 to get a better
picture of a geoid and a spheroid.

The force of gravitation is the pioneer in determining current shape of the

earth. The gravitational force due to earth’s mass is directed towards the
center of the earth and is opposed by centrifugal force which detracts it from
the Centre. The measured gravity of earth is the result of combination of mass
gravitation and centrifugal force (Fig. 1.7). Thus, the gravitational force is
weaker at equator than at poles by 0.5 percent.

Ellipsoidal shape
acquired by earth

Equator Centripetal Centrifugal Force

Force

Direction of Rotation

Fig. 1.7: Effect of rotation of earth on its shape

(Source: Diagram created by the author- Dr. Satya Raj)

Having learnt about the shape of earth, let us now learn about something very
interesting. Since earth rotates on its axis, we have day and night. This results
in variation of time at different places on the earth and this is systematic as
earth completes one full rotation in 24 hours and each and every place
happens to be on a particular meridian that comes under the sun. Let us learn
how time varies across different longitudes or meridians section.

The earth rotates on its axis in 24 hours. So it completes 360° of rotation in

24 hours. So it takes one hour to rotate for 15°. The rotation of earth thus
leads to variation in time at two places situated on different longitudes. The
local mean time at a particular place is reckoned from the lower transit of the
mean sun and thus different meridian have different local mean time. Also,
the difference between local mean times between two places is equal to the
difference in their longitudes. To avoid confusion, a standard meridian is
selected for each country which is at a fixed number of hours ahead or behind
the Greenwich Mean Time. The difference between the standard and local
time of any place is due to the difference in the longitudes between the given
place and the standard meridian used.

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SAQ 3
a) How has earth acquired an ellipsoidal shape and is not a true sphere?
b) If a place ‘A’ is at 75° E of Greenwich and the time at A is 4 am. What is
the time at ‘B’ which is 90° E of Greenwich?

1.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:

 The definitions of cartography.

 The nature and scope of cartography.
 The brief history and evolution of cartography.
 The shape of earth i.e. sphere, spheroid and ellipsoidal forms. The
earth’s shape is not a perfect sphere. It is an oblate spheroid, that is,
equatorial radius is greater than polar radius and this is attributed to
rotation of earth and the force of gravitation.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the nature and scope of cartography?

2. How has the map making evolved as modern cartography over time?

3. What is the difference between geoid and spheroid?

1.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Cartography is the art and science of map making.
2. Early cartography was completely manual, time taking, with less
precision, while the modern cartography is fully computerized with very
high level of accuracy.
3. a) The shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere as it is slightly flattened
at the poles and bulged at the equator. This is attributed to the
centrifugal force experienced during rotation of the earth due to which
it bulges out at equator and gives its ellipsoidal shape with a semi-
minor axis along the poles and the semi-major axis along equator.
b) 5 am (Since 90°-75° = 15° difference between the two longitudes and
90°E is eastward of 75°E, So it will be one hour ahead of A, that is
75°E).

Terminal Questions
1. Explain the nature as interdisciplinary having wide scope of cartography in
present day context. Refer to Section 1.3.
2. Discuss the evolution of cartography from ancient time to modern period
and explain how it has progressed and transformed from a very

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rudimentary manual technique to sophisticated one in the contemporary
times. Refer to Section 1.3.
3. Refer to Section 1.4.

1.8 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
 Gregory, D., Johnston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, Mi., and Whatmore, S. (2009).
(Eds.). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Publishers.

 Khullar, D.R. (2003). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New

Academic Publishing Co.

 Punamia, B.C. (1995). Surveying. Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.

 Misra, R.P. & Ramesh, A. (2002). Fundamentals of Cartography. Concept

Publishing Company, New Delhi.

 Robinson, A., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimerling, A.J. and Guptill,
S.C. (2011). Elements of Cartography, 6th edition. New York: Wiley.

 http://vailnaturenews.com/2013/01/07/mapping-the-celestial-sphere-an-
introduction-to-spherical-astronomy

 https://drive.google.com/open?id=1l34MyYs2_pUK-
f1BYEjp8wv7MTZKu4oE.

 http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s/
roman300s.html

 https://www.math.ubc.ca/~israel/m103/mercator/mercator.html

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere#/media/File:Sphere_and_Ball.png,
Public Domain

 https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasablueshift/9411406224, CC BY 2.0

 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png

18
Unit 1 Basic Concepts
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 2
MAPS

Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.6 Map Drawing Equipments
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.7 Summary
2.2 Definition and Types of Maps 2.8 Terminal Questions
2.3 History of Maps 2.9 Answers
2.4 Basic Elements of Maps 2.10 References and Suggested
2.5 Importance and Usage of Maps Further Reading

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the basic concepts of cartography in the previous
Unit-1. In this unit, you will study about maps including their types, history,
basic elements, and usage of maps. Map is a pictorial representation of the
whole earth or a part of the earth on plane surface to scale. From the ancient
periods to the present, it is considered as one of the important and effective
tools. You will study about the maps and their history in Sections 2.2 & 2.3.
Basic elements of maps and usage of maps are discussed in Section 2.4 &
2.5. In Section 2.6, we will explain about the various equipments generally
used in the process of map making.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the definition, evolution and types of maps;

 describe the basic elements of map;

 discuss the importance and usage of maps; and

 depict the map drawing equipments.

19
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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2.2 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF MAPS

Definition

A map is a pictorial depiction of whole earth or its part into two dimensional
surface involving geometrical objects, colours, symbols and texts. The term
map has been derived from the Latin term ‘mappa’ meaning the cloth-paper on
which early maps were inscribed. It has been defined by various geographers
and scholars from time to time. The most important definitions are as given
below:

According to Erwin Rais (1938), “a map is, in its primary conception, a

conventionalised picture of the earth’s pattern as seen from above.” L. Dudley
Stamp has defined as “map is a representation of the earth’s surface or a part
of it, its physical and political features, etc. or of the heavens, delineated on a
flat surface of paper, or other material, each point in the drawing corresponding
to a geographical or celestial position according to a definite scale of
projection.” The definition by F.J. Monkhouse is “map is a representation on a
plane surface (paper, card, plastic, cloth or some other material) of the
features of part of the earth’s surface, drawn to some specific scale.” Harley
and Woodward (1987, p. xvi), defines map as ‘graphic representations that
facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes or
events in the human world.’

It may be understood that maps have been very useful tools from ancient
times concerned with the demarcation of territory, expansion of territory,
exploration of new continents/lands, navigation, resource locations, etc. Now
the maps are useful in day to day life. It begins with the record of property as
every land owner, be it geographer or non-geographer, literate or illiterate, tries
to keep the map record of his or her property. It goes very advanced and
sophisticated way in public navigation and strategic usage. Maps represent the
locations and features of earth surface and their attributes or properties
attached to them. The advantage is that it presents in visual form the reality of
an area, large or small, in terms of its objects, features and phenomena in
spatially arranged relationships. It helps in viewing and reading the topographic
features and properties of them on the earth surface drawn on simple small
paper. In turn, it also helps in locating distance, direction and bearing,
connectivity and contiguity/neighbourhood and proximity, etc. Besides, it also
helps in observing and understanding the spatial relationships among all
features and their properties on the earth surface and its environment. “A map
lets us see the broader spatial relations that exist over large areas or the
details of microscopic particles. It is said that a map saves thousand words by
its own symbolic language or communication efficiency (Robinson, p. 10). Let
us now discuss various types of maps.

Types of Maps

The classification of maps is done based on various criteria. These criteria

are: scale, theme and purpose, and techniques of representation.

20
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1. Scale

The types of maps based on the scale are as follows:

a. Large Scale Maps

The maps drawn on or larger than 1:10,000 scale are considered as large
scale maps. It goes to as high as very large scale maps to a scale of 1:500.
Such kind of maps includes cadastral or land parcel maps, settlement maps,
etc. and topographical maps (Fig. 2.1).

Cadastral maps: Cadastral maps are the maps of land properties or land
parcels/plots. The term cadastral has been derived from the French term
‘Cadestre’ meaning the ‘register of territorial property.’ There are various terms
of these maps used in India like Khasra/Jamabandi/Girdwari/Khatauni Map, etc.
where the term Khasra number denotes the plot or parcel number. These
maps are drawn to demarcate the parcel or plot boundaries or houses by the
government agencies mainly the department of Revenue and Land Records
for taxes and other revenue and development purposes accompanied with the
tabular information called khatian or khatauni. These both- Cadastral Maps and
Khatian make the record of property rights, where the records match in both
documents- map and khatian. The map contains the parcel/plot wise khasra
number and the khatian keeps the record of size, location, extent, type, uses
and ownership details. The scale of cadastral maps are generally 1:3990 or 1:
4000 scale and the settlement maps go upto as large as 16, 32 and 64 inches
to one mile. These may be called very large scale maps.

Topographical maps: Topographical maps are prepared to depict earth’s

surface features including natural and cultural. These two kinds of features
form the physical and cultural landscapes showing relief, mountains, drainage,
waterbodies, agricultural land, forest, etc., and settlements, roads, railways,
location of schools, post offices, other services and facilities, etc., respectively.
The scale of topographical maps varies from one inch to one mile to quarter
inch to one mile. Different national agencies in various countries prepare the
survey based topographical maps on various scales accurately. These maps
vary in scale ranging from 1:25,000 to 1:2,50,000. Survey of India prepares
topographical maps on various scales, for example 1:25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:
2,50,000. International maps or one million maps are the other products in this
category, which represent the world in 2,222 sheets adopted in 1909 using
modified polyconic projection.

b. Small Scale Maps

Wall maps: Wall maps are drawn on a smaller scale to show the whole world,
a hemisphere, a continent or a country. The scale also varies depending on the
area of interest.

Atlas maps: These are very small scale highly generalized maps of the world
or different regions of the world. These map show major physical features,
settlements, transport networks and important landmarks. In India, various
types of atlases are prepared by various government agencies like National
Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO), National Bureau of Soil Survey

21
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(NBSS), All India Land Use & Soil Survey (AILU&SS), National Remote
Sensing Centre (NRSC), Census of India, etc.

(a)

(b)

(b)
Fig. 2.1: Examples of large scale map a) cadastral map and b) topographical
map.

22
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. Theme and Purpose

The maps are also classified based on their themes and functions or
purposes. These may further be divided as natural and cultural maps based on
broad themes (Fig. 2.2).

Physical maps: Physical maps are those maps which represent different
physical features. The example of this category of maps are the astronomical
maps showing astronomical or heavenly features, orographic or relief maps
showing relief features of the earth surface (comprising lowest and highest
surfaces, slope, drainage, waterbodies, etc.), geological maps showing
geological features (interior of the earth, fold, fault, structure, etc.), weather or
climatic maps showing temperature, pressure, wind direction, rainfall, diurnal
maps, seasonal maps etc.), vegetation maps showing forest species, type
and boundaries, soil map showing soil type, boundaries and land development
plan, hydrological maps, slope map, etc. These maps are also prepared in 3D
models on paper, plastic or clay.

Cultural maps: Cultural maps are those which represent the cultural
landscapes of the earth surface. The human beings have modified the pristine
natural landscape by building their settlements, industries, transport networks,
health and education facilities, dams and bridges, etc. The features created by
humans are categorised as cultural features. Depending on the purpose, these
are further subdivided as thematic maps. These are historical maps, political
maps, administrative maps, military or strategic maps, population maps,
socio-cultural maps, land use maps, transport and communication maps, etc.
Historical maps show historical events and reigns through boundaries and
locations, political maps show political boundaries, administrative maps show
various administrative boundaries, military or strategic maps show various
strategic points, routes and battle plans etc., population maps show various
aspects of population like population size, distribution, density, sex ratio,
literacy and education, employment, fertility, etc., socio-cultural maps show
ethnicity or races, tribes, castes, religion, languages, etc., under relevant
titles, land use maps show the utilizations of land parcel by parcel or in a
regionalized way, transport and communication maps show transport and
communication, resource maps show various resources, economic maps
show economic activities and development over the space, etc.

3. Techniques of Representation

The maps may also be classified based on the representation techniques.

These classifications are choropleth, chorochromatic, choro-schematic,
isopleths, and dot maps, etc (Fig. 2.3). Choropleth maps are those maps
which show the physical and cultural features by various colour/grayscale
shades or patterns. Chorochromatic maps show the non-quantitative
properties of any feature or phenomena over the space like presence or
absence. For example, the racial or linguistic distribution map, land use map,
etc. The maps showing the location and distribution of something over the
space through alphabets are called Choroschematic maps. For example, iron
ore is shown by I, gold is represented by G and so on. The maps using regular
line showing a uniform value of something like rainfall, temperature, pressure,
etc. are called isopleths maps. When distribution of something like population, 23
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
trees, animals, etc. are shown by dots representing definite number or
quantity, such maps are called dot maps.You may also refer to Block 5 for
understanding these maps.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.2: Examples of a) physical and b) cultural maps.

24
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

SAQ 1
What is map? What are the bases for classification of maps?

2.3 HISTORY OF MAPS

Maps have been in existence since historical times. It evolved from a very
rudimentary shape to the highly sophisticated smart maps in contemporary
times. It has evolved from pictorial form without scale to a sophisticated virtual
form, which is very close to reality with third dimension. Early maps were of

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 2.3: Representation of maps a) choropleth, b) chorochromatic, c) choro-schematic, and d) dot.
(Source: Baraik, V.K. (2020): “Languages”, Space and Society in Human Geography, IGNOU: New Delhi).

25
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
very notional kind without proper measurements. Egyptians have been the
pioneers in making systematic maps for the purpose of revenue. However,
Greek geographers prepared the early modern cartographic maps after 16th
Century. The oldest maps were from Babylonian civilization engraved on the
clay in about 2300 B.C.

The Greek geographers like Hecataeus (500 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC),
Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), Ptolemy (98-168 AD), etc. in early times
discovered the earth’s shape and size, poles, equator, tropics, climatic zones,
graticules and projections. Various maps including that of world drawn by
Ptolemy in his great work ‘Geographia’ is the landmark of Greek cartography.
He has tried to show the entire world using mathematical aspects of
geography, though, the maps were not refined ones. The Romans prepared
the disc maps for administrative and military purposes. They prepared
‘Peutinger Table’ showing major roads with military posts. The Arab
geographers also prepared maps after publication of Geographia with world
map in 15th Century AD (1482).

“The discovery of Geographia during 15th Century, the invention of printing and
engraving, and the age of discoveries, all these exerted a great force in ushering
towards the renaissance of map-making. The Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese,
the Germans and the Dutch with their successive efforts perfected the art of
drawing maps to such an extent that map publishing became a very lucrative
business during 16th Century.” Till this time, a great influence on map making
was from Ptolemy’s Geographia. Followed by this, Mercator also contributed
with greater accuracy than Ptolemy to make the maps.

The French cartographers further excelled in cartography with much greater

accuracy with the perfection of triangulation survey and measurement of
meridians. Due to the necessity of accurate topographic maps by the army, a
cartographic centre was developed in London under army for strategic
purpose as the Europe had become the most powerful in maritime. The
National Survey was initiated in France by C.F. Cassini and the “Carte
Geometrique de La France” was prepared on 1:86,400 scale in 1789. Italy,
Germany and Egypt also started the surveys and the Britain commenced its
Ordinance Survey in 1791. 1 inch to 1 mile map in England was prepared in
1801. Other European countries also started the National Surveys.

In the medieval period a map called T-O or T and O Map was also popular with
religious importance where Jerusalem was placed at the Centre of the world.
The world was shown as divided into three schematic parts: Asia, Europe, and
Africa. You may see some of these early maps in Fig 2.4.

During 19th and 20th Centuries, the map-making techniques further got
accelerated due to remarkable advancements in science and technology,
representation techniques of the earth and also the printing technology. Mono
colour maps have been replaced by the multicolour maps. A number of
national atlases were prepared during this phase. These were further
accentuated by the aerial photography during the First World War, which kept
progressing with the refinement of computing, computer graphics and printing
technology. All these are supported by the rapid advancements in the satellite
26 remote sensing and other surveying tools and technologies. Now also with the
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Eratosthese Map (220 BC)

Hecataeus Map (500 BC)

Ptolemy’s World Map (98-168 AD) T-O Map of the World

Fig. 2.4: World maps prepared by various geographers.
(Source: a) b)https://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/10400/10489/10489.htm, c) https://www.britannica.com/
science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-ancient-world d) https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/T-
O_Map.html)

advancements of GIS technologies, the maps have got transformed into smart
maps. These maps have the ability to answer end number of spatial questions.
The geo-database has enabled maps to retain the behavioural properties of a
geographical feature in the maps and respond to the questions accordingly.

In India, the survey of Raja Todarmal for revenue collection has been regarded
as the early beginning in the field of survey and mapping. The Survey of India
was established in 1767 by the East India Company and carried forward by the
Government of India from the Imperial Government after independence for
survey and mapping of the country. First modern survey was started in 1802
with the beginning of Geographical and Mathematical Survey in India by
Colonel William Lambton, a Geographer and Geodesist. This survey was later
on designated as Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) in 1818 and led by Albert
Everest after Lambton.

SAQ 2
How has the map evolved historically? Explain.
27
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2.4 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MAPS

There are some basic elements of maps based on which these are drawn.
Without these basic elements, maps cannot be complete. These basic
elements are scale, projection, reference grid, symbols and legends, neatline,
titles, and accuracy, etc. (Fig. 2.5).

Scale

Scale is the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the
ground. The representation of earth or even a piece of area cannot be done on
a piece of paper practically without fixing a proportional geometric shape or
symbols representing the features on the earth as paper cannot always be of
the same size of the area under representation. For this reason, the maps are
drawn on small piece of papers of varying sizes using some representative
proportions where certain distance or size of representing features on the
paper is true to the fixed proportionate size on the ground. For example one
centimetre line on paper may represent one kilometre distance on the actual
ground. This is exactly called ‘Scale.’ The formal or scientific definition of scale
is the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the
ground. It is expressed as:
Map distanace between two points
Scale =
Ground distance between the same points
The map scales are of three types: statement, numeric and graphic. You will
study the same in details in the next unit 3.

Title

North
Arrow

Neatline

Symbol

Colour

Text

Legend

Scale

Map
Source

Fig. 2.5: Map showing various elements of the map.

28 (Source: Baraik, V.K. (2020): “Languages”, Space and Society in Human Geography, IGNOU: New Delhi).
Unit 2 Earth – A Living Planet
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Projection
Map projection is the mathematical and geometrical transformation of
spherical surface of the earth into two dimensional flat surface to show the
whole or part of the globe in the form of a map. In this process, the boundaries
of whole world or any part is transferred on the plane surface with graticule or
latitudes and longitudes based on certain scale. Through certain mathematical
formula or model, the surface geometry is transformed from spherical to two
dimensional plane. Since the earth is spherical in shape, no projection is
perfect in terms of representation of area, shape, and bearing or direction. In
all types of projections, any of these properties are compromised in terms of
accuracy. The concept of projection has been in use since the time of Strabo
and Ptolemy. However, the first systematic map on projection systems was
equidistant polar zenithal map developed by Glareanus in 1510. Later on,
Gerhard Kremer prepared the maps of Europe on conical projection with two
parallels (1554) and world map in Mercator projection (1595). The development
of projection system moved forward with the era of navigations and
explorations. Consequently, a number of projections based on various
approaches and objectives came into existence. The number was further
added due to the need based modifications and improvements. The mapping
of world in 2222 independent sheets on modified polyconic or international
projections has also been one of such products. Classification of map
projections may be done based on the aspects of projection techniques,
developable surface, global properties and source of light. You will study more
about map projections in Block 2 of this Course.

Reference Grid

Though references to the spatial locations are of different types, these may
include pin code, distance and direction from a known point, house number
(alpha-numeric). Grid reference defines location of any spatial features on the
map. It may be latitude and longitude and also in the form of alpha-numerical
grids for reference.

Symbols and Legends

Different symbols are used in the map to represent spatial features and
phenomena along with their properties. Legend presents the index of the
symbols used in a map with self explanatory description of relevant line,
polygon, point, colour, pattern, texture, intensity, alpha-numeric letters or tags,
etc.

Conventional signs or map symbols are widely or technically or universally

accepted signs, symbols or colours used to represent or show various
features, elements and properties of maps. It enables anyone to read and
interpret the map anywhere in the world irrespective of languages used due to
internationally used system of signs and symbols. This way the information is
accurately conveyed by the map makers to the users. Conventional map
symbols are the graphics either independent or mixed of geometric and alpha-
numeric features with colour and patterns representing physical as well as
cultural features of the earth surface and its environments shown in the maps.

It is very essential, therefore, to have knowledge about the conventional signs,

29
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
symbols and colours for map making as well as map reading or interpretation.
There are definite signs for roads, rails, bridges, footpaths, cart track, pack
track, milestones, road or highway numbers, spot heights, contours, rivers,
river channels, canals, waterbodies like lakes, tanks, wells, etc. For each
category of features also there are different signs or symbols for its types like
broad gauge and narrow gauge for railways, national highways, state
highways, district roads and rural roads under the category of roads; perennial
stream/channel or seasonal stream under river, etc. Similarly, colours are
also internationally defined like blue for water, brown for heights, green for
vegetation, red for roads or settlements, etc. You may see some of the
examples of conventional signs, symbols and colours, etc. (Fig. 2.6). For more
details, you may refer to Unit 11 of Block 4.

Fig. 2.6: Conventional symbols of topomap.

(Source: http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in)

Neatline

Neatline is the line bordering the geographical data (outline) of the area of
representation. It may be called the outer boundary of the map having various
designs of lines.

Titles

Titles and sub-titles are the identities of any map written normally on the top of
a map. It consists of region name, theme and year/time period, etc.

Accuracy

Accuracy is a prime concern in map making, without which map cannot

represent the area of interest properly. The aspects of accuracy are positional
or planimetric, thematic and conceptual. Positional accuracy is the correct
relative positions of features on the map with same positions of the
corresponding features on the ground. It may be between the two maps as
well. Without positional accuracy, all calculations of area, distance, and
direction, etc. may be wrong and may not correspond exactly with the ground
30
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
reality. Thematic accuracy means the correct representation of the ground
reality in the map. In this, if the area or location of something is correctly
shown but the property is not shown correctly, there will be inaccuracy. For
example, if the playground is shown as rice field, it is thematic inaccuracy.
Conceptual accuracy or logical consistency is the whole concept from data
under representation, temporal variation of data to projection and symbology.

SAQ 3
What is the importance of conventional signs, symbols and colours?

2.5 IMPORTANCE AND USAGE OF MAPS

Humans have been modifying the earth surface consistently and especially
after the development of science and technology more than ever. With some
negative alteration to the nature, some are done in positive direction with
proper planning like urban planning and design, location, industrial plan, mining
plan, plantation and afforestation, agriculture, construction of dams for
electricity, potable water and irrigation, construction of transport network and
so on. For these activities, the information of the earth surface under interest
is essential which is fulfilled in terms of various maps. Any kind of such
activities over the earth surface need the maps of various types. Regional
comparison is also possible when relevant maps are available.
The globe represents the earth without distortions in terms of relative
distances, angles, areas, azimuths, rhumbs and great circles at a certain
scale. However, the globe is expensive, time taking in reproduction, storage
and carrying inconvenience and difficulty in measurements as only about half
of the globe is visible at a time. Therefore, maps get importance over the
globe. All these disadvantages are eliminated with the production of maps on a
flat surface primarily paper or plastic.
Advantage of map is that it shows all the features or phenomena under interest
in systematic and legible manner for easy and meaningful communication but
the demerit is that it does not represent the phenomena as it is in the picture.
On the other hand, the demerit of the picture is that it shows everything visible
under the area of interest irrespective of their relevance. Secondly, the pictures
cannot show the phenomena which are not visible but measurable through
various techniques and scales.
In nutshell, maps are essential tools to understand our world’s spatial
variability and character for all the activities we do. Now, smart maps do not
only give answer to our spatial query, but also retain the spatial behaviour of
the features and inter-relationship among themselves in answering the spatial
questions. And due to the new capabilities of maps as smart maps, these
have increasingly become the part of our every day life in various forms.

SAQ 4
What is the importance of map?

31
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.6 MAP DRAWING EQUIPMENTS
There are two modes of cartography and therefore two types of map drawing
equipments-Traditional and Digital. The traditional map drawing equipments
are less in practice now after the rapid revolution in survey, computing,
graphics and printing technologies in the digital formats. However, the modern
or digital technologies are primarily based on the traditional techniques only.
Therefore, it is inevitable to know the traditional techniques and equipments for
understanding the modern tools and techniques. The list of equipments given
below is generally used for map making.

Traditional Map Drawing Equipments

 Drawing Table/Drawing Board

 Tracing Table/Light Table
 Papers- Plain and Graph
 Geometrical Instruments
 French Curves
 Pencil and Pens
 Ink and Colours
 Tints and Patterns

Digital Map Drawing Equipments

Hardwares: Computer and Peripherals

 Input Devices (Scanner, Digitizer, Keyboard and Mouse, Global Positioning

System (GPS)/Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)/Electronic
Total Station (ETS).

 Processing Devices (CPU or Central Processing Unit)

 Display Devices (Monitors)

 Printing Devices (Printers and Plotters)

 Internet Connection for Online Data Sharing, Viewing, Analysis, Map

Composition and Sharing

Softwares:

 Data Transformation from Digital Survey Devices

 Map Making

 Web Mapping

Since last one decade, the rapid technological developments are gradually
replacing the traditional map making equipments.

SAQ 5
What are the map drawing equipments?

32
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
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2.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:

 Definition of maps and map types based on scale, projection and purpose
or usage.

 History and evolution of maps from ancient time to the modern period
characterized by sophisticated technologies.

 Basic elements of maps starting from scale and projection to symbology.

 Conventional signs, symbols and colours used in mapping and map

interpretation without which any map is incomplete and meaningless.

 Importance and usage of maps which have become the inevitable part of
our everyday lives in some form or the other.

 The list of conventional or traditional and digital map drawing equipments.

2.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by maps? Describe the importance and types of
various maps.

2. Describe the historical evolution of maps.

3. Explain the basic elements of maps.

4. What are the importance and usage of maps?

2.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. A map is a pictorial depiction of whole earth or its part into two dimensional
surface involving geometrical objects, colour, symbols and texts. The
bases of classification of maps are scale, projection and purpose or usage
of maps.

2. Map has evolved from rudimentary to conventional, then to digital and now
smart maps in the digital category.

3. Conventional signs, symbols and colours are the graphics either

independent or mixed of geometric and alpha-numeric features with colour
and patterns to depict various physical and cultural features of the earth’s
surface and its environments shown in the maps.

4. Maps have become the part of everyday life in deciding what is located
where and what has to be done where.

5. Two broad types of map drawing equipments are traditional/conventional

and digital.

33
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Terminal Questions
1. Give definitions of map and discuss the importance and types of various
maps. Refer to the Section 2.2.

2. Write about the evolution of maps since early period to the contemporary
time period. Refer to the Section 2.3.

3. List and explain the basic elements of maps and also write about their
importance in a map. Refer to the Section 2.4.

4. Discuss why maps are important and useful. Refer to the Section 2.5.

2.10 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
 Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1973). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.

 Misra, R.P. and Ramesh, A. (1986). Fundamentals of Cartography. New

Delhi: McMillan.

 Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:

Orient BlackSwan.

 Robinson, A., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimerling, A.J. and Guptill,
S.C. (2011). Elements of Cartography, 6th edition. New York: Wiley.

 Khullar, D.R. (2003). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New

Academic Publishing Co.

 Deb Roy, R. (1986). The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in a

Historical Perspective, Indian Journal of History of Science, 21(1): 22-32.

 https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/
Vol21_1_4_RDRoy.pdf.

 https://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/10400/10489/10489.html
 https://www.britannica.com/science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-
ancient-world
 https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/T-O_Map.htmll

34
Unit 1 Basic Concepts
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UNIT 3
MAP SCALE

Structure
3.1 Introduction Comparative Scale
Expected Learning Outcomes Diagonal Scale
Vernier Scale
3.2 Concept of Map Scale
Special Types Scale
3.3 Representative Methods of Scales
3.6 Summary
Statement of Scale
3.7 Terminal Questions
Linear or Graphic Scale
Representative Fraction (R.F.) 3.8 Answers

3.4 Methods of Scale Conversion 3.9 References/Suggested

Further Reading
3.5 Types of Map Scales: Construction
and Reading
Plain or Graphic Scale

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the introduction to cartography in Unit 1. If you have
remembered correctly then cartography is nothing but ‘an art and science of
map making’. When we say it is science which means it follows certain
scientific procedure which are universally accepted while constructing a map.
Scale is to be specific and is one of the essential parts involved in the
construction of map. Therefore, we can say that scale is very essential
element of a map as it provides the true measurements of area or length of
any feature on the ground. Without scale, a graphic representation will not be
called a map and remains a figure or sketch. And, therefore, it is the most
important element of a map. Try to find out what are the other essential
elements of a map apart from the scale.

In this unit, we will describe the concept of map scale in Section 3.2 followed
by representation of scale in Section 3.3. In the Section 3.4, we will explain
conversion of scale by solving one example each for the conversion of
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statement of scale to representative fraction (R. F) and vice versa. In the last
section i.e. Section 3.5, we will discuss about four major types of scale i.e.
plain scale, comparative scale, diagonal scale and vernier scale and also
solve one example each.

In the next Block, you will read in detail about Map Projections where three
dimensional image of the earth has been transformed to a two dimensional
surface for which map scale is also an essential element.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of map scale;

 describe the three methods of representing map scale;

 perform scale conversion;

 describe various types of map scale and methods of construction; and

 interpret the reading of map scale.

3.2 CONCEPT OF MAP SCALE

You might know that without a scale, a map is incomplete and cannot be
technically named as Map. Without scale a map is called a sketch. Why it is
so? This is because we cannot precisely identify the exact measurement of
distances between two places depicted on the map. Now, can you define a
map scale? In simpler terms, map scale can be defined as:

“the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the
ground.”

This can be expressed as:

(Map distanace between two points)

Scale =
(Ground distance between the same points)
The representation of earth or even a piece of area cannot be done on a piece
of paper practically without fixing a proportional geometric shape or symbols
representing the features on the earth as paper cannot always be of the same
size of the area under representation. For this reason, the maps are drawn on
small piece of papers of varying sizes using some representative proportions
where certain distance or size of representing features on the paper is true to
the fixed proportionate size on the ground. For example, one centimetre line on
paper may represent one kilometre distance on the actual ground.

The above discussion raised a broad question in our mind. The question is
what are the factors responsible for deciding the appropriate scale? There are
broadly three factors which are as follows:

 The magnitude or size of an area to be represented on a map;

 The extent of details to be represented on the map; and

36
Unit 3
2 Earth – A Living
MapPlanet
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
 The size of the paper in which the map is drawn.

These three questions brought two concepts i.e. small scale and large scale
maps. Let us now briefly discuss about these concepts.

 Small scale maps are those maps which depicts large area covered on a
small size of paper. In this type of map, the scope for detailing about the
area is not possible. Therefore, it depicts only important features and
details about the area which are not available. Atlas map is the best
example of small scale maps.

 Large scale maps are just opposite to small scale maps which depicts
small area covered on a relatively bigger size of paper. Therefore, this type
of maps depicts the earth’s surface features in detail. Topographical maps
and cadastral maps are the best examples of large scale maps.

Now, you must have understood the concept of map scale. Let us pause for
some time and perform the below given activity to recapitulate what we have
learnt till now.

SAQ 1
a) What is scale?

b) Differentiate between small scale and large scale maps?

3.3 REPRESENTATIVE METHODS OF SCALE

After defining the scale, one of the obvious questions that come to our mind is
about the methods of showing scale on a map. Do you know the different
methods of representing the scale on a map? Yes, you are right, broadly, there
are three ways of representing scale. These are as follows:

 Statement of Scale

 Linear or Graphic Scale

 Representative Fraction (R.F.)

Each methods of representation have its own merits and demerits. Let us
discus them one by one.

3.3.1 Statement of Scale

As the name suggests, in this method, the measurement of the map scale is
represented in the form of a statement. The example may be as follows:

1 Centimeter to 1 Kilometer

It means that 1 centimeter distance on map is equal to 1 kilometer distance on

the actual ground.

Major advantage of this scale is its simplicity to understand, but it has some
disadvantages also. The major disadvantage of this scale is its non-flexibility.
Let us understand this. When we enlarge or reduce a map by way of
reproduction especially through scanning or photocopying, the scale changes.
37
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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But in this form of representation, the scale remains fixed in the form of a
statement despite changes in the size of a map. The second major
disadvantage is that one has to take stated measurement from somewhere
else to calculate it on the map. The person not having the idea of unit of
measurement of distance will have difficulty to relate the distances on map
and the ground.

3.3.2 Graphic Scale

Graphic scales are those scales, which are depicted through graphs mixed
with lines and/or empty or black blocks showing primary and secondary
divisions. A line or a linear rectangle is divided into equal primary divisions
representing a definite distance on the map corresponding to the ground.
Again, the first primary division is sub-divided into secondary sub-divisions.
You will learn about the geometrical construction of primary and secondary
division of a graphic scale in the Practical Manual. The divisions and sub-
divisions are then marked by statement to indicate the distance on the ground.

The graphical scales are constructed from the statement and ratio scales.
The other property of the graphic scale is that it also represents comparative
measurements and scales of cube roots and square roots. In the Section 3.5,
you will read in detail about various types of graphical scale namely plain
scale, comparative scale, diagonal scale etc. along with examples.

3.3.3 Representative Fraction (R.F)

It shows the relationship between the map distance and the corresponding
ground distance in units of length. This can be expressed as:
Map distance
Representative Fraction (R.F) =
Ground distance
This method of representing the scale is completely independent of unit of
measurement. In other words, it is a universal unit. What does this mean? This
means that it can be converted into any unit of measurement. That is why it is
the most versatile method.

Let us understand the above mentioned statements in detail. This type of scale
is expressed as numeric ratio, like 1:1,000,000 meaning thereby 1 unit of
distance on the map is equal to 1,000,000 units on the ground. The numerator
is always expressed as unity or 1 and remains constant which represents the
map distance or unit. On the other hand, denominator is the ground distance,
which varies according to the area covered in the map. That is why it is called
‘Representative Fraction’ or R.F.

One very important point to remember is that larger the value of a

denominator, smaller will be the scale and vice versa. In the former case, the
map would have large area coverage but fewer details in the map. Contrary to
this, smaller the denominator, larger will be the scale with small area coverage
but having more details. For example, ‘million map’ is an example of small
scale map, and 1:25,000 map is that of a large scale map. The selection of
scale depends on the purpose. The second point to remember is that both the
units i.e. numerator 1 or map distance and denominator or ground distance
38
Unit 3
2 Earth – A Living
MapPlanet
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
should be in the same unit of measurement like milimeter/centimetre/kilometer
or inch/mile. Despite having so many advantages, this method of
representation is also not free from disadvantages. The biggest disadvantage
of this scale is that it is not as convenient as graphic scale both to measure
and read.

After knowing different methods of representation of scale, let us perform the

below given exercise which would help you in recapitulating what you have
learnt in this section.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

(a) Major disadvantage of statement of scale is that the person not having
the idea of unit of ________________will have difficulty to relate the
distances on map and ground.

(b) In graphic scale, a linear rectangle is divided into equal ______________

representing a definite distance on the map corresponding to the ground
and the first primary division is sub-divided in to ___________.

(c) Representative Fraction is completely independent of ___________and

therefore it is a _____________ unit.

3.4 METHODS OF SCALE CONVERSION

In the previous section, we have discussed three methods of representing
scale. Do you know that these scales can be converted from one method to
other? In this section, we will describe methods of conversion from statement
of scale to Representative Fraction and vice versa with the help of one
example each.

Let us understand the steps involved in both the conversion.

3.4.1 Statement of Scale to Representative Fraction

Let us now learn to convert a statement of scale to Representative Fraction
with the help of following example.

Example 1: Convert the given Statement of Scale of 1 cm represents 5 km

into R. F.

Solution: The below given are the steps to be followed while converting
Statement of Scale into R. F.

1 cm represents 5 kms

Or, 1 cm represents 5 × 1,00,000 (1 km = 1,00,000 cms)

Or, 1 cm represents 5,00,000 cms

We can now replace the character “cms” into “units” and read it as:

1 unit represents 5,00,000 Units

Answer is R. F. 1: 5,00,000 39
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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3.4.2 Representative Fraction to Statement of Scale
After learning conversion from Statement to R.F., let us now learn to convert a
Representative Fraction to statement of scale with the help of following
example.

Example 2: Convert the given R. F. 1:1,000,000 into Statement of Scale.

Solution: The following steps are involved in the conversion of Representative

Fraction into statement of scale:

1:1,000,000 means that 1 unit on the map represents 1,000,000 units on the
ground.

If it is to be expressed in metric system of measurement i.e. in Centimeter,

Meter and Kilometer then the steps are as follows:

1 cm represents 1,000,000/100,000 (1 km = 100,000 cm)

Or 1 cm represents 10 km

Answer: 1 cm represents 10 km.

If it is to be expressed in British system of measurement i.e. in inch and mile

measurement, then the steps are as follows:

1 inch = 1,000,000/63,360 (1 Mile=63,360 inches)

Or 1 inch = 15.78,283 Miles

Answer: 1 inch = 15.78,283 Miles

Till now, we have discussed the concept of scale, representation of scale and
conversion of scale. In the following section, we will discuss various types of
scale.

3.5 TYPES OF MAP SCALES: CONSTRUCTION

AND READING
After defining the scale and describing various methods of representing scale,
one of the obvious questions that comes to our mind is about the types of
scale. Do you know how many types of scales are there? Yes, you are right,
broadly, scale can be classified into five types. These are as follows:

1. Plain Scale

2. Comparative scale

3. Diagonal scale

4. Vernier scale

5. Special types scale.

In this section, we will discuss only one example each for plain scale,
comparative scale and diagonal scale. Before discussing about various types
of scale, we should know about the following points. These points should be
kept in mind, at the time of construction of graphic or linear scale.

40
Unit 3
1 BasicMap
Concepts
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Steps Involved in the Construction of Graphic Scale

1. The scale should indicate the actual distance in round figure, such as 10,
20, 30, and so on. However, the length may not be in round or full digit
always. It may be in decimal also.

2. Normally, the length of the graphic scale should be between 4 to 6 inch or

10 cm to 15 cm.

3. The division of graphic scale into primary and secondary divisions is made
by geometrical methods about which we will discuss in Practical Manual.
The value of each division should be mentioned on the upper side of the
scale. The left side of the scale has the secondary division, showing the
smallest measurement of the scale.

4. As discussed under section 3.3.2, this scale has two parallel lines.
Conventionally, the lower line should be thick and each section of the scale
may be shaded in alternate manner.

3.5.1 Plain Scale

Plain scales are those which measure up to two units or a single unit through
its divisions and sub-divisions. Let us explain this with examples. Example of
two units of measurement is 2 kilometer and 200 meter. Examples of divisions
and sub-divisions are 5.4 cm and 3.8 meter etc.

As mentioned above, plain scale represents up to two units, therefore, it

consists of a line divided into number of equal main parts and the first main
part is sub-divided into smaller parts. Zero (0) is marked at the end of the first
main part. From zero mark numbers to the main parts or units towards right
and give numbers to the sub-divisions or smaller parts towards left. Give the
names of the units and sub-units below clearly. Indicate below the name of the
scale and its R.F clearly.

Construction of plain scale is explained below with the help of an example. For
your understanding, the process of construction is being explained in a step-
wise manner.

Example 3: The R.F. of a map is 1:250,000. Construct a plain scale with

primary and secondary divisions to read up to one km.

Solution: Before initiating the construction, we have to perform the following

calculation to derive the length of the scale.

The given R. F. of the map is 1:250,000

As we want to develop a scale in Kilometer, the given R. F. can be expressed

as: one cm. represents 250,000 cm.

If we draw a line of 12 cm, it will represent the number of kms in following way:

1 cm. represents 250,000 cm

or If we express it in km. 1 cm = 2.5 km (1,00,000/250,000)

A line of 12 cm will represent 2.5 km x 12 = 30 km.

41
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Steps involved in the Construction

1. Based on the above calculation, we have to read upto 1 km. in this linear
scale for 30 km. Therefore, we will divide this scale into six primary
divisions. Thus, each primary division will read 5 km.

2. As discussed earlier in this section, the extreme left primary division of the
scale will be divided into five equal divisions. Each secondary division will
represent a minimum distance of one km.

3. While numbering the scale, zero should be marked after one interval from
the left, so that the left hand end of the line can be numbered 5 and the
primary divisions to the right of zero can have numbers 5,10,15,20 and 25.
This method of numbering enables us to read off directly the whole
numbers as well as the fraction from the scale (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1: Plain scale depicting primary and secondary divisions.

3.5.2 Comparative Scale

In simpler terms, a comparative scale may be expressed as a pair of scales
having a common R.F. but graduated to read different units. Some of the
examples of comparative scales are (i) different units; (ii) time scale; (iii) pace
scale; and (iv) revolution scale. Let us discuss each of them and their
construction with an example each.

a) Different Units: As the name suggests, this type of scale depicts reading
in two different units. An example of a comparative scale of two different units
may be showing distances in meters and yards having common zero point.

Let us solve the below given example for more clarity.

Example 4: A map is on the scale of R.F. 1:100,000. Draw a comparative

scale to read the distances in Mile-Furlong and Kilometer- Hectometer.

Calculation

The given R.F. is 1:100,000

As we want to develop a scale in miles, the given R. F. can be expressed as:

For mile

1 inch represents 100,000 inch

100000x6 625
6” will represent Miles = Miles = 9.46 miles
63360 66

For our convenience, let us convert it into a round figure of 10 miles. In this
case, we have to recalculate the length of the scale. Therefore, the length of

42
Unit 3
1 BasicMap
Concepts
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
the scale will be as follows:

625 Miles are shown by a line of 6”

66

1 mile will be shown by a line of 6x66”

625

10 miles will be shown by 6x66x10” = 6.3”

625

For km

1 cm. represents 100,000 cm or 1 km.

Then 15 cm. will represent 1 km.  15 = 15 km.

Steps involved in the Construction

The following steps are followed while constructing comparative scale for
depicting two different units. We have already calculated the length of the
scale.

1. We will start the construction of comparative scale by drawing two straight

lines. The length of the line representing mile is 6.3” whereas the second
line representing kilometer is 15 cm.

2. Divide 6.3” line into 10 equal parts to show the primary division of one mile
distance. Similarly, divide the line of 15 cm. into 15 equal parts to show the
primary division of 1 km.

3. The first primary division in the extreme left will be divided into two equal
parts. Thus, one secondary division will represent 4 furlongs. Similarly, to
measure distance in hectometer, divide left primary division into two equal
parts. Thus, one secondary division will measure the distance of 5
hectometer.

4. Now draw the comparative scale where the zero of both the scales should
coincide with each other (Fig.3.2)

Fig. 3.2: Comparative scale depicting two different scales.

Let us now discuss other forms of comparative scale.

ii) Time scales: As the name suggests, this scale depicts distance along with
time like miles and minutes/hours. In this type of comparative scale, one line
represents distance travelled whereas the other line represents the time taken
43
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
to cover the said distance. Like other comparative scale, zero, in both the
scales should coincide to each other.

iii) Pace scales: Can you decipher from the name which two parameters are
compared in this scale? Yes, this form of comparative scale shows distance
and coverage in terms of pace. In other words, this scales has two units i.e.
distances covered in miles or kilometres and number of steps taken to cover
the said distance. Now, you might be thinking that why do we use such type of
scale? Generally, this type of scale is used while conducting a rapid
reconnaissance where it may not be possible to use chain and tape due to
shortage of time. In those circumstances, the distance can be measured with
the help of paces. The length of a pace of the person employed for the purpose
should be known and then the distance between two points can be measured
by paces. The standard military pace is 30”.

iv) Revolution scales: This is another form of comparative scale that shows
distance and revolution of wheels to cover the distance, where speedometer is
an excellent example.

3.5.3 Diagonal Scale

Diagonal scales are drawn for greater precision or higher degree of accuracy.
Can you imagine how is this precision achieved? Yes, you’re right. We
achieve this precision because this scale is specifically used to measure up to
three units. For example, in a metric system you can measure kilometers
(km), meters (m) and centimeters (cm). Similarly, in British system of
measurement you can measure miles, furlongs and yards etc. If you observe
closely the previous two scales, they are best suited for measuring up to two
units. This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be
accurately measured or when measurements are required up to second
decimal. The below given figure depicts micro-distance in a diagonal scale.

Fig. 3.3: Reading of micro-distance in a diagonal scale.

44
Unit 3
1 BasicMap
Concepts
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Example 5: To read the distance of one hundredth part of a mile, draw a
diagonal scale on R.F. 1:63,360 and also show the distance of 1.56 mile on the
scale.

Solution:

Steps involved in the Construction

1. As per the given exercise, 1" represents 1 mile, as 1 mile is equal to

63,360". Draw a line of 6", and divide it into 6 primary divisions. Thus, one
primary division will represent one mile.

2. Divide the first primary division of the left side into ten secondary divisions.
Thus, the one secondary division will represent 0.1 mile distance.

3. To read the distance of 0.01 mile draw 10 parallel lines to the main scale.
On the left side of primary division mark 10 points of equal distances on
the upper most line of the scale. Join these 10 small distances with the
diagonals (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4: Diagonal scale showing the distance of 1.56 mile.

3.5.4 Vernier Scale

Do you know why this scale is named so? This scale is named after it’s
inventor Pierre Vernier, a French Mathematician in 1631. Vernier scales are
drawn to achieve greater accuracy in the form of fraction of a division in both
linear and angular measurements. This scale consists of a small moving
scale. This small moving scale has the graduated edge which slides along the
graduated edge of a larger sale. The larger scale is known as primary scale
and as mentioned above the small graduated scale is known as Vernier scale
(Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5: Vernier Scale.

3.5.5 Special Type Scales

Special type scales are drawn to represent two types of distances – horizontal
and vertical together. Various types of these scales are a) square root scales
(showing proportionate circles with certain radius for representing some
45
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
quantitative values), b) cube root scales (showing spheres to represent
quantities using cube root for volume), c) scales of verticals (showing height
depending on focal length of the lens and altitude of the camera taken in areal
photography), and d) perspective scales (showing block diagrams or field).

SAQ 3
Match the two columns.

Types of Scale Example

A) Graphic Scale i) Measures up to three units

B) Comparative Scale ii) Square Root Scale

C) Diagonal Scale iii) Time Scale

D) Vernier Scale iv) Linear Scale

E) Special Types Scale v) Slide Calipers

3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:

 Scale is an essential element of map and without a scale, a map is in

complete and cannot be technically be named as map. Without scale a
map is called a sketch. In simpler terms, map scale can be defined as the
ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the ground.

 There are three ways of representing scale. These are (i) statement of
scale, (ii) linear or graphic scale, and (iii) representative fraction.

 As the name suggests, in this method, the measurement of the map scale
is represented in the form of statement. Graphic scales are those scales,
which are depicted through graphs mixed with lines and/or empty or black
blocks showing primary and secondary divisions.

 The scales can be converted from one form to another form. In this unit,
we discussed methods of conversion from statement of scale to
representative fraction and vice versa.

 There are five broad types of scales namely (i) plain scale, (ii) comparative
scale, (iii) diagonal scale, (iv) vernier scale, and special type scale.

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. State the three factors on which the scale depends.

2. Explain the three representation methods of map scales.

3. What points should be taken into consideration while constructing graphic

scale.

4. Describe various types of map scales highlighting its advantages and

disadvantages.
46
Unit 3
1 BasicMap
Concepts
Scale
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5. List the importance of diagonal scale.

3.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. Scale is the ratio between the map distance to the actual corresponding
ground distance.

2. a) Measurement of distance

b) Primary divisions, secondary divisions

c) Unit of measurement, universal

3. A-iv; B-iii, C-i; D-v; E-ii

Terminal Questions
1. You have to broadly highlight the factors on which scale depends. Refer to
the Section 3.2.

2. Refer to the Section 3.3.

3. Refer to the Section 3.5.

4. Refer to the Section 3.5.

5. Briefly highlight the importance of diagonal scale to answer this question.

Refer to the sub-section 3.5.3.

3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
 Khullar, D.R. (2003). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.

 Mishra, R. P. and Ramesh, A. (1989). Fundamentals of Cartography.

Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

 Robinson, Arthur, H.J., Morrison, P., Muehrke, A., Kimmerling&Guptill, S.

(eds.). (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: Wiley.

 Sarkar, A. (2009). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Orient

Blackswan Private Limited, Kolkata.

 Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1973). Map Work and Practical Gleography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.

 Singh R. L. and Singh, R. P. B. (1991). Elements of Practical Geography.

Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

47
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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GLOSSARY
Atlas: Very small scale and highly generalized maps of the world or different
regions of the world showing major physical features, settlements, transport
networks and important landmarks.
Azimuth: Horizontal angular measurements of coordinate systems from zero
degree.
Azimuthal Projections: Projections maintaining correct direction and distance
on the map are called azimuthal or true bearing projections.
Cadastral Map: Maps showing parcel or property boundaries.
Cartography: It is the art and science of map making.
Comparative Scale: It may be expressed as a pair of scales having a
common R.F. but graduated to read different units.
Chorochromatic Maps: Maps showing non-quantitative properties of any
feature or phenomena over the space like presence or absence.
Choropleth Maps: The maps showing physical or cultural features by various
colours or grey scale shades or patterns.
Choro-schematic Map: The maps showing the location and distribution of
something over the space through alphabets.
Conical Projection: A projection developed by throwing the light on the conical
surface from inside the globe wrapped by conical surface followed by drawing
of graticules on the flat surface after cutting open the conical. In this, the
distance of meridians increases towards the funnel or the cone or from polar
to equatorial areas.
Cultural Map: Maps representing the cultural landscapes, especially the
cultural or institutional properties like race, tribe, religion, literacy, etc. of the
earth surface.
Cylindrical Projection: When a projection is made from the light inside the
globe on the cylindrical surface around the globe and graticules are drawn on
cut open cylindrical surface into plane surface is called cylindrical projection,
where the graticules intersect each other at the right angle.
Diagonal Scale: Scales drawn for greater precision or higher degree of
accuracy with secondary and tertiary scales for the accuracy up to two
decimal digits involving diagonal lines of sub-divisions.
Dot Maps: The maps showing the distribution of various features like
population, trees, animals, etc. by dots representing definite number or
quantity are called dot maps.
Ellipsoid or Spheroid: Ellipsoid or Spheroid is a three-dimensional shape
created from a two-dimensional ellipse with a property of polar flattening and
equatorial bulge.
Geoid: It represents the earth’s shape and is the reference surface taking
mean sea level surface from which topographic heights and ocean depths are
measured.
Great Circle: Equator and all longitudes.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): It is a time at the Royal Observatory located
at Greenwich, London and is a reference time for entire globe.
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Unit 1 Basic Concepts
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Homolographic Projection: Projections maintaining the correct area are
called homolographic projections.
Isopleth Maps: The maps using regular line showing a uniform value of
weather elements like rainfall, temperature, pressure, etc.
Linear or Graphic Scale: Graphic scales are those scales, which are
depicted through graphs mixed with lines and/or empty or black blocks
showing primary and secondary divisions.
Map: A map is a pictorial depiction of whole earth or its part into two
dimensional surface involving geometric objects, colour, symbols and texts.
Neatline: Neatline is the line bordering the geographical data (outline) of the
area of representation. It may be called the outer boundary of the map having
various designs of lines.
Orthomorphic Projection: The projections retaining the correct shape of the
earth on the map are called orthomorphic or correct shape projections.
Peutinger Table: Peutinger Table (Tabula Peutingeriana) is a historical
Roman map showing Roman Empire with major roads and military posts.
Physical Map: The maps which represent the physical features are said to be
physical maps.
Plain Scale: Plain scales are those which measure up to two units or a single
unit through its divisions and sub-divisions.
Projection: Map projection is the mathematical transformation of graticules
(latitudes and longitudes) of the spherical earth on a two dimensional plane
surface.
Representative Fraction (RF): It is the expression of scale in terms of ratio
between map distance and the actual corresponding ground distance, where
the numerator is map distance always expressed as one and the denominator
is the same corresponding distance on the ground.
Rhumb Line: A curve crossing at every meridian on the earth’s surface at the
same angle.
Scale: Scale is the ratio between the map distance to the actual
corresponding ground distance.
Statement Scale: When the map scale is represented in the form of
statement, it is called statement scale.
T-O Map: It is also called a T and O map. It is a type of medieval world map
also called a Beatine map or a Beatus map having religious importance where
Jerusalem was placed at the Centre of the World.
Topographical Map: The maps prepared to depict both kinds of surface
features including natural and cultural features.
Vernier Scale: These scales are drawn to achieve greater accuracy in the
form of fraction of a division in both linear and angular measurements
consisting of a small moving scale.
Zenithal Projection: The projection of graticules made on the plane surface
around the point where the globe touches the surface is called Zenithal
Projection.

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