Project Estimation Techniques

Three Broad categories:

Empirical estimation techniques
Heuristic Techniques
Analytical estimation techniques

Empirical estimation techniques

The above technique is based on making an educated
guess of the project parameters.

Prior experience with development of similar prroducts is

helpful.

Based on common ense nad subjective decisions, oer the

years, the fidderent activites involved in estimation have
been formalised to a large extent.

Two basic techniques of empirical estimation :

a) Expert judgement
b) Delphi techniques

Heuristic Techniques:

It assume that the relationships that exist

among the different project parameters
acan be satisfactorily modelled using
suitable mathematical expressions.
Once the basic parameters are known , the
other parameters acan be easily
determined by substituting the values of
the independent parameters in the
corresponding mathematical expression,

Heuristic techniques can be divided into

the following two broad categories:

a) Single variable
b) Multivariable models

COCOMO Model
Boehm proposed COCOMO (Constructive Cost Estimation
Model) in 1981.COCOMO is one of the most generally used
software estimation models in the world. COCOMO predicts the
efforts and schedule of a software product based on the size of
the software.

The necessary steps in this model are:

1. Get an initial estimate of the development effort from

evaluation of thousands of delivered lines of source code
(KDLOC).
2. Determine a set of 15 multiplying factors from various
attributes of the project.
3. Calculate the effort estimate by multiplying the initial
estimate with all the multiplying factors i.e., multiply the
values in step1 and step2.
The initial estimate (also called nominal estimate) is
determined by an equation of the form used in the static single
variable models, using KDLOC as the measure of the size. To
determine the initial effort Ei in person-months the equation
used is of the type is shown below

Ei=a*(KDLOC)b

The value of the constant a and b are depends on the project

type.

In COCOMO, projects are categorized into three types:

1. Organic
2. Semidetached
3. Embedded

1.Organic: A development project can be treated of the

organic type, if the project deals with developing a well-
understood application program, the size of the development
team is reasonably small, and the team members are
experienced in developing similar methods of
projects. Examples of this type of projects are simple
business systems, simple inventory management
systems, and data processing systems.

2. Semidetached: A development project can be treated with

semidetached type if the development consists of a mixture of
experienced and inexperienced staff. Team members may have
finite experience in related systems but may be unfamiliar with
some aspects of the order being developed. Example of
Semidetached system includes developing a new
operating system (OS), a Database Management System
(DBMS), and complex inventory management system.

3. Embedded: A development project is treated to be of an

embedded type, if the software being developed is strongly
coupled to complex hardware, or if the stringent regulations on
the operational method exist. For Example: ATM, Air Traffic
control.

For three product categories, Bohem provides a different set of

expression to predict effort (in a unit of person month)and
development time from the size of estimation in KLOC(Kilo Line
of code) efforts estimation takes into account the productivity
loss due to holidays, weekly off, coffee breaks, etc.

According to Boehm, software cost estimation should be done

through three stages:

1. Basic Model
2. Intermediate Model
3. Detailed Model

1. Basic COCOMO Model: The basic COCOMO model provide

an accurate size of the project parameters. The following
expressions give the basic COCOMO estimation model:

Effort=a1*(KLOC) a2 PM
Tdev=b1*(efforts)b2 Months

Where

KLOC is the estimated size of the software product indicate in

Kilo Lines of Code,

a1,a2,b1,b2 are constants for each group of software products,

Tdev is the estimated time to develop the software, expressed

in months,

Effort is the total effort required to develop the software

product, expressed in person months (PMs).

Estimation of development effort

For the three classes of software products, the formulas for

estimating the effort based on the code size are shown below:

Organic: Effort = 2.4(KLOC) 1.05 PM

Semi-detached: Effort = 3.0(KLOC) 1.12 PM

Embedded: Effort = 3.6(KLOC) 1.20 PM

Estimation of development time

For the three classes of software products, the formulas for

estimating the development time based on the effort are given
below:
Organic: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.38 Months

Semi-detached: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.35 Months

Embedded: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.32 Months

Some insight into the basic COCOMO model can be obtained by

plotting the estimated characteristics for different software
sizes. Fig shows a plot of estimated effort versus product size.
From fig, we can observe that the effort is somewhat superliner
in the size of the software product. Thus, the effort required to
develop a product increases very rapidly with project size.

The development time versus the product size in KLOC is

plotted in fig. From fig it can be observed that the development
time is a sub linear function of the size of the product, i.e.
when the size of the product increases by two times, the time
to develop the product does not double but rises moderately.
This can be explained by the fact that for larger products, a
larger number of activities which can be carried out
concurrently can be identified. The parallel activities can be
carried out simultaneously by the engineers. This reduces the
time to complete the project. Further, from fig, it can be
observed that the development time is roughly the same for all
three categories of products. For example, a 60 KLOC program
can be developed in approximately 18 months, regardless of
whether it is of organic, semidetached, or embedded type.

From the effort estimation, the project cost can be obtained by

multiplying the required effort by the manpower cost per
month. But, implicit in this project cost computation is the
assumption that the entire project cost is incurred on account
of the manpower cost alone. In addition to manpower cost, a
project would incur costs due to hardware and software
required for the project and the company overheads for
administration, office space, etc.

It is important to note that the effort and the duration

estimations obtained using the COCOMO model are called a
nominal effort estimate and nominal duration estimate. The
term nominal implies that if anyone tries to complete the
project in a time shorter than the estimated duration, then the
cost will increase drastically. But, if anyone completes the
project over a longer period of time than the estimated, then
there is almost no decrease in the estimated cost value.

Example1: Suppose a project was estimated to be 400 KLOC.

Calculate the effort and development time for each of the three
model i.e., organic, semi-detached & embedded.

Solution: The basic COCOMO equation takes the form:

Effort=a1*(KLOC) a2 PM
Tdev=b1*(efforts)b2 Months
Estimated Size of project= 400 KLOC

(i)Organic Mode

E = 2.4 * (400)1.05 = 1295.31 PM

D = 2.5 * (1295.31)0.38=38.07 M

(ii)Semidetached Mode

E = 3.0 * (400)1.12=2462.79 PM
D = 2.5 * (2462.79)0.35=38.45 M

(iii) Embedded Mode

E = 3.6 * (400)1.20 = 4772.81 PM

D = 2.5 * (4772.8)0.32 = 38 M

Example2: A project size of 200 KLOC is to be developed.

Software development team has average experience on similar
type of projects. The project schedule is not very tight.
Calculate the Effort, development time, average staff size, and
productivity of the project.

Solution: The semidetached mode is the most appropriate

mode, keeping in view the size, schedule and experience of
development time.

Hence E=3.0(200)1.12=1133.12PM
D=2.5(1133.12)0.35=29.3PM
 P = 176 LOC/PM

2. Intermediate Model: The basic Cocomo model considers

that the effort is only a function of the number of lines of code
and some constants calculated according to the various
software systems. The intermediate COCOMO model recognizes
these facts and refines the initial estimates obtained through
the basic COCOMO model by using a set of 15 cost drivers
based on various attributes of software engineering.

Classification of Cost Drivers and their attributes:

(i) Product attributes -

o Required software reliability extent

o Size of the application database
o The complexity of the product

Hardware attributes -

o Run-time performance constraints

o Memory constraints
o The volatility of the virtual machine environment
o Required turnabout time

Personnel attributes -

o Analyst capability
o Software engineering capability
o Applications experience
o Virtual machine experience
o Programming language experience

Project attributes -

o Use of software tools

o Application of software engineering methods
o Required development schedule

The cost drivers are divided into four categories:

 Intermediate COCOMO equation:

E=ai (KLOC) bi*EAF

D=ci (E)di

Coefficients for intermediate COCOMO

Project ai bi ci di
Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38

Semidetached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35

Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32

3. Detailed COCOMO Model:Detailed COCOMO incorporates

all qualities of the standard version with an assessment of the
cost driver?s effect on each method of the software
engineering process. The detailed model uses various effort
multipliers for each cost driver property. In detailed cocomo,
the whole software is differentiated into multiple modules, and
then we apply COCOMO in various modules to estimate effort
and then sum the effort.

The Six phases of detailed COCOMO are:

1. Planning and requirements

2. System structure
3. Complete structure
4. Module code and test
5. Integration and test
6. Cost Constructive model

The effort is determined as a function of program estimate, and

a set of cost drivers are given according to every phase of the
software lifecycle.

References : https://www.javatpoint.com/cocomo-model