Construction Materials

Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although their most important use is in
construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their use.

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Physical Properties

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 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
✓Density
✓Water Absorption
✓Bulk Density
✓Weathering Resistance
✓Density Index
✓Water Permeability
✓Specific Weight
✓Frost Resistance
✓Specific Gravity
✓Heat Conductivity
✓True Or Absolute Specific Gravity
✓Thermal Capacity
✓Apparent Or Mass Specific Gravity
✓Fire Resistance
✓Porosity
✓Refractoriness
✓Void ratio
✓Chemical Resistance
✓Hygroscopicity
✓Durability

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 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
1) Density: Mass of unit Volume of a homogeneous material. ρ = M/V g/cm3
2) Bulk Density: Mass of unit volume of a material in its natural state (with
voids) ρb = M/V kg/m3
3) Density Index: Degree to which volume of a material is filled with solid
matter. ρα = ρb /ρ
4) Specific Weight: Weight per unit volume of a material. γ = ρ*g
5) Specific Gravity: Ratio of weight/mass of a given volume of solids to
weight/mass of equal volume of water at 4 ˚ C. Gs = γs/γw = ρs/ρw
6) True /Absolute Specific Gravity: Specific Gravity of a material when
permeable and impermeable voids are excluded while determining volume
of solids. Ga =(ρs )a/ρw
7) Apparent/Mass Specific Gravity: Specific Gravity of a materials when
permeable and impermeable voids are included while determining volume
of solids. Gm =ρ/ρw

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 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

8) Porosity: Degree to which volume of a material is interspersed with pores ɳ = Vv/V

9) Void Ratio: Ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids e = Vv/Vs

10) Hygroscopicity: Property of material to absorb water vapour from air.

11) Water Absorption: Ability of a material to absorb and retain water. Ww = ((M1-M)/M)*100

12) Weathering Resistance: Ability to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for long period
of time without deformation or loss of strength

13) Water Permeability: Capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.

14) Frost Resistance: Ability of a water saturated material to endure repeated freezing and
thawing cycles without considerable decrease in strength.

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Bulk Density

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As a result

More Porosity on the concrete surface

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8
Explore

Pervious concrete

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Ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids e = Vv/Vs

a) TRUE

b) FALSE

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Mass of unit volume of a material in its natural state (with voids) is called as

a) Specific Weight

b) Porosity

c) Bulk Density

d) Specific Gravity

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 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
✓ Strength
✓ Hardness
✓ Elasticity
✓ Plasticity
✓ Ductility
✓ Brittleness
✓ Stiffness
✓ Flexibility
✓ Toughness
✓ Abrasion Resistance

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 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
1.STRENGTH:- Ability of a material to withstand applied load without failure
or plastic deformation.

2. HARDNESS:- Resistance of a metal to deformation by indentation.

3. PLASTICITY:- Non reversible change shape under applied load.

4. ELASTICITY:- Ability to regain the initial form and dimension after removing
applied load.

5. DUCTILITY: Ability of a material to undergo appreciable plastic

deformation/elongation before fracture.

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6. BRITTLENESS:- Tendency of a material to fracture without undergoing significant plastic
deformation.

7. STIFFNESS:- Ability of a Material to undergo low displacement on application of force.

8. FLEXIBILITY:- . Ability of a Material to undergo high displacement on application of force

9. TOUGHNESS :- It is a measure of the energy absorbed before and during fracture.

10.ABRASION RESISTANCE:- Resistance of a material surface from being worn away by

friction or rubbing.

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Do you know which is the Hardest Mineral ?

Diamond

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17
 CEMENT
STONE
BRICK
AGGREGATES
TIMBERS
What is cement?
• Cement is a fine powder which sets after a few hours when mixed with water, and then
hardens in a few days into a solid, strong material.
• Cement is mainly used to bind fine sand and coarse aggregates together in
concrete. Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. it hardens when water is added.
• Cement plants are usually located closely either to hot spots in the market or to areas
with sufficient quantities of raw materials. The aim is to keep transportation costs low.
Basic constituents for cement (limestone and clay) are taken from quarries in these
areas.
• Most commonly used cement is called Portland Cement patented in 1824 in England,
when mixed with water, hardens, hence hydraulic cement .
• Basic raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are calcium carbonate found in
lime Stone or chalk, and silica, alumina and iron oxide found in clay or shale.
History of Cement:
• Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement early in the 19th century by
burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen stove.
• Joseph Aspdin patented the first true artificial cement, which he called Portland Cement, in 1824; the
name implied that it was of the same high quality as Portland stone.
• Aspdin called the product Portland cement because set mortar made from it resembled “the
best Portland stone". Portland stone was the most prestigious building stone in use in England at the
time.
• Portland Stone or Portland Stone Formation is a limestone formation from the Tithonian stage of
the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset, England
Try to Visit Me – When you travel to London
Portland Stone – crushed Limestone blocks
 Oxide composition
CO2 from Lime stone is liberated while burning leaving CaO, SiO2, etc.
Approximate composition limits of Portland cement

Calcium oxide
Silicon dioxide
Aluminium oxide
Iron(III) oxide
Magnesium oxide

Sulfur trioxide
 Compound Composition
Main compounds in Portland cement

• Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate are the most important compounds responsible for
strength. Together they constitute 70 to 80 per cent of cement.
• The average C3S content in modern cement is about 45 per cent and that of C2S is about 25
per cent.
 Chemical Composition of Cement
• The Three basic constituents of the cement are Lime ,Silica and alumina.

• In addition to that certain small proportions of iron oxide ,Sulphur trioxide

and alkalis are present in the cement

• Proportions of all the constituents have certain limits.

• For Example, Lime if provided more than specified it will make it difficult
to combine with the other compounds and excess free lime will make the
cement Unsound (Expansion or increase in the Volume).
 BOGUE COMPOUNDS

The various constituents combine and form cement clinker. The Compounds
formed in the burning have the properties of setting and hardening in the
presence of water ,such compounds are called as Bogue Compounds.
 BOGUE COMPOUNDS: ( Four Major Compound)

Abbreviated
S.No Compound Function of Compound
Designation

Hydrates very Quickly and Produces

Tricalcium silicate high heat of Hydration, Responsible
1 C3S
(3CaO.SiO2) for Early Strength and hardness,
Responsible for 7 day Strength

Hydrates and Hardens very slowly,

Impart resistance to Chemical Attack,
2 Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) Little Influence on Strength in early C2S
Days, Contributes to Strength at later
stage.

Rapidly reacts with water and

Tricalcium aluminate
3 Responsible for Flash Set or Initial C3 A
(3CaO.Al2O3)
Set, High Heat of Hydration

Responsible for flash set and generates

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
4 Less heat, Raising its amount C4AF
(4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3)
decrease the Strength Slightly.
Production of Cement:
A two-step process
Basically, cement is produced in two steps: first, clinker is produced from raw materials. In the second
step cement is produced from cement clinker. The first step can be a dry, wet, semi-dry or semi-wet
process according to the state of the raw material.

Cement

Dry Process Wet Process

• Father of Civil Engineer, Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first
• He was the first self-proclaimed "civil made portland cement in 1824.
engineer“
• He pioneered the use of hydraulic
lime in concrete
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Quick Notes:

Dry process Wet process

1. Mixing of raw material in dry state in 1. Mixing of Raw materials in wash mill with
blenders. 35 to 50% water.

2. The dry materials exiting the mill are called 2. Materials exiting the mill are called “slurry”
“kiln feed”. and have flowability characteristics.

3. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 100 kg of coal 3. Fuel consumption is high i.e., 350 kg of
per tonne of cement produced coal per tonne of cement produced

4. Cost of production is less. 4. Cost of production is high

5. Capital cost (Cost of establishment) is
5. Capital cost is high due to blenders.
comparatively less

6. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing 6. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing
of cement is smaller. of cement is bigger.

7. Difficult to control mixing of Raw materials, 7. Raw material can be mixed easily, so a
so it is difficult to obtain a better better homogeneous material can be
homogeneous material. obtained
Next:
ROCKS & STONES
A rock is a solid mass of geological
materials. Geological materials include
individual mineral crystals, inorganic
non-mineral solids like glass, pieces
broken from other rocks, and even
fossils.

A stone is a piece of rock. It is a mass

of hard, compacted mineral. The word
is often used to mean a small piece of
rock. Stone was one of the first
materials used to make tools and
buildings.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Rocks from where building and other stones for construction purpose is obtained classified in

the following three different ways:

1. Geological classification

2. Chemical classification

3. Physical classification.
Geological Classification

This classification depends on the mode of formation of rocks .e. evolution of the tot strata.
Geological rocks are further divided as:

(i) Igneous Rocks

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks

IGNEOUS ROCKS: The rocks formed directly by
solidification of molten material, either inside or on the surface
of earth are called igneous rocks e.g. granite, basalt, trap etc.,

The name igneous related to word ignite, suggests fire. The

rocks are formed by cooling of the molten lava outside or
inside the surface of earth during the volcanic eruption.

Formation of Igneous Rocks:

As we go deeper inside the earth, temperature goes on

increasing. The hot rock is prevented from melting by
enormous pressure upon it which maintains it in semi-plastic
condition. When the pressure is relieved anywhere by cracks in
solid rock above or heat due to radioactivity reaches melting
temperature, the rock slowly begins to rise in a molten state.
This molten rock is known as magma.
▪ The magma can exist in a molten condition till its
physical and chemical environments do not change.
But when the conditions are changed, it changes into
solid sate in the form of simple or complex solid
masses.

▪ The magma along with other gases also moves from

one place to another underneath the earth as soon as it
finds a weak portion in the earth’s crust, it comes out
with great pressure in the form of lava.

▪ The lava so erupted solidifies due to atmospheric

action.
The igneous rocks can be sub-divided into the following three groups:

(a) Plutonic Rocks: These rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at a considerable depth
from earth's surface. The cooling is slow and the rocks will be coarsely grained crystalline
in structure. Gravity is a popular plutonic rock.

(b) Hypabyssal Rocks: These rocks are formed at relatively shallower depth. Cooling is quick
and rocks possess finely grained crystalline structure. e.g. dolerite.

(c) Volcanic Rocks: These rocks are formed at earth's surface due to eruption of magma out
of the earth. The cooling is very rapid and rocks possess extremely fine granite structure
e.g. basalt.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

The rocks formed by the consolidation of

particles of the pre-existing rocks under the
effects of the weathering agencies such as rain,
wind, water, glacier are known as sedimentary
rocks e.g. gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum,
lignite etc.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks:

• The various weathering agencies like rain,

wind, flowing water, glacier etc. attack on the
existing rocks causing them to crumble and
decompose.

• During the process, some of the particles may

be dissolved by rain water as it seeps through
the soil and into the pores of the bedrock
underneath.

• The rest may be washed away bodily by

streams etc. The dissolved rock matter or the
transported sediment is deposited somewhere
else and afterwards hardness into firm rock.
The sedimentary rocks are of the following four types:

The Residual Rocks: When some portion of the products pf weathering at remains at site of
origin, rocks resulting from that mass are known rocks.

Sedimentary Rocks: The insoluble products of weathering are carried away suspension and
when such products are deposited, they give rise to sedimentary rocks.

Chemical Rocks: Some material that is carried away in solution may be deposited by
evaporation, precipitation etc. gives rise to chemical rocks.

Organic Rocks: When some portion of the product of weathering gets deposited through the
agency of organisms, such deposits formed are known as organic rocks.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

• The rocks formed from the pre-exisitng rocks within the earth's crust
under the influence of variation in temperature or pressure or both
are known as metamorphic rocks. e.g. marble, slate, gneiss etc.

• There are three agents of metamorphism namely heat, pressure and

chemically acting fluids. The heat may be supplied by the general
rise of temperature with depth or by igneous magma. The pressure
may be developed due to load of rocks or movement of the earth.

• The chemically acting fluids play a passive role only and they do
not take active part in the process of metamorphism. The
metamorphic rocks so formed are having their original structure
and composition totally changed. Marbles are metamorphosed form
of limestone, whereas slates are that of shale. Quartzite is
metamorphosed form of sandstone, whereas Gneiss is that of granite.
Chemical Classification

This classification is based on the chemical constitution of a rock. Mineral or chemical which is present in
greater percentage is considered and the rock is named accordingly.

Chemically, rocks are classified into the following three types:

(a) Siliceous Rocks: The rocks having silica (SiO2) or sand as their major constituent are called siliceous
rocks. Rocks having silica in free form are hard and those having silica in combined form are liable to
disintegrate. Examples are granite, sandstone, etc.

(b) Argillaceous Rocks: The rocks having alumina (Al2O3) or clay as their major constituent are known
as argillaceous rocks. They may be hard like slate which is brittle or soft like mudstone which losses its
hardness when it comes in contact with water. Examples are slate, shale, laterite etc.

(c) Calcareous Rocks: The rocks having calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or lime as their major constituent
are called calcareous rocks. These are easily acted upon by even dilute HCL. So, durability of these
stones will depend upon the atmospheric conditions. Examples are lime stone, marble, kankar etc.,
Next:
TILES AND TIMBERS
ARTIFICIAL STONES
Artificial stones are materials like terrazzo and mosaic. Cement concrete also come under this class.
Concrete flooring is sometimes called patent stone flooring. Special artificial stones resembling large
stone blocks can also be prepared by casting smaller stones or stone chips with pigmented cement in
specially constructed moulds and polishing them as required. The following are the advantages of
artificial stones:
1. They can be cast as per the architectural requirements. Stones of any shapes and sizes or features
like grooves, can be obtained easily.
2. They can be made economical. Large concrete blocks are more economical than natural stone
blocks.
3. As natural bed is absent, placing them is more convenient than the natural stones and needs less
supervision. Natural stones should be placed with their bed in compression.
4. No defect or cavity will be present as compared to natural stones. Hence, they are more durable.
5. They can be made even in places where deposits of natural stones are not available as broken
stones can be easily transported.
STONE VENEERING
STONE VENEERING
• Stone is used in many important buildings for facing work. Wall faces are covered with
thin polished tiles or slabs cut from selected stones like sandstones, marble, coloured
granite.Such work is called stone veneering work.
• They provide a decorative and maintenance-free finish. IS 4101-1967-Part 1 cover
specifications for stone facing works. Stone units cut by machines are again cut to
smaller pieces by powerful machines. They are also polished to suit the facing work.
• A large number of factories making these products have been established in many cities in
India. Large blocks of stones are exported from India, for conversion into veneers, to
foreign countries like U.S.A. and Japan.
CERAMIC TILES
CERAMIC TILES
• Ceramic tiles are thin slabs that are generally used to surface floors and walls.
• They are made from clay compositions and other inorganic raw materials, that are
ground, slipped moulded and subsequently dried and fired at adequate temperatures to make
them acquire the required properties in a stable way.
• Ceramic tiles may be unglazed or glazed. Unglazed tiles undergo a single firing. Glazed
tiles have a vitreous coat applied between the first and second firing or before the only
firing (single firing).
Properties of Ceramic Tiles:
(i) Durability: Ceramic tiles are extremely durable. Paver ceramic tiles are ideal in industrial
plants or factories where they take a lot of abuse.
(ii) Strength: Ceramic tiles are usually made from red or white clay and fired in a kiln.
Therefore, ceramic tiles have dense body with low porosity and are very strong.
(iii) Slip Resistant: The rough surface of ceramic tiles make them more slip resistant.
(iv) Water Absorption: Glazed ceramic tiles have a low water absorption, less than 0.5% and
can resist frost. It decreases humidity in usage area.
(v) Crack Resistant: Glazed tile is resistant to crazing and hairline cracks.
(vi) Stain Resistant: Glazed ceramic tiles are resistant to stains. The glazing of tile increases
the tiles protection against staining as well as the number of colours and designs that can be
used.
(vii) Low Maintenance: Ceramic tiles are easy to clean and require no special maintenance.
Uses:

• A wide range of ceramic tiles is currently available in the market.

• Depending on their use, there are different types of products with different characteristics.

• Ceramic tiles are mainly used for floors and facing.

Floor Tiles:

• Interior house floors.

• Exterior paving (terraces).

• Floors of public buildings (hospitals, schools etc.)

Different floors like swimming pools, factory floors etc

Facing:

• Interior facing of houses (kitchen, bathroom etc.)

• Exterior facing (terraces, front and rear walls of houses.)

TERRAZO TILES
• Terrazo is a word derived from the Italian to designate any mosaic flooring made by
embedding small pieces of marble or coloured stone in mortar followed by polishing the
surface.
• Pre-cast terrazo tiles are composed of two bonded layers, the upper one having a smooth
surface and constituted of cement usually white cement mixed with pre-determined amount
of marble chips or other hard stone. The lower layer shall be constituted of ordinary
portland cement, sand and aggregate mostly between 0.1-2 mm in size.
Installing Terrazo Floor Tiles:
• Installation of terrazo floor tiles varies by tile type. Standard tiles are installed with thin set
(cement based) adhesive and epoxy or acrylic grouts. The grout joints are kept very small
and the tiles are actually butted together to create the illusion of a continuous surface. Some
tile installations should be sealed for water and wear resistance.
Properties of Terrazo Tiles

• Terrazo tiles are hard and tough.

• These tiles are non water absorbent.

• These tiles are highly durable.

• These tiles need less or no maintenance.

• These tiles are stain resistant.

Uses:

• Terrazo tiles are good choice for entry ways, bathrooms, kitchens and other areas where
floors are subjected to lots of traffic and daily abuse.

• Some tiles are even suitable for outdoor use.

• These are widely used as floorings in the Mediterranean countries like Middle East, parts of
America and Asia, in residential, commercial and institutional buildings.
PVC TILES

• The tiles which are manufactured from poly vinyl chloride are known as PVC tiles.

• All the raw materials are heated, masticated and then rolled into sheets between hot rollers.
The sheet is annealed after cooling which is then cut into tiles.

• They are resistant to grease, solvents, wearing effects etc. But they are laid on dry surfaces
as they show considerable expansion when wetted.

• Suitability: These tiles can be used for flooring etc.

VITRIFIED TILES

• The dictionary word 'Vitrify' is defined as to change or make into glass or glassy
substance especially through heat and fusion.

• Vitrified tile is a tile which has been processed in such a way that it has very low porosity
and water absorption which makes it stain resistant and very strong.

• Vitrified tiles possess much better mechanical strength, scratch resistance, resistance to
acids, alkalies and chemicals, resistance to staining etc. compared to marble or natural
granite. The vitrified tiles can be classified from manufacturing point of view as hand made,
extruded, wet pressed and dry pressed tiles.

• The vitrified tiles can be classified from the texture, properties point of view as porous wall
tiles, low porosity (semi-vitrified) grass tiles, advanced vitrified floor tiles (Italian
Porcelantto) and fully vitrified porcelain tile. These tiles are manufactured of a mixture
of 50-65% clay, 20-25% silica, 10-15% feldspar, calcite and additives.
•All will go through a process of temperature more than 105 °C.
•Vitrified tiles have far superior properties as compared to marble or natural granite because being a
manufactured product their quality is controlled, whereas in naturally occurring marble and granite good
quality is just a coincidence.

• Vitrified tiles possess much better mechanical strength, scratch resistance, resistance to acids,
alkalies and chemicals, resistance to staining etc. compared to marble or natural granite.

• Marble has a relatively lower abrasion resistance compared to vitrified tiles.

• It is calcium carbonate which is strongly attached by hydrochloric acid which is commonly used
in toilet and floor cleaning. It yellows over extended time duration whereas vitrified tiles retain their
colour for decades.

• Polished natural granite shows several surface defects and a good quality is just a matter of chance
whereas vitrified tiles are guaranteed for consistent good quality. Marble laying is very cumbersome
and time consuming whereas vitrified tiles may be laid in a matter of hours and put to use after 48
hours.
 Introduction
➢Wood: One of the best engineering materials

➢Used in almost all fields of engineering

➢Used by man since pre-historic times

➢Common applications: Building construction,

railways, agricultural, mining and navigation
industries.
 What is Timber?

Timber is the wood used for building or for other

engineering purposes
 Advantages of Timber
➢ Stronger than other construction materials in
proportion of weight
➢ Workable: Can be easily worked to any size
and shape
➢ Lightweight
➢ Economical: wastage is minimum
➢ Durable
➢ Non-conductor of heat and electricity.
 Procurement of Timber in India
There are over 150 species of timber which are produced
in India.

There are about 46 main timber companies and more 1000

small timber companies in India.

In India, some common trees used for supplying timber are

Babul, Banyan, Bamboo, Deodar, Elm, Coconut, Mahogany,
Mango, Mulberry, Palm, Pine, Cedar, Rosewood, Sal ,
Sandalwood, Teak, etc.
 Some Technical Terms
I. Standing timber: the timber in the form of a living tree
II. Green timber: the freshly felled tree which has not lost much of its
moisture
III. Rough timber: the timber in the form of a felled tree
IV. Converted timber: the timber when sawn into various market sizes
like beams, battens, planks etc.
V. Dressed timber: Timber which has been sawn, placed and worked to
the exact required condition.
VI. Structural timber: Timber used in framing and load bearing
structures
VII.Clear timber: Timber clear from defects and blemishes.
 Growth Rings
• Early wood
– rapid growth at beginning
of growing season
– thin, large cells - lighter colour

▪ Late wood
• slower growth, often limited by lack of water
• thick small cells - darker colour
• gives the growth ring
 Growth Rings
▪ Generally one ring per year
• some climates may have more than one growth season per
year
• fires or disease may produce an extra ring

▪ Growth rings give texture and

figure to wood
Pith or medulla
It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree. It consists entirely of cellular tissues. The pith, which when the
plant is young, contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes the plant. It dies up and decays when the plant
becomes old. Usually about of 12.5 mm in diameter but sometimes barely visible. This is the fibrous tissue
representing the original sapling.
Heart wood
It consists of the inner annual rings round the pith. It is compact, strong, durable and darker in colour. This portion
is dead and does not take an active part in the life of tree, except to give it rigidity. The heartwood increases in size
as the tree ages. This part provides the best timber for engineering works or structures.
Sap wood
The outer annual rings are called sapwood, which is between the heartwood and cambium layer , it is also called
as alburnum. This is usually light in colour and weight. This part of the tree is active in growth.
Cambium layer
Outermost one ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet converted into wood is known as the
cambium layer. In due course, cambium layer changes to sapwood. If the cambium layer is exposed by removing
the bark, the cells cease to be active and results in death of tree.
Inner Bark or bast
It is the inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer. It protects the cambium layer from the injury.

Outer Bark or Cortex

It consists of wood fiber and is the outermost cover or skin of stem. It often shows fissures and cracks.
It prevents the tree from external injuries and weathering action.

Cambium layer
Thin layer below bark, not converted to sap wood as yet, is called the cambium layer. This is mainly
responsible for the circumferential growth of the tree. In due course, cambium layer changes to
sapwood. If the cambium layer is exposed by removing the bark, the cells cease to be active and
results in death of tree.

Medullary rays
These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark. They carry sap from outside
to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They keep the annual rings tightly gripped together. In some
trees they might be found broken or may not even be clearly visible.

Annual rings
Consists of cellular tissue and woody fiber arranged in distinct concentric circles or rings around the
pith one in every year. These are formed due to the decomposition of sap below bark. The number of
annual ring indicates the age of a tree in a tropical climate.
 Characteristics of Timber
Sapwood / Heartwood
• Sapwood contains cells still • Heartwood contains blocked
used to transport nutrients, cells and is used for waste
also called as Xylem in the disposal and strength,
timber cross-section. referred to be true wood.
• Cells and vessels are open. • Cells and vessels closed
• Contains starches used as • Contains waste products
“food” for the tree – also used from tree growth –
as food for insects and fungi – extractives – many are
lower durability harmful to insects and fungi
• Cell walls increasing in – gives natural durability
thickness as tree grows • Cell wall thickness stable
 Classification of Timber
• Hardwoods
– broad leaf
– generally higher densities
– often dark in colour

• Softwoods
– needle-like leaves
– generally lower densities
– often light in colour
 Softwood / Hardwood
• Mainly conifers – needle • Mainly broad leafed
like leaves • Vessels (walls made of a
• All cells transport number of cells) transport
nutrients within tree nutrients
• Growth stresses – tension • Growth stresses –
on inside compression on inside
• Most softwoods thinner • Most hardwoods thicker
cell walls cell walls
– light in colour, lower – darker in colour, higher
density, lower hardness. density, higher hardness
• Open cell structure makes • Closed cell structure
heartwood more makes heartwood more
receptive to treatment difficult to treat
General process of
obtaining Timber
 Seasoning of Timber
• The process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap, present in a freshly
felled timber, under more or less controlled conditions is called seasoning of
timber.
• Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity of moisture roughly from 100 to
200% based on dry weight of wood.
• A well seasoned piece of wood may contain about 10 to 12% moisture and will be
equilibrium with atmospheric humidity of a particular place.
• If the timber is used without seasoning, it is liable to shrink, wrap and crack. Thus

all timbers should be used after proper seasoning.

Objects of seasoning.
• Wet timber is an easy prey to decay by fungi, borers, termites etc.
Seasoning thus makes timber resistant to decay.
• Seasoning makes timber lighter.
• It becomes easier to paint and polish seasoned timber.
• It is easier to treat seasoned timber with preservatives.
• Seasoned timber becomes stronger and more stable.
• Seasoning stops shrinkage of timber on drying.
• Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance.
Method of Air Seasoning / Natural Seasoning
• The basic principle is to stack the timber so that plenty of air can circulate around each piece.
The timber is stacked with wide spaces between each piece horizontally, and with strips of
wood between each layer ensuring that there is a vertical separation too.
• Air can then circulate around and through the stack, to slowly remove moisture. In some
cases, weights can be placed on top of the stacks to prevent warping of the timber as it dries.
• Air-drying is necessarily a slow process, particularly for hardwoods, typically taking 6 to 9
months to reach moisture content in the range 20% to 25%.Air seasoning is the method used
with the timber stacked in the open air.
It requires the following:
•Stacked stable and safely with horizontal spacing of at least 25 mm.
•Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens (piling sticks) of the same or neutral species.
Today some timber yards are using plastics. The piling sticks should be vertically aligned and spaced
close enough to prevent bowing say 600 to 1200 mm max centres.
•Ends of boards sealed by using a suitable sealer or cover to prevent too rapid drying out via the
end grain.
•The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetation, etc to provide good air circulation and free
from rising damp, frost, etc.
•Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving weather.
Artificial (kiln) Seasoning

Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most effective and economical method available. Drying
rates in a kiln can be carefully controlled and defect losses reduced to a minimum. Length of
drying time is also greatly reduced and is predictable so that dry lumber inventories can often
be reduced. Where staining is a problem, kiln drying is often the only reasonable method that
can be used unless chemical dips are employed.
Kilns are usually divided into two classes:
1.Progressive
2.Compartment
Both methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber and require the
following factors:
•Forced air circulation by using large fans, blowers, etc.
•Heat of some form provided by piped steam.
•Humidity control provided by steam jets