GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
Introduction to Soil
Mechanics

Engr. Jessa Mae A. Gomez

Soil
 Soil is defined as the un-cemented aggregate of mineral
grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with
liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles.

 Soil is used as a construction material in various civil

engineering projects, and it supports structural foundations.
Soil Mechanics
 Simply speaking it is the knowledge of engineering science,
which deals with properties, behavior and performance of soil
as a construction material or foundation support.

 Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering

science which enables an engineer to know theoretically or
experimentally the behavior of soil under the action of;

1. Loads (static or dynamic)

2. Gravitational forces
3. Water
4. Temperature
Soil Mechanics
 Karl Terzaghi, a famous scientist defines
soil mechanics as follows, Soil
Mechanics is the application of Laws of
Hydraulics and Mechanics to
engineering problem dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles
produced by Mechanical and
Chemical Disintegration of rocks.

 The publication of Erdbaumechanik auf

Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by Karl
Terzaghi in 1925 gave birth to a new era
in the development of soil mechanics.
Geotechnical Engineering
 Geotechnical engineering is the sub discipline of civil
engineering that involves natural materials found close to the
surface of the earth.

 It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics

and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures, and earth structures.
Why we study Soil Mechanics?
Various reasons to study the properties of
soil:

 Foundation to support Structures and

Embankments
 Construction Material
 Slopes and Landslides
 Earth Retaining Structures
 Special Problems
Foundation to support
Structures and Embankments
 Effects of static loading on soil mass
o Shear failure of the foundation soil
o Settlement of structures

 Stability criteria (Solution)

o There should be no shear failure of the
foundation soil.
o The settlement should remain within
permissible limits.
Foundation to support
Structures and Embankments
 Firm Soil
➢ Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

 Soft Soil
➢ Pile Foundation (Vertical members transferring
load of structure to ground i.e. rock)
Examples:
Shear Failure of
Soil
Foundation to support
Structures and Embankments
 Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass

For Design and construction of roads

following must be considered:

o Compaction Characteristics
o Moisture Variation
Construction Material
 Subgrade of highway pavement
 Land reclamation
 Earthen dam
Slopes and Landslides
 Major cause is the moisture variation
resulting in;
o Reduction of shear strength
o Increase of moisture increase in unit weight

 Excavation of trenches for buildings

require braced excavation.
Landslide of a parking area at the edge of a steep
slope, mainly due to increase in moisture content.
Earth Retaining Structures
 Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls) are
constructed to retains (holds back) any material
(usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or eroding
away.
Special Problems
Effects of river water on soil mass
 Scouring
Causes:
o Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
o Fineness of river bed material

Stability criteria:
o The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth

 Land Erosion
 Soil under the
action of water
(Scouring)
Soil subjected to
action of water
(Erosion)
Soil subjected to
low temperature
(Frost action)
Special Problems
Effects of river water on soil mass
 Effects of frost action on soil mass
o Reduction of shear strength
o Settlement of structure in summer
o Lifting-up of structure in winter

Causes:
o Heaving (due to formation of ice lenses)
o Increase of moisture due to thawing (MELTING)
Objectives of Soil Mechanics
✓ Perform engineering soil surveys
✓ Develop suitable soil sampling devices and methods
✓ Develop suitable soil testing devices and methods
✓ Determine physical properties of soil
✓ Evaluation and interpretation of test results and their
application to the use of soil as foundation support
✓ Behavior of soil under loads and forces
✓ Adopt suitable soil conservation techniques
✓ Sedimentation control of dam reservoirs
✓ Select site for disposal of solid waste (i.e land fills) and to deal
with their design, operation and post completion problems of
landfills
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
 Physical
Weathering
 Chemical Weathering
 Rock Cycle
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by
physical and chemical process into smaller particles.

 There are two main types of weathering processes:

✓ Physical (or mechanical) Weathering
✓ Chemical Weathering

 Biological weathering is caused by activities of living

organisms - for example, the growth of roots or the
burrowing of animals. Tree roots are probably the
most occurring but can often be by animals.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 Physical (or mechanical) Weathering is the
disintegration of rocks into smaller particles
through physical processes, including:

✓ The erosive action of water, ice and wind.

✓ Opening of cracks as a result of unloading due
to erosion of overlying soil and rock.
✓ Loosening through the percolation and
subsequent freezing (and expansion) of water.
✓ Thermal Expansion and contraction from day
to day and season to season.
✓ Landslides and rock falls.
✓ Abrasion from the downhill movement of
nearby rock and soil.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 Chemical Weathering is the disintegration
of rock through chemical reactions
between the minerals in the rocks, water,
and oxygen in the atmosphere.
ROCK CYCLE
 All rock at or near Earth's surface is being modified
by the processes of metamorphism, melting,
crystallization, lithification and weathering.

 These processes move rock material through the

states of metamorphic rock, igneous rock,
sedimentary rock, melts and sediment.

 The natural and continuous cycling of rock

materials through these states is known as the Rock
Cycle.
ROCK CYCLE
TYPES OF TRANSPORTED SOILS
 GLACIAL SOIL – Formed by transportation and deposition of
glaciers.

 ALLUVIAL SOIL – Transported by running water and

deposited along streams.

 LACUSTRINE SOIL – Formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

 MARINE SOIL – Formed by deposition in the seas.

 AEOLIAN SOIL – Transported and deposited by wind.

 COLLUVIAL SOIL – Formed by movement of soil from its

original place by gravity, such as during landslide.
Soil and its Types
OUTLINE:
✓ What is Soil?
✓ Formation of Soil
✓ Types of Soil
✓ Geological Consideration
✓ Engineering Consideration
What is Soil?
 The term soil according to engineering point of view
is defined as the material, by means of which and
upon which engineers build their structures.

 The term soil includes entire thickness of the earth’s

crust (from ground surface to bed rock), which is
accessible and feasible for practical utilization as
foundation support or construction material.

 It is composed of loosely bound mineral particles of

various sizes and shapes formed due to weathering
of rocks.
Formation of Soil
Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition
(weathering) of rocks through the action of physical (or
mechanical) and chemical agents which break them into smaller
and smaller particles.
 Different stages
of weathering of
rocks and
formation of soil.
Types of Soil
Soil types, based on geological and engineering
viewpoints, are separately discussed below:

1. Geological consideration:

✓ The history of formation of a soil deposit, greatly

influence its properties and behaviour.
✓ The properties of soil highly depend on the process
through which the soil deposits have been
developed.
✓ Following are the types of soil based on the
geological agents or the processes through which
the soil deposits have been developed.
Types of Soil
o Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed,
transported and deposited by the actions of
glaciers. These deposits consists of rocks
fragments, boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in
various proportions (i.e., a heterogeneous mixture
of all sizes of particles).

o Residual Soil: This type of soil is found on nearly flat

rock surfaces were the weathering action has
produced a soil with a little or no tendency to
move. Residual soil also occurs when the rate of
weathering is higher than the rate of removal.
Types of Soil
o Alluvial Soil: The soil transported and deposited by
water is called alluvial soil. As flowing water
(stream or river) looses velocity, it tends to deposit
some of particles that it was carrying in suspension
or by rolling, sliding or skipping along the river
bed. Coarser or heavier particles are dropped
first. Hence on the higher reaches of a river,
gravel and sand are found. However on the lower
parts, silt and clay dominate where the flow
velocity is almost zero or very small.
Types of Soil
o Wind blown Soil or Aeolian Soil: The soil transported
by the geological agent ‘wind’ and subsequently
deposited is known as wind blown soil or Aeolian Soil.
Aeolian soil as two main types namely Dune sand
and Loess.

1. Dune or Dune Sand: In arid parts of the world, wind is

continually forming sand deposits in the form of dunes
characterized by low hill and ridge formation. They
generally occur in deserts and comprise of sand particles,
which are fairly rounded and uniform in size. The particles
of the dune sand are coarser than the particles of loess.
Dune material is generally, a good source of sand for
construction purposes.
Sand dunes fill this view of
the desert in Qatar.
Types of Soil
2. Loess: Accumulations of wind blown dust (mainly
siliceous silt or silty clay) laid down in a loose condition
is known as loess. Silt soil in arid regions have no moisture
to bond the particles together and are very susceptible
to the effects of wind and therefore can be carried
great distances by wind storms. An important
engineering property of loess is its low density and high
permeability. Saturated loess is very weak and always
causes foundation problems e.g., liquefaction.
Types of Soil
o Colluvial Soil: The accumulation formed by the
rock fragments and soil material resulting from the
mechanical weathering of rocks is known as
colluvial soil. This type of soil is formed more or less
in situ or as a result of transport by gravity over a
short distance.
Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration:

The types of soil based on engineering consideration

depend on the particle size. Since the engineering
properties of soil markedly change with the change of
particle size, different names are assigned to particular
ranges of particle sizes. The soil types based on MIT
classification are as follows:
Types of Soil
Clay: (< .002mm) :
It is composed of very fine particles, less than .002 mm in
size. They are flaky in shape and therefore have
considerable surface area. These surfaces carry electrical
charge, which helps in understanding the engineering
properties of clay soils. In moist condition, clay becomes
sticky and can be rolled into threads. Due to electrical
charge, clay shows high inter- particle attraction and thus
exhibits sufficient cohesion. It has high dry strength, low
erosion, low permeability, good workability under moist
condition, and can be readily compacted. Also
susceptible to shrinkage and swelling. Clay soils commonly
have brown colour.
Types of Soil
Silt (.002mm < Size < .06mm) :
It is composed of very fine particles ranging in size between .002
and .06mm. It has high capillarity, no plasticity and very low dry
strength. It possesses properties of both clay and sand, i.e. it
shows slight cohesion and also friction. The colour of silty soil is
mostly brown.

Sand (.06mm < Size < 2mm) :

It consists of particles ranging in size from .06 and 2mm. It has a
grey colour. These particles may be rounded to angular in shape.
It shows no plasticity, high strength in a confined state and has
considerable frictional resistance. It has high permeability and
low capillarity. Sand is the most wanted construction material.
Abundant quantities of sand are available in deserts and
riverbeds.
Types of Soil
Gravels (2mm < Size < 60mm) :
They consists of particles varying in size from 2mm to 60mm. They
form a good foundation material. They show high frictional
resistance. The frictional resistance depends upon the particle
size and shape. The gravels produced by crushing of rocks are
angular in shape, while those taken from river beds are sub-
rounded to rounded. They show very high permeability. When
sand and silt are mixed with gravels their bearing capacity is
further increased but permeability may be decreased.

Cobbles and Boulders:

Particles larger than gravels are commonly known as cobbles
and boulders. Cobbles generally range in size from 60mm t0
200mm. The material larger than 200mm is designated as
boulders.
Types of Soil
Organic Matter:
The main source of organic matter is the plants or animal
remains that are added to the soil when these organism
die. Plants decompose at a slower rate than the animal
remains. Commonly about 12” of the soil from top surface
has a major concentration of organic matter. It
undergoes large volume changes under loads and
contains high natural moisture content. The strength of soil
is very much reduced when the concentration of organic
matter is more than 2% and the soil is considered
unsuitable for foundation support.
The soil types based on the grain size limits according to
ASTM and AASHTO are given in the following table.

Table:
Nomenclature
of material
(soil type) &
range of sizes
✓ The nomenclature for the materials assigned to
the grain- size limits adopted by the ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) as
given in the Table above, has been used in the
unified soil classification system.

✓ The AASHTO soil classification system however,

follows the nomenclature established by the
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials) for the classification
of soils.