What is a computer network?

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers,

routers, and switches, that can communicate with each other and share resources like data,
files, and peripherals. These devices are linked using various networking technologies to
facilitate data exchange, making it easier for users to collaborate and access shared
resources.

What are the different types of computer networks?

• Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN covers a small geographic area, typically within
a single building or campus. It allows devices to share resources and communicate
locally.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): WANs span large geographical areas, often connecting
LANs across cities or even countries. The internet itself is a global WAN.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN falls between LAN and WAN in terms
of size and is used to connect multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Similar to LAN but uses wireless
technology for device connectivity.

What is the difference between a LAN, WAN, and MAN?

LANs cover a small area, like a home or office, while WANs connect larger regions or
even globally. MANs bridge the gap, often connecting multiple LANs within a city or
metropolitan area. LANs have high data transfer speeds, WANs may have slower speeds
due to long distances, and MANs fall in between.

What is the OSI model?

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes networking functions into seven layers, from physical transmission to
application-level services. These layers are:
1. Physical
2. Data Link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application

What is the TCP/IP model?

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer model used as the foundation for the internet. It
includes the following layers:
1. Network Interface (equivalent to OSI Physical and Data Link layers)
2. Internet (equivalent to OSI Network layer)
3. Transport (equivalent to OSI Transport layer)
4. Application (equivalent to OSI Session, Presentation, and Application layers)
What are the different types of topologies?
There are several network topologies, including:
• Star: Devices connect to a central hub or switch.
• Bus: Devices share a single communication line.
• Ring: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
• Mesh: Every device connects to every other device.
• Tree: A combination of bus and star topologies.

What is the difference between TCP and UDP?

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is connection-oriented and ensures reliable data
delivery. It establishes a connection, manages data flow, and provides error checking.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is connectionless and faster. It does not guarantee
reliable data delivery and is often used for real-time applications like video streaming
or online gaming.

What are the different types of physical cables?

Common physical cables include:

• Ethernet Cables: Cat 5e, Cat 6, etc., for wired LAN connections.
• Coaxial Cables: Used in cable television and some older networking setups.
• Fiber Optic Cables: Utilized for high-speed data transmission over long distances.
Colour code of Cables

If we want to connect same devices which cable is used

To connect similar devices (e.g., computer to computer), you typically use a crossover
cable.

If we want to connect different devices which cable is used

To connect different devices (e.g., computer to a switch or router), you typically use a
straight-through cable.

MAC address is how many bits long? How it is being represented

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is 48 bits (6 bytes) long and is typically
represented as six pairs of hexadecimal digits (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
Different flow control techniques
Flow control techniques like Stop-and-Wait or Sliding Window manage data transmission
rates to ensure the sender does not overwhelm the receiver.

Different error control techniques

Error control techniques include methods like parity checking, cyclic redundancy checks
(CRC), and Hamming codes to detect and correct errors in data transmission.

CRC and hamming code

**Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)** and **Hamming Code** are both methods for
detecting and correcting errors in data transmission. They are widely used in network
communication and data storage to ensure data integrity. Here's a detailed explanation of
each:

**Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):**

CRC is an error-detection technique that involves appending a fixed number of bits to a

message to create a polynomial code. This code is then used to detect errors in the
received message.

Key points about CRC:

1. **Polynomial Code**: CRC uses a generator polynomial, typically represented in

binary, to create a polynomial code. This polynomial is divided into the message at the
sender's end and is appended as a remainder.

2. **Division**: At the sender's end, the message is divided by the generator polynomial
using binary division. The remainder is then appended to the original message.

3. **Receiver's End**: When the message is received, the receiver divides it by the same
generator polynomial. If the remainder is not zero, it indicates that an error has occurred
during transmission.

4. **Error Detection**: CRC is excellent at detecting errors, especially single-bit errors

and some multi-bit errors. However, it cannot correct errors, only detect them.

5. **Efficiency**: CRC is efficient and has a low computational overhead, making it

suitable for real-time applications.

6. **Common Use**: CRC is widely used in network protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi,
as well as in data storage, such as on hard drives and CDs.

**Hamming Code:**
Hamming Code is an error-correction code that allows not only the detection but also the
correction of errors in data transmission. It does this by adding redundant bits to the
original data.

Key points about Hamming Code:

1. **Redundant Bits**: Hamming Code adds extra bits, called parity bits, to the original
data to create a codeword. These bits are positioned at specific locations within the
codeword.

2. **Parity Calculation**: The parity bits are calculated based on the values of the data
bits they cover. Parity can be even or odd, depending on the specific Hamming code
scheme.

3. **Error Detection**: By examining the parity bits, the receiver can determine whether
an error has occurred. If an error is detected, the receiver can use the parity information to
locate and correct the erroneous bit.

4. **Error Correction**: Hamming Code can correct single-bit errors. It can also detect
some multiple-bit errors but not necessarily correct them all.

5. **Efficiency**: Hamming Code is less efficient than CRC for error detection alone, as
it involves more overhead due to the added redundant bits.

6. **Common Use**: Hamming Code is often used in memory systems, like RAM and
ECC (Error-Correcting Code) RAM, where data integrity is critical.

In summary, CRC is primarily used for error detection, while Hamming Code is used for
both error detection and correction. The choice between the two depends on the specific
application's requirements and the desired level of error resilience.

What is an IP address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical identifier for devices on a
network.

Versions of IP address? How are they represented

There are two main versions: IPv4 (32-bit) and IPv6 (128-bit). IPv4 addresses are
typically represented as four decimal numbers separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
IPv6 addresses use hexadecimal characters separated by colons (e.g.,
2402:e280:3e03:0139:843b:51fe:f3b4:e3f2).

Convert the given IP addresses to binary

192.168.2.22

2402:e280:3e03:0139:843b:51fe:f3b4:e3f2
Range of IP addresses

What is Subnet Mask

A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into network and host portions, allowing for
network segmentation. It consists of a series of binary 1s followed by binary 0s.

What is Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of breaking down a larger network into smaller subnetworks for
better management and efficiency. It involves adjusting the subnet mask to create distinct
subnets.

Problems on Subnetting
1. In case of the single network, only three steps are required in order to reach a Process
i.e Source Host to Destination Network, Destination Network to Destination Host and
then Destination Host to Process. But in the case of Subnetting four steps are required
for Inter-Network Communication. i.e Source Host to Destination Network,
Destination Network to proper Subnet, then Subnet to Host and finally Host to
Process. Hence, it increases Time complexity. In the case of Subnet, more time is
required for communication or data transfer.
2. In the case of Single Network only two IP addresses are wasted to represent Network
Id and Broadcast address but in case of Subnetting two IP addresses are wasted for
each Subnet. Example: If a Network has four Subnets, it means 8 IP addresses are
going to waste.

Problems on Supernetting

Increased risk of network outages: Since a supernet represents all its associated subnets
with one routing table entry, any issue in the table updates or routing process can affect all
the associated subnets. This increases the risk of network outages for all associated
subnets, even if the cause of the outage pertains to just one of the associated subnets.
Complicated troubleshooting: When a network issue arises, it can be more difficult to
troubleshoot it when using supernets as there are more IP addresses and subnets to
examine. Also, supernetting requires careful planning to ensure that routing tables do not
become too large or unwieldy.
Increased security risks: Subnets offer security capabilities such as subnet isolation.
However, aggregating subnets with different security configurations into a supernet
increases the security risks by making it easier for unauthorized access to occur.

What is Routing
Routing is the process of determining the best path for data to travel from a source to a
destination within a network.

Different types of Routing

Types of routing include static routing (manual configuration), dynamic routing
(automatic routing table updates), and default routing (forwarding packets to a default
gateway).

Several routing algorithms in dynamic routing

Routing algorithms include OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), RIP (Routing Information
Protocol), BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), and more, each designed for specific network
scenarios.

What are sockets

Sockets provide a software interface for network communication. They enable programs
to send and receive data over a network, usually using the TCP or UDP protocols.

What are port numbers

Port numbers are used to identify specific services or applications in network
communication. Common port numbers include 67 (DHCP), 53 (DNS), 80 (HTTP), 443
(HTTPS), 25 (SMTP), and 110 (POP3).

What is a switch
A switch is a network device that connects devices within a LAN and forwards data based
on MAC addresses.

What is a router
A router connects different networks and routes data between them.

What is a firewall
A firewall is a security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic.
What is DHCP, explain the process of DHCP

DHCP, or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is like a helpful assistant for devices
that want to join a network, such as your computer or phone connecting to Wi-Fi. It
ensures they get an address (like a digital home) on the network so they can communicate
with other devices.
Here's how it works :
1. Discover: When your device joins a network, it doesn't have an address yet. It sends
out a message saying, "Hey, I'm new here, and I need an address." This message is
like your device raising its hand to get noticed.
2. Offer: The network has a special computer (the DHCP server) that hands out
addresses. The server hears your request and says, "Sure, I have an available address
for you." It's like the server offering you a place to live on the network.
3. Request: You accept the offer and say, "Yes, I'd like that address, please." It's like you
telling the server, "I'll take that spot!"
4. Acknowledge: The server says, "Great! You can have that address, and here are some
rules for living here." It's like getting the keys to your new network home, along with
some instructions.
5. Lease: The address isn't yours forever; it's more like a rental. You can use it for a
while (as determined by the server), but you'll need to renew it when the lease is up.
6. Renewal: When your lease is about to expire, you ask the server if you can stay a bit
longer. If the server says yes, you get to keep the same address.
7. Release: When you're done using the address, like when you leave the network, you
tell the server, "I'm moving out, and you can give this address to someone else."

What is DNS

DNS, or Domain Name System, is like the phonebook of the internet. It's a crucial
system that translates human-friendly web addresses (like www.example.com) into
computer-friendly IP addresses (like 192.168.1.1).
Here's how DNS works in simple terms:
1. Domain Names: When you type a website's domain name into your browser (e.g.,
www.example.com), your computer doesn't know where to find that website on the
internet.
2. DNS Request: Your computer sends a request to a DNS server, asking, "Where can I
find www.example.com?"
3. DNS Server Lookup: The DNS server has a huge directory of domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses. It looks up "www.example.com" and finds its IP
address.
4. IP Address Returned: The DNS server tells your computer, "You can find
www.example.com at IP address 192.168.1.1."
5. Connection Established: Your computer then connects to that IP address, and the
website is loaded in your browser.

Installation of cisco packet tracer

Program flow of CRC/Hamming code / Subnetting