Plant diversity:II

By Dr.Drona pokhrel
• So far biologists describes about 1.7 millions types of organism .
• Organism showing maximum diversity :insects
• Taxonomy :systematic study of organism which includes
:identification ,nomenclature and classification .
• Term taxonomy was given by :A.P de Candole
• Father of taxonomy :carolus Linnaeus
• Systematics : phylogenetic taxonomy .
Taxonomic hierarchy
• Taxon : group of organism that shares particular set of characteristics
forms taxon .its is classificatory unit of any rank .
• Basic unit or smallest taxon is :species
• Term species was given by :john ray
Different system of classification
• May be artificial system or natural or phylogenetic system
2 kingdom system of classification
• Carolus Linnaeus:
3 kingdom system: given by Ernst Haeckel
4 kingdom system( Copeland )
5 kingdom system
• Robert H.Whittaker gave 5 kingdom system.
• Main basis of five
Five kingdom calssific
-ation :mode of nutrition .
6 kingdom system
• Woese et al gave the most recent system of classification .based on
nucleic acid hybridization and DNA sequencing methods .
Kingdom plantae : producer
• More than 0.4 millions of organism
• Multicellular, eukaryotic with autotrophic mode .
• There is progressive elimination of gametophyte and progressive
elaboration of sporophyte from algae to angiosperm .

• Eg:Algal is total gametophyte and angisoperms are sporophyte .

 PLANTAE
Non embryophyte Embryophyta
Atracheophytes Tracheophyte

Non spermophytes Spermophytes

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms
• Non Embryophyta :includes only algae and fungi
• Embryophyta :includes bryophytes ,pteridophytes ,gymno and
angiso.
• Tracheophyta :with vascular tissues,(from pteridophytes to
angiosperms)
• Thallophyta :not differentiated into root, shoot and leaf (algae ,fungi
,and bryophytes )
• Cryptophyta: non flowering plants .(algae ,bryophytes and
pteridophyte)
• Phanerogames:flowering plants .gymnosperms and angiosperms .
• Primitive group with unicellular sex organs ,without embryo :Algae
• Plant with embryo but lacks vascular tissues:Bryophytes .
• Plant with embryo and vascular tissue but lacks seed ,flower
:pteridophytes

• Plant with embryo ,vascular tissues and seeds but without

fruit:Gymnosperms

• Plantae with embryo , vascular tiisues ,seeds ,fruits :Angsiopsperms

Different pattern of life cycle
ALGAE
Phycology :study of algae
• Also called children of sea .
• Father of phycology : F.E Fritsch .
• Sex organs are : unicellular ,non jacketed sex structure .

• Thallus is generally aquatic either fresh water or marine .

• Largest unicellular algae :acetabularia
• Smallest algae is:Chlorella
• Largest algae :Macrocystis
Habitats of algae
• Phytoplanktons :free floating on water surface.pionner community in
hydrosere ,ex:Diatoms
• Benthic : found in bottom of water body ,eg chara(stonewort)
• Epiphytic :algae attached to other aquatic plants eg:oedogonium
• Epizoic :eg:Algae attached to body of aquatic animals eg: cladophora on
snails shell.
Characium with mosquito, stigeocolonium on gills of fish .
• Endozoic : found within body of other animal eg:zoochlorella in hydra
• Periphytic : on submerged hydrophytes
• Endophytic :found inside other plant.eg ,Anabena in leaf of azolla ,Nostoc
in corolloid root of cycas.
Cladophora in snails
shell Characium in
mosquito

Zoochlorella in
hydra
• Terrestrial forms : edaphophytes :found in damp soil.
• Terrestrial algae : fritschiella tuberosa
• Epiphloephytes :grow in bark of tree
• Epiphyllophytes:grow in on leaves of trees.
• Lithophytic :grow on the rock
• Thermophytes :algae which resist high temperature ,eg oscilatoria
Cryophytic algae: grow in low temp
• Red snow : by Chlamydomonas nivialis

• Green snow : by Chlamydomonas yellowstonensis

• Yellow snow : by chlamydamonas flavouriens.

Vegetative structure
• Unicellular motile :Chlamydomonas

Chlorella
• Unicellular non motile :chlorella

• Colonial forms :volvox

• Cell wall is made of cellulose and pectin

vvolvox
Nutrition in algae
• Most algae are autotrophic some are heterotrophic
parasitic algae
• Harvyella (red algae,colouless parasitic )
• Red rust of tea : Cephaleurous virescence,green algae
• Red rust of coffee:Cephaleurous arabica,green algae
Different shaped of chloroplast
• Spiral or ribbon shaped : spirogyra
• Cup shaped : chlamydomonas
• Reticulate : Oedogonium
• Girdle or horse shoe shaped :Ulothrix
• Stelate /star like : Zygnema
• Ovoid /discoid : vaucheria ,chara
• Chlorophyll a and carotene (carotenoid and xanthophyll ) are found
in all algae .
• Chlorophyll ‘b’ : chlrophyceae
• Chlorophyceae‘c’ :phaeophyceae
• Chlorophyll ‘d’ :Rhodophyceae
• Chlorophyll ‘e’ :Xanthophyceae
Reserve food material in algae
• Starch : chlorophyaceae (green alage )
• Floridean starch : Rhodophyceae (red alagae)
• Cyanophycean starch : cyanophyceae ( blue green alage)
• Laminaarion oil ,Mannitol : pheophyceae (brown alage)
• Pyrenoids : central core protein surrounded by starch sheath :
responsible for storage of starch .
Flagellation in algae
• Found in unicellular algae and few multicellular .
• Made of tubulin protein ,9+2 arrangement
• Tinsel :presence of lateral hair like structure along its length

• Whiplash :does not contain hair like structure

Reproduction in algae
• Vegetative ,asexual and sexual reproduction .
vegetative (common method )
• By fragmentation : eg spirogyra ,Ulothrix

• Hormogonia: motile filaments of cells formed either side of

heterocyst and get detached .
Asexual reproduction
zoospores
• motile spores ,very thin wall or even absent
• Produced during favourable condition
• Eg : Biflagellate in : Chlamydomonas and 2 or 4 in Ulothrix.
 Aplanospores :
• Thin walled ,non flagellated &non motile .
• Eg :chlorella ,Ulothrix
Hyponospores
• Under unfavourable conditions
• Non motile and thick walled.
• Eg :vaucheria
 Akinetes
• Entire cell becomes a thick walled resting spore .
• Formed under unfavourable conditions .
• Helps in perennation.
palmella stage :
• On dry condition ,zoospores or aplanospores do not come outside the
mother cell but surrounded by mucilaginoius sheath.
Sexual reproduction in algae
▪ Non motile algae like spirogyra reproduce through gametangial
copulation or conjugation.
▪ Gametic copulation may be
Isogamous: fusion of morphologically similar and physiologically
different gametes.
-isogametes may be zoogametes And non motile aplanogametes
-gametes may be of + strain and – strain and fuse to form :zygospore
Anisogamous
• Fusion of gametes of different size but similar in structure .
• Larger is considered as female and smaller is considered as male .
• Eg :Chlamydomonas
Oogamous
• Advanced type of sexual reproduction .
• Fusion of different size and structure .
• Small flagellated motile and active male fused with large passive
female gamete .
• Eg :Chlamydomonas

• Chlamydomonas reproduce by all

three methods .
Classifications of algae
• Classified algae in to 11 classes based on :pigments ,reserve food materials,types
of flagella.

class :Bacillariophyceae(diatoms )
• Also known as: jewels of plant kingdom .
• Pigments are found in chromatophores with golden yellow or brown colour.
• Cell wall is silicified.
• Presence of diatomin brown pigment .
• Reserved food materials :volutin protein and lipids .
• Used in making sound proof ,water prof paints.
• Eg :millosira
Class :Rhodophyceae(Red algae )
• Usually found in marine but fresh water red algae
eg:Batrachospermum (which is not red)
• Deepest dwelling marine algae .
• Photosynthetic pigments are chl-a,chl-
d,carotenes,xanthophyll,phycobilins,r phycoerythrin,r phycocyanin.
• Red colour of red algae is due to : r phycoeryhthrin .
• Reserve food materials : floridean starch .
• Cell wall possesses cellulose pectin ,mucopolysaccharides like :agar
agar ,carrageenin. Some have calcium carbonate appearing coral like
.
• Motile or flagella stage : is absent

• Autotrophic mostly ,except parasitic red alge :Harvyella

(colourless parasitic red algae)
Reproduction in Red algae
• Vegetative by : fragmentation
• Asexual reproduction by non motile spores .
• Sexual reproduction is :oogamous type .
• Male sex organ : spermatium
• Female sex organ :carpogonium
• Eg: @ (PG)2
• Porphyra
• Polysiphonia
• Gelidium
• Gracilaria
Brown algae (pheophyceae)
• Exclusively marine popularly known as : seaweeds.
• Multicelluar filamentous body differentiated into holdfast ,stipe
,lamina.
• Giant algal among the algal world
Giant brown algae are called :kelps
*largest one is Macrocystics
• Reserved food materials :laminarian starch /mannitol
• Photosynthetic pigment in chromatophores are :chl-a ,chl-c,carotens
,xanthophylls,fucoxanthin.

• Brown colour of brown algae is due to :fucoxanthin (main) and

xanthophyll .
• Conducting tubes or trumphet hyphae are present in larger kelps .
• Cell wall contain cellulose ,phycocolloids like alginic acid and fucinic
acid.
Reproduction in brown algae
• Vegetative reproduction : fragmentations .
• Asexual reproduction : motile zoospores ( biflagellated) and by non
motile neutral spores monospores ,tetraspores .
• Sexual reproduction : ranges from isogamy to oogamy .
• Eg:@ SELF DP
• Sargassum, Ectocarpus, Laminaria ,Fucus
Dictyota
Chlorophyceae (green algae )
• Most advanced group .
• 90% are fresh water and some are marine(sea lettuce :Ulva) and
some are terrestrial(moist area).
• Photosynthetic pigments are Chl-a.Chl-b,carotene ,xanthophyll.
• Reserved food materials :starch
• Each cell contain one or many chloroplast and contain 2-20 thylakoids
associated with pyrenoids .
• Cell wall is made of cellulose and pectin.slippery nature is due to high
amount of pectin.
Reproduction in green algae
• Vegetative : fragmentations
• Asexual by by zoospores (Ulothrix) ,aplanospores
(Oedogonium),hypnospores and akinetes .
• sexual reproduction from isogamy,anisogamy and oogamous .
• Most of the green algae have haplontic pattern of life cycle .
• Eg :
• Oedogonium
• spirogyra
• Ulothrix ,ulva
• Volvox ,vaucheria
• Chara
• chlamydomonas
Economic importance
Useful importance
• Nitrogen fixation :symbiotic and free living blue green algae helps in
nitrogen fixation
• Algae as food :chlorella ,spirulina (SCP,single cell protein),Ulva are edible .
• Antibiotics :chlorellin is produced from chlorellin.
• Space research :unicellular algae like chlorella ,spirillina used to produce
oxygen and used in experiments .
• Agar agar : polysachharides present in the cell wall of red algae like
:Gracillaria,Gelidium,Chondrus.

• Source of minerals and elements :brown algae can be used to produce

minerals like iodine ,bromine.
Economic importance of algae
• Carrageenin :polysaccharides obtained from red algae like Chondrus,widely
used in preparation of jelly ,soups ,creams etc.

• Alginates :polysachharides extracted from brown algae like fucus

,laminaria ,used to preparation of cosmetics ,hair dyes,lotions etc.
• use of diatoms : used to develop sound proof ,insulating agents

Harmful importance :
• Parasitism :parasitic algae cause disease in plants .
• Water bloom : several algae and blue green algae cause water bloom .
Spirogyra
Spirogyra
• Cosmopolitan, fresh water ,grass green and unbranched filamentous alga .
• Also called pond scum ,pond silk ,water silk .
• Plant body is gametophytic thallus .
• Cell wall is made of :double layer outer pectin and inner cellulose .
• Outside the pectose layer ,mucilaginous sheath is present which makes
filaments slimy .
• In some species ,attached with the help of:basal cell or hapteron .
• Nucleus is large suspended in vacuole supported by :cytoplasmic strands
• Primordial utricule :Narrow space of cytoplasm between tonoplast and cell
membrane ,helps in metabolism.
• Peripheral cytoplasm contains 1-16 ribbon shaped spirally coiled and
arranged chloroplast .
• Each chloroplast bears no of equidistant pyrenoids .
• All cells in filaments are independent each other .
Growth in spirogyra is : either intercalary or
diffused .
Reproduction in spirogyra
• Takes place by vegetative ,asexual and sexual methods .
Vegetative :
Fragmentation :under exceptionally favourable condition spirogyra
multiplies by fragmentation .
Most common method .
Asexual reproduction
• Normally is absent but occasionally occurs in some species .
• By Parthenospores or Azygospores:

• By Aplanospores : non motile spores

• By Akinetes :
• (note : zoospores are never formed in spirogyra )
Sexual reproduction in spirogyra
• Is isogamous type takes place by :conjugation Of non flagellated
gametangia .

• By scalariform or ladder like conjugation :

• Lateral conjugation : may be direct lateral and indirect lateral :

Scalariform conjugation
• Takes place between two heterothallic filaments (morphologically
similar and physiologically different : isogametangia).
• During scalariform conjugation ,two compatible cells two filaments
produce lateral protuberance ,they elongate and fuse forming
conjugation tube .
• Several conjugations tubes may form giving scalar or ladder like
appearance .
• Conjugation tube is formed by the activity of cystase enzyme or
progametanagin hormone (includes pectinase and cellulase )
Scalariform conjugation :
Contd…….
• One cell behaves as male ,migrates through conjugation tube by
amoeboid movement and fuses with passive female gamete in
opposite cell to form diploid zygote .
• Movement of male gamete to female gamete is due to contractile
vacuole .
• Zygote collects thick cell walls and becomes zygospores .
• Sometime fusion fails and forms haploid azygospores or
parthenospores .
Lateral conjugation
• Occurs in homothallic species (both sex in same filaments).
Direct lateral :
• Male gametic cell migrates through pore in the intervening cell wall
between the two adjacent cells .
• After fusion formation of zygospores occurs .
Lateral conjugation :

Direct lateral
Indirect lateral conjugation
• Male gamete migrates through the conjugation tube produced on
common lateral parts of adjoining cells of same filaments .
Germination of zygospores
• Each zygospores has three layered :outer exosporium,middle
mesosporium and inner endosporium )
• After short rest period zygospore goes meiosis ( zygotic meiosis ) and
form 4 haploid nuceli .
• Out of 4 ,3 degenerate and only one remains functional .
• Functional spore germinate and develops into single new filaments of
spirogyra .
Germination of Zygospores in spirogyra
Chlamydomonas
• Unicellular ,spherical and motile green algae .
• Found in :fresh water containing ammonia sufficiently .
• Flagella is : biflagellate ,whiplash type .
• Chloroplast is :cup shaped with single pyrenoid .

• Presence of neuromotor apparatus (rudimentary type of nervous

system):like blepharoplats

• Presence of photoreceptor eye spot or stigma : for identification of

direction during locomotion .
• Presence of two contractile vacuoles :
present in anterior end for osmoregulations .
Reproduction in Chlamydomonas
• Mainly by asexual and sexual methods ,vegetative is rare .
• All type of sexual reproduction is possible : isogamy ( more common )
,anisogamy and oogamy .
Q)During germination of zygospore in spirogyra ………takes place
a)meiosis followed by mitosis
b) mitosis followed by meiosis
c)amitosis
d) none
Q)Reticulate type of chloroplast is found in
a)spirogyra b)Oedogonium
c)nostoc d) volvox
Q)In spirogyra ,ladder like structure is formed in
a)lateral conjugation b) fragmentation
c)palmella stage d)scalariform conjugation
Q)Most common asexual spores in Chlamydomonas is
a)zygospores b)zoospores
c)aplanospores d)hypnospores