ELEMENTS OF ROAD HIGHWAYS ➢ After the Second World War, the new independent

(Second Edition) Philippine government, continued the rehabilitation

Max B. FAJARDO, Jr. and construction of roads and bridges, through the
reparations and war damages paid by the
Japanese government.
Chapter 1 : The Highway and its Development
BRIEF HISTORY OF ROADS ➢ Fifty years later, major highways and expressways
Early road systems were constructed primarily for the were constructed through the financial assistance
following purposes: and loans from foreign banks.

1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for ➢ Alongside with the industrialization program of the
defense against invasion. government, vehicles of various types and sizes
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between started flooding tle roadways.
neighboring towns and cities.
➢ Recent Land transportation records revealed that,
The Romans - discovered cement more than 80,000 brand new vehicles were added
to their lists every year.
Roman Roads were laid on three courses
1. A layer of small broken stones. ➢ The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered
2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar an autornobile age.
and when compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set ➢ It was during this decade that road construction
and bedded with cement. becomes a matter of priority of the government
under the slogan “This nation is on Wheels”.
Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) - famous French
Engineer introduced new methods o construction and Planning Difficulties
maintenance of stone roads
- “Father of modern road building” Development and maintenance of roads and highways
is a continuing process alongside with the technological
Thomas Telford (1757-1834) - a Scottish Engineer born advancement.
in Westminster Abbey.
- president and founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer, Advanced knowledge in the field of:
introduced.some improvements in the construction 1. Soils
methods of Jerome Tresaguet. 2. Highway materials
3. Designs
John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836) - The Macadam
road concept named after him. Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be
- another famous Scottish Engineer road builder and safe, useful, and attractive.
contemporary of Telford, was developed and widely
accepted. Improvement Needed:
1. Financial
Eli Blake - invented the first stone crusher and at the 2. Political
same period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was 3. Technical
introduced in France by its inventor, Aveling and Porter.
Highway Programming
Early Laws that Regulates Roadway There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in
The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties highway programming, they are:
for the people to perform, namely:
1. To repair the roads and bridges. 1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons 2. Financial - The question of who pays and who
3. To aid repel invasions. spends, how much, and where?
3. Political and Administration - This invoires decision
Highways in the Philippines making.
➢ In the early part of 1900, transportations in this
country depended largely on trails, waterways, Highway Programming Approaches
railroad, earth roads and partially graveled roads.
1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged
➢ The American government initiated the implementation by the agencies functions like
development of roadways in the Philippines, construction, operations and maintenance.
connecting towns, cities and provinces
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative
desire and constraint.
 2. To receive input or information on the needs and
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, goals of affected persons group or agencies.
critical situations, present and future expected level of 3. Incorporate the above for planning and making
traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions. decision.

4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination Functions of the Planners are:
with other transportation mode.
1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and initial work program. Know the basic needs, plan and
materials, including climatic conditions. objectives of affected persons.

6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination 2. Exploration o alternatives. Data gathering by

with other agencies, acquiring right of way and making contacting the representatives of the other agencies
final plan and specifications. involved.

7. Budgetry reserve to cover emergencies like foods and 3. Detailed analysis. Prepare plan for appropriate
other natural disasters. community interaction.

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use 4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and
have the results documented. If nothing goes wrong, this
A. Quantifiable market value step is considered final.

1. Cost of highways as to : Community Involvement

a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriations. It is a common practice to call public hearing after all
c. Construcion costs. major decisions were made and approved. Pblic hearing
d. Maintenance costs. should involved the public from the start of planning to
e. Operating costs. give them a chance to participate in the discussions and
involved them in:
2. Cost benefits to highway users
a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion 1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials,
cost) net income or decrease in costs of vehicle non-government organizations, influential persons and
operation per year. conservative groups of the community.
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase
or decrease in travel time multiplied by the peso 2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
value of commercial time.
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident). Net 3. Community leadership opportunity to participate
change in expected number of accidents times the continuously in the planning stage.
average cost per year.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related
activities.
1. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorist’s safety - Accident cost pain suffering Highway Economy
and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, “A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable;
inconvenience and strain of driving. but the road which is truly the cheapest is not the one
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of which has cost the least money, but the one which
pleasing views and scenery from road. makes the mast profitable returns in proportion to the
amount expended upon it.” - W. Gillespe, professor of
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value Civil Engineering at the Union College

1. Cost benefits to highway users - Traveling savings The intent of expenditures for highways and public
time. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip. transportation are enumaretd as follows:

The Planner 1. To augment the country’s level of economy.

2. To provide easy access to working place.
Planners act as coordinators, catalysts or to work as 3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
community advocates, should not be either partisan or 4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery o
advocate to a particular solution. Their role: related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and
1. To provide technical and organizational support. increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of
operations and maintenance. ➢ Accuracy of the ground control triangulation
7. Benefit in time saving. network is when scaled with the aerial photograph.
8. Less road accident ➢ The distance measurement is carried out by an
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel. electronic distant measuring device (EDM).

Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are: The information is recalled and the computer is
programmed to develop showing the following:
1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen because the "pay as 1. Profiles
you go" fund is scattered through out the entire road 2. Cross sections
system where the situation is most critical. 3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast 4. The motorist view of the road
progress.
With photographs and computer record data, a
Counter Arguments of those Against Financing separate map could be plotted easily like:
Infrastructures through Borrowing:
1. The highways
1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government 2. The drainage
agencies obstructing other more important 3. Housing
improvements. 4. Land use and zoning
2. If future income is committed to pay past 5. Property assessment
improvements, no more funds available to maintain the
existing system. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for
3. With much amount available temptation is there to Engineers working data on:
over build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds. ➢ Locations
➢ Planning.
Computation Survey ➢ Geometric design.
➢ Right of way.
Computers can do processing data for many ➢ Traffic studies.
problems like: ➢ Drainage.
➢ Soil classifications and identifications.
1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit ➢ Earthwork measurements
passengers. ➢ Material location.
2. Economic analysis. ➢ Pavement condition survey
3. Financial programming
4. Geometric. Orthophotographs - is an aerial photograph corrected
5. Bridges. for scale and tilt.
6. Pavement design and maintenance.
7. Pavement management. Colored Photographs
8. Scheduling for design and construction.
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantities both
for planning and payment of contractors. Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed
and precise information on traffic and parking studies. It
Remote Sensing (Photogrammetry) gives clear information of the geological conditions, land
use, source of materials, surfaces and sub-surface
drainage.
A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed
almost straight downward is the most useful mapping for Location of the Proposed Highway
high way purposes.The area to be covered is
photographed in parallel runs with the individual pictures Early roads started from trails. Movements of people
lapped in the direction of the flight (end lap) and and the use of motor vehicles prompted road agencies
between successive runs (side lap). to improve road alignment minimizing sharp curves.
Road width was standardized and grades were
flattened.
Instruments used in converting data from aerial
photo graphs into maps are: New highway locations are blended with curvature
1. The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters grades and other roadway elements to offer;
2. The wild autograph comfortable easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries,
3. The Kern PG2 comply with the rules on safety standards
4. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph
To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:
as to the control, and minimum design speed, roadway 1. Pipe culverts
cross sections, and maximum slope with the following 2. Concrete box culverts.
considerations: 3. Guard rail and parapet
4. Curbs.
1. Reliable cost estimate. 5. Gutlers.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic. 6. Curb structures
3. Economic and community benefit factor. 7. Sidewalks.
4. Availability of funds. 8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous
types.
Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 9. Manholes
stages: 10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
11. Fences and right of way.
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between 12. Other survey rnarkers.
the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance srvey of all feasible routes. The Specifications
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the Specifications writing is generally different and a
highway and the structure for construction. delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of contracts
as well as highway practices and experiences.
Location of Bridges
Highway Specifications is Divided into Two:
Highways and Bridges have but one purpose - to
convey traffic 1. Standard Specifications applies to project
implemented by administration which treat the subject
When the location of the bridge is approximately that repeatedly occurs in the agency work.
deter mined, the following requirements must be
considered: 2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the
project in question that include additional modification to
1. A complete data report and special survey of the site. standard specifications. This includes copies of all
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles. documents required in securing competitive bids and
3 The survey report must contain accurate data of the contracts. Specifications are also divided into two:
waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation a) The general clause that deals with the bidding
condition and the stream characteristics. procedures and award execution and control of
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly work and other legal matters.
the waterway opening. b) Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided. work execution and how pay quantities are to be
measured.

Highway Plans and Specifications

Chapter 2: Designing the Highway
Plans and specifications are set of documents of
instructions and conditions under which highways and Consistency
bridges are built.
Consistency - is the most important single rule in
The plan contains engineering drawings of the project. highway design. That is, by making every element o the
roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.
The specifications is a written instructions and
conditions considered as integral part of the contract Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them
between the contractor and highway agency classified with:
as legal documents.
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of
The complete detailed scheme for the road which road signs.
are incorporated in the geometric designs are: 2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the
1. Traffic road standards.
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
Definition of Terms
5. Structure
6. Soils
AASHTO or the American Association of State
7. Pavement
Highways and Transportation Officials - this
committee was established as an association of State highway in obedience to either stop sign or yield signs
Territorial and District of Columbia Highway Department, erected thereon.
and the Federal Highway Administration.
Parkway is an arterial highway for non-commercial
- Engineering activities, were implemented by the traffic, with full or partial control of access usually
standing committees with the task of preparing located within a park or ribbon park-like development.
specifications manual and standards, representing the
current highway engineering practice. Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries traffic to
the nearest access point or through traffic. It often
serves as the most advantageous routes for relatively
AASHTO publications includes: long distance travel. Most arterial streets are existing
highways of considerable length along which cross
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests. traffic is regulated by signals or stop signs. In addition,
2. Specifications for highway bridges arterials provide access to adjacent property but often
3. Geometric deign standards. with restrictions on entry and exit points. Arterial street is
4. Numerous policy statements and guides. considered as a "make do" substitute for controlled
access facilities when traffic volume exceeds about
Roads and Highways is defined as strips of land that 20,000 vehicles per day
have been cleared and further improved for the
movement of people and goods. Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattern where
passengers are pick up from service streets and carried
Road. Road has somewhat broader application in usage to the arterials. Large commercial enterprises or
while generally used to describe a public thoroughfare. It amusement facilities like drive in theaters are mostly
can also refer to railways. fronting arterial roads.

Highway. The term was first used in England to Local Road is defined as street or road primarily for
describe a public road built by digging ditches on both access to residence, business, or other adjoining
sides and heaping up the earth in the middle creating a properties. It is also defined as a road constructed and
way higher than the adjacent land. Highway now maintained by the local government.
connotes, a higher state of development than road. but
the words are almost interchangeable. Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum number
of vehicles that are reasonably expected to pass a given
Expressway is a divided arterial highway for through point over a given period of time usually expressed as
traffic with full or partial control or access and vehicles per hour
generally provided with grade separation at major
intersections. AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a
high way as measured by the number of vehicles
Freeway is an expressway with full control access. passing a partial station during a given interval of time. It
is called “Average Annual Daily Traffic” if the period is
Control of Access is a condition where the rights of less than one year.
owners or occupants of adjoining land or other persons
access to light, air or view in connection with a highway The Design Speed
is fully or partially controlled by public authority.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
Full Control of Access - The authority to control
access is exercised to give preference to through traffic “The speed determined for design and
by providing access connections to selected public correlation of the physical feature of a highway that
roads only. Crossing at grade or direct private driveway influence vehicles operation' It is the minimum speed
connections is not permitted. that can be maintained over a specified section of the
highway when weather and traffic conditions are so
Partial Control of Access - The authority to control favorable that the design features of the highway
access is exercised to give preference to through traffic. govern.”
Although in addition to access connections with selected
public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and
some private driveway connections allowed. Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and
super elevation of curves, the sight distance, and grade.
Through Street or Through Highway - Every Highway The design speed is basically higher than the
or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given anticipated average speed. AASHTO recommend that:
preferential right of way, and at the entrance to which
vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required “The design speed be set to the greatest degree
by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such through possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers bath
today and throughout the road anticipated life.”
 the center-line of two lane highway except where super
Cross Section of a Typical Highway elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of

variables to consider such as: For high type pavement, the crown or slope is often
1% to 2%.
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver.

For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide

surface is required for safe clearance between
commercial vehicles and is recommended for main
highways.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3 to 6%
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is although 4% is the most common. For a gravel
acceptable only for low volume traffic including few shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 7% slope
trucks traveling thereon. is effective drainage for turf (grass) surfaces.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width
is 4.80 meters for a 30 km / hr. design speed.

For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60

meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is
limited.

Road Sholuder

Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of

the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the
On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface
edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO
makes the center-line almost flat unless gutters are
requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong
sufficiently deep enough to convey water. A combination
enough to support vehicles.
of uniform slope with parabolic curve is used instead of
the parabolic sections.
Importance of Road Shoulder

1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop

when disabled or for some other purposes. Road
shoulder considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident
opportunity increases if the shoulder is too narrow or
omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of
the roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road
pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on
curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle stop Cut or Fill Slope
during emergencies.

A continuous narrow white line strip at the edge of Earth fill of normal height is safe
the roadway that separates the shoulder, serves as on a slope of 1:2 ratios.
guide to drivers during bad weather and poor visibility
conditions. The white strips tend the driver to stay in the
traffic lane and the vehicles seldom infringe on the
shoulder.
Slope of cuts through an
The Cross Slope
ordinary undisturbed earthfill
remain in place with a ratio of
The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of
1:1 slope.
the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from
 Highway Median
On the other hand, rock cuts could be as steep as 1:2
and sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable. Recently, median in various forms, becomes absolute
requirement for highways because, it offers the following
advantages:
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope
1. With back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be 1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares,
directed to back into the road and will come to stop or conflicts, and accident between opposing streams of
continue down the slope with no risk of over turning. traffic.

2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full 2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic
extent giving the roadway safer appearance. streams of cross traffic, and pedestrian could traverse
each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. With visible slope for being low and flat, vehicles
could be positioned or parked closer to the edge, and on 3. Median provides available space for left tum lanes.
two lane roadway facilities parking would be farther from
the opposing traffic. 4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.

5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly

Recommended Policy on Geometric Design recommended. For rural sections of freeway, the 18 to
1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
less than 1.20 meters high, and 4:1 ratio on a higher fill.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that, 3.00 to
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 9.00 meters median width is appropriate in suburban or
m. mountainous situations.

3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except 7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or
on solid rock or special kind of soil. wider is preferred because it allows the use of
independent profiles and at the same time minimizes
The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill cross over accident.
slopes intersect the original ground surface, cross
section must be rounded to blend the slope with the 8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to
natural ground surface. When the side slope requires cross each roadway separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters
embankment with suitable retaining wall, any of the median width provides protection for turning vehicles.
following materials could be used depending upon the
natural conditions. 9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves
as partition - separation of opposite traffic control
1. Hand placed stones. devices.
2. Cement rubbles masonry.
3. Concrete blocks. 10. The width of a traversable median should be wide
4. Conventional reinforced concrete. enough to prevent vehicles running out of control from
5. T or counter forted designs. reaching the opposite traffic.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
7. Precast concrete. 11. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges
8. Metal elements. is favored, but specific value is not-stipulated.
9. Tied back piling.
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands. 12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than
6:1 but preferably 10:1.
Number of Lanes
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is crash barriers.
determined from the estimated traffic volume for the
design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at For Narrow Median, there are four means of
expected level of service. AASHTO policies accept a reducing cross median accidents:
dually divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in each 1. Provide deterring devices.
direction for an inner freeway and four more lanes in 2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers'
each direction on the outside. 3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide G.M. barriers

Deterring Devices. - Two sets of double strip painted

on the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low
curbing and shallow ditches.
 Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line
chain link fence I meter high supported by steel post 1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object
augmented by cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non- is seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
traversable rigid barriers are metal guard rail 2. The second distance is consumed while the driver
applies brakes for the vehicle to stop.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face
concrete barriers called New Jersey. It is cast or
extruded in place or precast in section and set in The Passing Sight Distance
position by crane.
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that
a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where
The Grade Line the driver’s eye level is 1.05 meters above the pavement
surface.
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the
highway as a measure how the center line of the Road Alignment
highway rises and fall.
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the change from flat to sharp curve and long tangents
following: followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently will only create hazard and invite accident.
meeting sight distances in relation to grade line,
economy is one main consideration. Circular Curves

2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to
considered balanced excavation against centrifugal force. This force is balanced by equal and
embankments to get the minimum overall cost. opposite forces developed through the super elevation
and side frictions.
3. In flat area the grade line is set almost parallel
to the ground surface but sufficiently above the Arc Definitions – The degree of curve is the central
ground for drainage purposes. angle subtended by a 30 meters arc of the curve.
Chord Definitions – The degree of curve is the central
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with angle subtended by 50 meters chord.
sufficient covering.

5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, Super Elevation -Runoff
is governed by the expected level of water flood.
Curved sections of roadways are usually super
Vertical Curve Over Crest elevated. Provisions for gradual changes from one point
to the other should be considered. The center-line of
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the each individual roadway at profile grade is
established minimum over crests. maintained while raising the outer edge and lowering the
inner edge to attain the desired super elevation. It is
advisable to make the super elevation by raising the
Right of Way outer edge elevated twice the usual distance.

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly.

Based on experience from the past, highway agency WIDENING OF CURVES
now consider it a good practice to acquire right of way
wide enough to sufficiently provide for the ultimate A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp
expected development. curve for two lanes pavement under the following
reasons:
Stopping Sight Distance 1. To force the drivers to shy away from the
pavement edge.
The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest
distance that a driver could see the top of an object 15 2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width
centimeters above the road surface where the design for non-tracking of front and rear wheels.
height of the driver’s eye above the pavement is 105
centimeters. 3. To give additional width due to the slanted
position of the front wheel to the roadway center line.
 4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional 3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270 degrees right.
width of 30 centimeters is necessary on an open Turn and travel greater distance becoming very
curve highway. unpleasant and hazardous due to the sharp curves and
steep grades.
Island 4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant
weave those entering the adjacent loop from the through
- a defined area between traffic lanes for control of roadway.
vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge.
Highway Intersection at Grade
On at-grade intersection in which traffic is directed into
definite paths by island is termed as Channelized All highways except freeways have intersections at
Intersections. grade. Intersection area is considered part of every
connecting roads. In this area, all crossing and turning
Island is included in the design of intersections for the movement occur.
following purposes:
1 .For right angle intersections with little traffic, the use
1.Separation of vehicular flows. of street sigh is more than sufficient.
2.Separation of conflicts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas. 3. For Y intersection or other related conformation where
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require
intersections. channelization.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
Location of traffic control devices. 4. The flared design will involve the following:
a. Widening the entering traffic lane to allow
deceleration of the car and clear of through traffic.
A well-studied super elevation is an important adjunct to b. Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleration
channelization that regulates the vehicle speed and: and merging from the traffic streams.

1. Prohibited turns are prevented. 5. Intersections must accommodate large trucks. and
2. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing the radius of all curves must be sufficient enough to
vehicles and pedestrian. accommodate them.
3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning
or crossing vehicles and pedestrians. Freeway Entrance and Exit
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time,
hence, conflicts can be avoided. The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway
5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like systems is governed by the flow characteristics of
signs, signals and refuge for pedestrians. vehicles, and the driver's behavior near on and off the
channel.

TYPES OF INTERCHANGE Railroad - Highway Operation

The types and form of freeway interchange requires “Where one is to go over- the railroad or the highway?” If
selection of the conformation that is best suited to a the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself
particular situation and demand. The functions of is lighter and the highway load is much smaller than the
freeway interchanges are: railroad loads.
If the highway goes under the railroad, special
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic provision is required for the removal of rainwater that
arteries. falls within the opposing area.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one
entry to the other or between local roadway and the Bycicle Lane
freeway.
Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy
Diamond type – simplest and low cost form of crises and traffic problems. It requires separate road for
interchange. the riders that is entirely separate from the vehicular
Cloverleaf type – recommended for freeway and traffic
arterial intersections.

Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design

1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just
to traverse the longer loops.
Chapter 3: Soil Types of Soil

Soil and Its Origin The major categories of soils are gravel, sand, silt and
clay.
What is Soil?
GRAVEL and SAND are consider to be coarse grain
➢ It is the most important material that influenced soil because of their characteristic that can be easily
mankind in his struggle for survival. distinguish without magnification.

➢ Soil may be defined as the accumulation of SILT and CLAY are considered as fine grain soil
unconsolidated sediments and deposits of solid because of their tiny particles.
particles as a result of the integration of rocks.
Particles larger than gravel are commonly referred to as
➢ most of the non-organic materials identified as soil cobbles or boulders
has originated from rocks as the parent material.
Fined grain soil is classified as either silt or clay not on
Rock types are classified into three major classes in the basis of particle size but on the plasticity or non-
accordance with their own origin or method of plasticity of the materials.
formations:
Dilatancy - If small amount of moist silt sample is
➢ IGNEOUS ROCKS - cooled and harden magma shaken on the palm of the hand, water will appear on
that originated from deep within the earth. the surface of the sample but disappear when shaking
stops.
➢ SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed from
accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of
certain organisms that have harden by pressure. Characteristic of Soil

➢ METAMORPHIC ROCK - metamorphism due to ➢ Soil consists largely of minerals formed bu

changes in temperature, pressure and plastic flow, disintegration or decomposition of rocks.
changing the original rock structure and mineral
composition of the rock. ➢ It also contain humus and organic acids resulted
from decay of vegetation.

Categories of Soil ➢ It is very common to encounter five to ten or more

distinct types of soil along a kilometer of road.
1. Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil - formed from the
weathering of rocks accumulation of organic materials ➢ Behaviour of soil mass could be determined based
remained at the location of their origin. on their characteristics such as : GRAIN SIZE,
GRAIN SHAPE and SURFACE TEXTURE AND
Weathering process may be attributed to mechanical, ELECTRICAL SURFACE CHARGES.
chemical or solution weathering.
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC and
➢ Mechanical Weathering - refers to physical CLASSIFICATION of SOIL PARTICLES:
disintegration due to effects of wind, rain, running
water or tectonic forces (earthquake) 1. GRAVEL - it consist of rock fragmentscmore or less
➢ Chemical and Solution Weathering - is rounded by water action or abrasion classified according
decomposition of rock due to chemical reactions to the following:
that occur as a result of exposure to atmosphere,
temperature changes, reaction with water or other a.) Quartz - hardest common rock forming mineral.
materials.
b.) Well Rounded Pebbles and Boulders - undergone
2. Transported Soils - those materials transported from long period of wear that become almost quartz.
their place of origin. Transportation may result due to the
effects of gravity, wind, water, & glaciers of human c.) Slightly Worm Gravel - a rough and angular
activity. material or rock.

2. FINE SAND - has particles that are mr angular than

the coarse and fine sand.
3. COARSE SAND - is usually rounded like gravel with
which it is found and general contains the same LOAMS - soil that is almost entirely a mixture of sand
materials. and silt.

4. SILT SAND - similar to fine sand with same mineral Every soil containing clay of less than 20% is classified
composition. as loams with prefix sandy or silty added to indicates
- it also contains PUMICE, LOESS, which predominates.
MATERIALS FOREIGN TO THE ASSOCIATED SAND.
The Unified Soil Classification System several ways for
5. CLAY - a plate, scale or rod like in shape due to quick identification of fine grain portions of the soil,
chemical weathering. namely:

1. The sample is mixed with water to have a putty-like

6. COLLOIDAL CLAY - a finer clay that remains consistency, then formed into pat and dried completely.
suspended in water and does not settle under the force
of gravity. 2. If the pat is broken by the fingers and the dry strength
is high, plasticity of the sample is considered high.
COARSE GRAIN MATERIALS - it is considered
satisfactory construction material. 3. If dry strength of the sample is high, then, it exhibits
clay and colloid characteristics.
IMPORTANT GRAIN SHAPE CHARACTERISTIC:
4. If the sample is a pat of fine silty sand, it will easily
1. Rounded particles extracted from the stream that has break in the fingers.
undergone wear, are considered strong materials.
5. Fine sand will cause the pat to feel gritty on the
2. Flat and flaky particles that were not subjected to fingers and silts is smooth.
wear, are weak and variable that is not suitable for
various used. 6. Dilatancy or reaction to shaking is another way of
classifying the soil mortar.
3. Angular or roughly cubical shape particles produced
from crushing strong and tough rocks, increases the Composition of Soil
resistance of soil mass to deformation when subjected
to load, due to individually interlocking grains. Soil deposit consists of solid particles and void spaces
between particles, either partially or completely filled
4. Generally, the rounded particle has the tendency to with water.
roll over each other when subjected to load. - are composed of solid, liquid and gas.

Classification of Soil Void spaces not completely filled with water, are either
filled with air or other gases.
Pedology is the science of soils.

“like soil are developed on like slope when like materials Strength and compressibility of the soil is directly related
are weathered in like fashion.” to:
1. Soil density weight per unit volume.
Under the pedological classifications, soils that were 2. Water content of the soil.
produced in like fashion front the parent rock, is 3 . Void ratio.
assumed to possess similar engineering properties, that 4. Degree of saturation.
also requires similar engineering treatment.

The texture classification of soil depending on the grain

size distribution is classified into three groups, namely;
(a) sand (b) silt and (c) clay.

After determining the grain size of the sample, charts is

read as follows:

1. Spaces vertically upward starting from zero at the

bottom represent clay percentage.
2. Spaces from left to right diagonally downward starting
with zero at the left, represents silt.
3. Spaces from right to left diagonally downward starting
with zero at the right, represents sand.
Relationship Between Mass Volume and Weight By definition, water content W is the ratio of the
Volume weight of water in soil volume to the weight of soil solids,
The total weight of the soil volume is: or of the mass of water in a soil to the mass of solids.

Weight of the solid (Ws) + Weight of the water is equal W% = Ww/WS x 100% or Mw/Ms x 100%
to the Total weight (Wt).
Where:
Ws + Ww = Wt W% = Water content in Percertage
Ww = Weight of water
Similarly; for measurement of the mass; Ws = Weight of dry soil
Ms + Mw = Total mass Mw = Mass of water
Ms + Mw =Mt Ms = Mass of solid

Therefore, the total volume of the soil sample of the bulk The relationship of water content and the weight of dry
includes the solid and liquid air or gas. The volume of soil to the total wet weight of the soil volume should be:
water and air is called-volume of voids, Thus:
Wt = Ws +Ww
The total volume (Vt) = volume of solid + volume of
voids. The weight of dry soil mass could be found easily with
these equations when the weight of a large soil mass
Vt = Vs + ( Vw + Va ) sample and the water content is known from a
= Volume of solid + Volume of voids representative sample.

Vt = Vs + Vv The Void Ratio and Porosity in relation with the solid and
void volume follows:
The relationship between the weight and volume of any
materials will be: e = Volume of voids / Volume of solid
e = Vv/Vs
W = Vg Uw
The Void Ratio is expressed in decimal number, and the
while Mass and Volume M = Vg Dw Porosity P is conventionally expressed in percentage.
Thus:
Where: p% = (Volume of voids/Total Volume) x l00%
p% = (Vv/Vt) x 100%
W = Weight of the material (solid, liquid or gas)
V = Volume ocoupied bythe material. And the relationship between void ratio and porosity is:
G = Specific gravity of the material. e=(p%/100%)/((1-p%)/100%)
Uw = Unit weight of water at temperature stated p% = (e/1+e) x 100%
(in most soil work, Uw = 62.4 pounds/ft3
9.80 dynes/cm3;or 9.81 kN/m3 regardless The degree of saturation S, indicates the portion of the
of temperature) void spaces in a soil material that is filled with water.
M = Mass of the materials The degree of saturation is expressed in percentage.
Dw = Density of water (1 gm/cm3 or L95 slugs/ft3)
S%=Vw/Vv x 100%
➢ The specific gravity of most commonly occurring
rock or soil or soil materials is between 2.30 and Full saturation or 100% saturation means that all voids
3.10. are filled with liquid.
➢ The specific gravity of soil solids lies within the
range of 2.60 to 2.75. Since

The Unit Weight of Soil U could be Expressed as: Vt = Vs * Vv and e = Vv/Vs

Wet unit weight Uwet = Wt/Vt ( p/ft3, kNm3 ) Vt=Vs+eVs = (1+e) or;
Dry unit weight Udry = Ws/Vt ( p/ft3, kN/m3)
Vs = Vt/(1+e)
For soil density:
Wet destiny Dwet= Mt/Vt ( kg/m3,gm/cm3 )
Dry density Ddry = Ms/Vt (kg/m3, gr/cm3)

➢ 1 gm/cm3 = 62.4 pounds per cubic ft.

The weight of one cm3 of water = 980 dynes
The weight of one ft of water = 62.4lbs
 containing a designated percentage of water are
CHAPTER 4 - SOIL TEST AND SURVEY
compacted in layers into molds of specified size.
4-1 TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE
4-5 FIELD DENSITY TEST OF SOIL IN PLACE
1. Sieve analysis - process being used to determine the Field density test is the means of comparing the density
particle sizes of gravel and fine aggregates. with the laboratory results.
2. Hydrometer test - based on Stokes' law, calculates
the size of soil particles from the speed at which they
settle out of suspension from a liquid. Results from the
test show the grain size distribution for soils finer than the
No. 200 (75µm) sieve.
Relative compaction is the only measure by which the
acceptability of a completed roadway structure is measured.
4-2 TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT OF
Four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring relative
MOISTURE
density:
1. The Liquid Limit Test – AASHTO d T-89 signifies the
percentage of moisture at which the sample changes by
1. Change in the soil itself
decreasing the water from liquid to plastic state. 2. The sampling methods
2. The Plastic Limit – AASHTO d T-90 signifies the 3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard
percentage of moisture wherein the sample changes with density
lowering wetness from plastic semi-solid condition.
4. The accuracy of testing field density
3. The Plastic Index Test - AASHTO d T-91 defined as
the numerical difference between its liquid limit and its
plastic limit. 4-6 THE STRENGTH TEST
4. The Shrinkage Test – measures the changes in 1. California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) - combines a
volume and weight that occur as partly mixture of soil and load deformation test performed in the laboratory with an
water (except sieve No. 40) empirical design chart to determine the thickness of
5. Hand Feel Test – experienced soil engineer employ pavement base and other layers.
the “hand feel test” to approximately predict the plasticity 2. The HVEEM Stabilometer Method - This method
index of the soil. The test may include: measures the horizontal pressure developed in a short
a) Thread toughness at moisture content cylinder sample loaded vertically on its end.
approximating the plastic limit. 3. Test for Expansion Pressure - After exudation test while
b) The air-dried strength sample is still in the mold, it is tested for expansion pressure.
A perforated brass plate is placed on the sample and
c) Dilatancy covered with water for 16-20 hours.
6. Sand Equivalent Test - AASHTO d T-176 for field 4. Stabilometer Test - After the expansion test, the
determination of the presence of undesirable quantities of specimen is enclosed in a flexible sleeve and placed inside
clay-like materials in soil. the stabilometer. Vertical pressure is applied slowly at speed
of 0.05 inch per minute until it reaches 160 psi.

4-3 DENSITY TEST OF SOIL 5. Tri-Axial Design Method - This method is used by some
agencies for compression tests (see AASHTO Designation
Main Variables in the Soil Proper: T-234). In open system tri-axial test, lateral pressure is held
constant releasing from the container as increased load
1. Specific Gravity of the soil particles that may vary from
causes the sample to expand laterally.
2.0 to 3.3 that is normally between 2.5 and 2.8.
6. Dynamic Modulus - Re-compacted or undisturbed
2. Particle Size distribution of the soil samples are tested to determine the influence of
3. Grain Shape of Soil Particles temperature, degree of saturation, density, and age on the
dynamic response of pavement materials.
7. Nuclear Device Test - Nuclear Devices for determining
4-4 LABORATORY TEST FOR SOIL DENSITY in-place densities and moisture contents are used. The
Divided into Two: gauge readings are easily converted to density and prevent
1. Laboratory test to set standard for density. moisture using calibration curves or microprocessors. The
a. Static Test-determining the maximum density of the portable device is either the transmission, or back scatter
soil type.
b. Dynamic or Impact Test
c. Tamping Foot or Kneading Compact Test

2. Field test to measure the density of soil in- placed on

the roadway

Static Test – determining the maximum density of soil

sample in the laboratory.

Dynamic or Impact Test – samples of soils each

 4-7 SOIL SURVEY CHAPTER 5 – ROAD MATERIALS
The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part 5 – 1 AGGREGATES
highway reconnaissance and preliminary location survey.
In fixing the position of the roadway, the following should 1. Test for strength
taken into accounts:
2. Test for soundness
1. Soil conditions 3. Test for affinity and swell
2. Directness of the route • Hydrophilic – greater affinity for water
• Hydrophobic – fear, or against water
3. Topography
4. Test for shape and texture
4. Right of way 5. Test for resistance to polishing
5. Neighborhood disruption 6. Degradation test

6. Environmental consideration Particle Size

7. Refraction Seismic Method 1. Dense Graded Pavement – coarse to dust

2. Open Graded Pavement – uniform of
coarse rocks
The early phase of soil survey is the collection of 3. Sheet Asphalt – graded sand and
information gathered from the following: mineral dust
1. Identification of soil types from: geological and 5 – 2 AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
agricultural soil maps, aerial photographs, and other
sources. For bituminous or asphalt pavement, the aggregate
2. Investigation of ground water conditions, examining constitutes 88% to 96% by weight or more than 75% by
existing roadway cuts and other excavations. volume.

3. Review of the design and construction procedures, 5 – 3 AGGREGATE FOR PORTLAND CEMENT
and present condition of roads that traverse the area. CONCRETE PAVEMENT
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using auger Shall pass appropriate tests for strength, soundness, wear or
boring and test pile. Sampling should be at frequent the combination of the three.
intervals to fix the boundaries of each soil types.
Specifications:
5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth below
the sub-grade elevation with recommended minimum 1. Aggregate shall consist of hard,
depth. durable particles or fragments of
6. The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent crushed stones, crush slug or crushed or natural
materials, landform and agricultural soil name, should be gravel.
recorded. 2. Coarse Aggregate – 2.00 mm sieve, not more
than 50% of water in sub- base, not more than
7. Each soil layer is described according to thickness,
45 for base.
fixture, structure, organic content, relation contents and
cementation. The depth of seepage zones of free water 3. Fine Aggregate – fraction passing the
table and bedrocks are also recorded. 0.075 mm sieve and should not be greater than
0.66 of the fraction passing the 0.045mm sieve.
8. The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing
location or test hole range of soil profile characteristics for 4. Base Course – liquid limit of not more than 25
each district soil type is plotted. and a plastic index not greater than 6.
5. Surface Course – liquid limit not more than 35
and plasticity index not less than 4 nor exceed 9.
Refraction Seismic Method
5 – 4 MINERAL FILLER
➢ geophysical method used for sub-surface exploration
called refraction seismic method relies on the principle Classification of DUST ADDITIVES:
that, the speed of shock travelling through the earth 1. Finely powdered limestone
surface varies, depending upon the kind of materials.
2. Slag
Shock waves travel through light loose soils at
approximately 180 meters per second, and 6,000 3. Hydrated Lime
meter per second on dense and solid rock. 4. Portland Cement
5. Tap rock dust
➢ The refraction method was developed for exploration
of underground conditions of roadway cuts. 6. Fly ash

➢ Reliable although sometimes it cannot be totally 5 – 5 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

depended on regarding the information as to the
Bituminous material or Asphalt – viscous liquid used as
presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration
binder for aggregates in road construction.
when it is used to find localized sand and gravel
deposits. 5 – 6 BITUMINOUS BINDERS

Penetration – refers to the consistencies of asphalt

cement.
Viscosity Test – procedure used in grading asphalt 6. Asphalt sheet
cement 7. Road mix
Cutback or Liquid Asphalt – petroleum product 8. Armor coat
consisting of asphalt cement with a liquid distillate. 9. Oil mat

Emulsified Asphalt – kind of mixture wherein the Qualities of Asphalt Road

minute globules of asphalt disperses in water. It is also
an alternative to cutback asphalt 1. The surface must be free from cracks
2. Can withstand weather
➢ Excellent with wet aggregate
3. Resistant to moisture
➢ Alternate to cutback asphalt for energy and 4. Tight and porous surface
environmental objectives 5. Smooth riding and skid free surface
Cationic Emulsion – very effective on high siliceous 5 – 9 ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
aggregates.
Asphalt Concrete – dense graded road surface made of
Rejuvenating Agent – emulsified petroleum resin hot mineral aggregates, mixed with hot asphalt and laid at
sprayed over the surface of an old asphalt road. high temperature of about 275 F to 300 F.
Oxidized Asphalt – suitable only for roofing and 5 – 10 BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT FAILURE
similar applications.
Caused by excessive load.
Road Tar – by-product of the distillation process of coal.
1. Surface Failure
Tars – produced from gashouse coal tar, cook oven 2. Base Failure
tars and water gas tars.
3. Basement Failure
Bitumen Rubber Mixture – was experimented in
Holland. 5 – 11 MACADAM ASPHALT MAT

Epoxy Binders – produced in clear, dark, rigid and Bituminous Macadam base or surface is composed of two
flexible form for application to either to three layers of progressively smaller, clean, sharp
concrete or asphalt pavement. Tests angular stones bonded by asphalt.

for Bituminous Binders: 5 – 12 SURFACE TREATMENT

1. Test of consistency Inverted Penetration Method – the binder asphalt is

first sprayed over a prepared surface then covered with
2. Test for durability
aggregates.
3. Test for solubility
Purposes:
4. Distillation test
5. Thin film over test 1. Dust palliatives to control dust
6. Flashpoint 2. Prime coat or tack coat treating the
7. Test for homogeneity of petroleum asphalt surface to provide new wearing coarse.
8. Special test for Emulsion asphalt 3. Armor coats to provide protection for
untreated surfaces.
5 – 7 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BITUMINOUS
BINDERS
4. Seal coats and retreads
5. Sheet asphalt
1. Thickness 6. Tack coats
2. Mixtures 7. Slurry seals
3. Content and percentage 8. Asphalt overlay
4. Improper construction
Dust Palliative – surface treatment or application of asphalt
5. Storing
to control dust and fine sand along the highway.
6. Climatic conditions
7. Different brand Armor Coat – surface treatment using a thin bituminous
8. Penetration binder covered by mineral aggregate applied to an earth,
gravel or water bound macadam surface to stabilize the
5 – 8 BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT base.
Bituminous Pavement – combination of mineral Seal Coat – temporary surface treatment with life duration of
aggregate and binders. 10 years.
Creations: Sheet Asphalt – mixture of sand fillers and asphalt cement.

1. Asphalt macadam Cold Laid Asphalt – mixture of coarse and fine aggregates
2. Asphaltic concrete and liquid asphalt or emulsion.
3. Mastic Slurry Seal – combination of sand, crushed stone,
4. National paving emulsified asphalt and water.
5. Plant mix
Asphalt Overlay – layer of asphalt bound aggregate laid Differences in Properties:
to an existing pavement.
1. Specific gravity
2. Strength
5 – 13 AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS CONCRETE 3. Future stain
Fine Aggregates – passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve. 4. Modulus of elasticity
Resultant mixture of fine aggregates when combined with 5. Creep resistance
other required aggregate should meet the gradation 6. Resistance to the ultra-violet light and
requirements. biological effect
Open Graded Asphalt Concrete Friction Coarse – pure Construction Method:
carbonate aggregates or any aggregates known to be
polishing should not be used as coarse aggregate. 1. Woven Fabrics – filaments are directed in two
perpendiculars directions and overlapped.
Lightweight Aggregate – (except slag) could be
manufactured by the rotary kiln process if permitted by the
2. Knitted Geoplastic Fabrics (KGF) – made
special provisions of the specifications. of loops of fibers connected by straight
segments.
Aggregates for Bituminous Plant-Mix Surfacing – 3. Non-Woven Geoplastic - neither
aggregate should be uniformly graded from coarse to woven nor knitted.
fine. a. Needle punching through the
fabrics
Aggregates for Hot-Plant-Mix Bituminous b. Heat bonding or melt bonding
Pavement – various aggregates fraction for the mixture
should be sized, graded, and combined in such c. Resin bonding wherein the fabric is
proportions. impregnated with a resin which cements the
fibers together.
Bed Course Materials – for sidewalks, paved d. Combination bonding is the combination of
waterways and curbing shall consist of cinders, sand, two or more of the processes described to
slag, gravel, crushed stone or other approved materials produce a particular characteristics.
having 37.5 mm square openings.

5 – 14 DPWH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS ON

PRIME COAT, TACK COAT, AND SEAL COAT
Prime Coat – applied only to dry or slightly moist surface.
No foggy and rainy days.

Tack Coat – same as the Prime Coat but different as

follows:

1. The manner of application

2. Sprayed in advance on the surface
Seal Coat – application of bituminous materials with or
without the application of aggregate to bituminous
surface course.

5 – 15 GEOPLASTIC FABRICS

Geoplastic Fabrics – used to reinforce soil of

pavement and to provide drainage and erosion control
for highways and railroads.

Functions:

1. Filter – holds the soil in place

2. Drainage – provide channels for
carrying water away from soil
3. Separator – prevent the materials from
mixing together
4. Reinforcement – adds
mechanical strength to the soil
5. Armor – protects soil for erosion