UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE CATAMARCA

FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES
PROFESORADO, TRADUCTORADO Y LICENCIATURA EN INGLÉS

GRAMÁTICA INGLESA I

Equipo de Cátedra:
● Mgtr. Guadalupe López Acuña
Profesora Adjunta Exclusiva a cargo.
● Esp. Claudia Elizabet Silva
Profesora Adjunta Exclusiva
● Mgtr. Karina Vanesa Ovejero
JTP Semi-Exclusiva
● Esp. Analía Centeno
JTP Semi-Exclusiva

- 2024 –
 SET I

VERB

A verb is a word (run), or a phrase (is running/run out of), which expresses the existence of a
state (love, seem) or the doing of an action (take, play).

LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS

There are various ways in which it is necessary to classify verbs. We begin with a classification
relating to the function of items in the verb phrase. This distinguishes lexical (main) verbs
from auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are subdivided into primary auxiliaries and modal
auxiliaries.

Lexical verbs Walk, write, play, study, work, etc.

Auxiliary Verbs Primary BE, DO, HAVE
Modal Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might,
must, ought to

To understand auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs, study the diagram below.

VERB PHRASE
SUBJECT COMPLETER
Auxiliary verb/s Lexical verb
He looks very honest.
She bought a book yesterday.
We are waiting for you.
They will come soon.
John might have left already.

We can see from the diagram above that verb phrases are not all alike. A verb phrase
sometimes has only one word, such as looks and bought, and sometimes two or more words,
such as are waiting, will come, and might have left. Words like look, wait, come, leave, and buy
tell what the action or state of the subject is. They are called lexical or main verbs. The
words in the verb phrase before the lexical verb are auxiliary verbs. They show the aspect,
voice, mood, etc. of the verb phrase.

● Read the text and identify all the verbs. Underline LEXICAL verbs once and AUXILIARY
verbs twice.

We were there!
The first time I noticed this phenomenon was a few years ago, in St Peter’s Basilica in
Rome – a crowd of people were standing round Michelangelo’s Pietà, taking photos with
their cameras and mobile phones. Then last week I saw it again at the Museum of Modern
Art in New York. At first, I wasn’t too worried when I saw people photographing the
paintings. It was a bit irritating, but that was all. It didn’t make me angry. Then the sad
1
 truth hit me. Most of the people were taking photos without looking at the paintings
themselves. People were pushing me, not because they were trying to get a better view
of the art, but because they wanted to make sure that no one blocked their photo. Was it
possible that perhaps they were taking photos so that they could admire the paintings
better when they got home? This was very improbable. They were not there to see the
paintings, but to take photos to prove that they had been there.
Then it got worse. Now people were taking photos of their partners or friends who were
posing next to, or in front of some of the most famous paintings. Neither the photographers
nor the person they were photographing had looked at the art itself, although I saw that
sometimes they read the label, to make sure that the artist really was famous.
I think that photography in museums should be banned. But I also have a less drastic
solution. I think that people who want to take a photo of an exhibition should be forced to
look at it first, for at least one minute.

AUXILIARY VERBS

Auxiliary verbs help other verbs to form interrogative, negative and emphatic forms of speech and
to form tenses, mood, and voice. They have certain characteristics, which they, and they only,
possess and which distinguish them from all other verbs. The following are their special features:

1) FORMATION OF THE NEGATIVE

1. When a sentence contains BE, HAVE (as auxiliary) or a MODAL auxiliary, we form the
negative by putting not immediately after the auxiliary verb. e.g.:

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
She has just come. She has not (hasn’t) come yet.
They are working. They are not (aren’t) working.
He can speak English. He cannot (can’t) speak English.
They will do it. They will not (won’t) do it.
Ana should tell her mum. She should not (shouldn’t) tell her mum.

2. In simple tenses the auxiliary must be added before the main verb followed by the
base form of the verb. we use do not (don’t) and does not (doesn’t) after the subject
in the simple present and did not (didn’t) after the subject in the simple past. The
verb is always a bare infinitive.

Tense AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE

Present Simple Anna lives with her mother. Anne doesn’t live with her mother.
(he/she/it)
Present Simple They like pop music. They don’t like pop music.
(I/we/you/they)
Past Simple He finished on time. He didn’t finish on time.
They found it. They didn’t find it.

PRACTICE: Write the negative form.

1. I’m ready. I’m not ready.

2. She’s right. __________________________________

2
 3. They’re late. __________________________________
4. You’re being silly. __________________________________
5. He’s working in London. __________________________________
6. They’re playing tennis. __________________________________
7. I’m going to fail. __________________________________
8. She was waiting for you. __________________________________
9. He can speak Russian. __________________________________
10. He’ll be leaving soon. __________________________________
11. It would be a very good idea. __________________________________
12. It looks like rain. __________________________________
13. They always win. __________________________________
14. They missed the last lesson. __________________________________
15. She’s always been good at sports. __________________________________
16. You’ve met her. __________________________________

2. FORMATION OF THE INTERROGATIVE

YES/NO questions: what they are and how they are formed.

A Yes/No question is one which asks for Yes or No in the answer.

Have you ever been to Egypt? Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.

Aren´t you tired? Yes, I am. / No, I´m not.
Does he like fish? Yes, he does. / No, he doesn't.
Can you play the piano? Yes, I can. / No, I can´t.

The word order in these questions is auxiliary + subject + verb…?

1. In the case of BE and HAVE as auxiliaries and MODAL auxiliaries we make Yes/No
questions by inversion, that is by putting the auxiliary verb (be, have, will, can, etc.)
before the subject.

AFFIRMATIVE INTERROGATIVE
He can speak English. Can he speak English?
She will come to the party. Will she come to the party?
They have finished the test. Have they finished the test?
He is reading the newspaper. Is he reading the newspaper?

2. In simple tenses (present simple/past simple) we form Yes/No questions with DO and
DOES in the simple present and DID in the simple past. The form of the main verb is
always the bare infinitive.

AFFIRMATIVE INTERROGATIVE
He speaks English. Does he speak English?
They live in France. Do they live in France?
She came to the party. Did she come to the party?
They arrived late. Did they arrive late?

3
General points about Yes/No questions

1. If there is more than one auxiliary in the same sentence it is always the first one that goes
in front of the subject.

Statement: He could have been delayed

Question: Could he have been delayed?

2. The whole subject comes after the auxiliary however long it is

Statement: Everyone in the room can hear me.

Question: Can everyone in the room hear me?

Statement: Everyone in the room agrees.

Question: Does everyone in the room agree?

PRACTICE: Rewrite the sentences as YES/NO questions.

1. You’re late. Am I late?

2. This is the London train. _______________________________
3. Your photos are ready. __________________________________
4. John is working in the garden. __________________________________
5. The children are studying. ________________________________
6. Jane gives piano lessons. ________________________________
7. Tony was enjoying himself. ___________________________________
8. They live in the south. _____________________________________
9. She should be here. _________________________________
10. She could ask a question. ___________________________________
11. It will be fine tomorrow. _______________________________________
12. They would like an invitation. __________________________________
13. They often argue like that. _____________________________________
14. I run a mile every morning. ____________________________________
15. They will be arriving soon. _____________________________________

Question-word questions (WH questions)

The word order of WH questions is question word (where, when, who, why, etc) +
auxiliary + subject + verb…? As regards auxiliaries we work in the same way as
yes/no questions.

AFFIRMATIVE INTERROGATIVE
He is working at home. Where is he working?
They arrived at 8. What time did they arrive?
They have finished the test. What have they finished?
He is reading the newspaper in the Where is he reading the newspaper?
kitchen.

4
PRACTICE: Change the following sentences to questions beginning with the question words
in parentheses.

a. She will see her later. (When) __________________________________________

b. Anna is very sick. (How sick) ___________________________________________
c. Jane can meet us in Macy’s. (Where)_____________________________________
d. They failed their maths exams. (Why)____________________________________
e. Karen should sit near the board. (Where)__________________________________
f. They are studying English. (What) _______________________________________
g. He earns &10,000 a year. (How much) ___________________________________
h. Jane has ballet classes twice a week. (How often) ___________________________

3. QUESTION TAGS

A question tag is a short question (have you? / haven’t you?) that follows a statement
(affirmative or negative sentence). Auxiliaries (be, have, can, may, do, etc.) used in the
statement are repeated at the end followed by the subject (always a pronoun). We use question
tags for asking information, or for checking and confirming information.

It’s Lisa, isn’t it?

She wasn’t at the party, was she?

● When the main verb is affirmative, the tag question is negative.

+ -
It’s been an interesting conference, hasn’t it?

● When the main verb is negative, the tag question is affirmative.

- +
You don’t work with Leon Alvarez, do you?

● When the subject is a pronoun, repeat the pronoun.

She is working hard, isn’t she?

They will be late again, won´t they?
● When the subject is a noun, use an appropriate pronoun:
The conference has been interesting, hasn’t it?
Anna isn´t at home, is she?

For the following verbs and verb forms, we use the auxiliary (given in brackets) in the
question tag.
Verb or Verb form+ auxiliary Examples
To be She isn’t at school, is she?
(am, is, are, was, were) I’m late, aren’t I? (Only with I am, don’t say am not I?
You were at the meeting, weren’t you?
Anna wasn’t at the party, was she?
Present Simple She works for KFC, doesn’t she?
(do/does) You don’t know my colleague, do you?

5
 Past Simple He went to the conference, didn’t he?
(did) They didn't enjoy the presentation, did they?
Continuous Tenses You aren’t listening to me, are you?
(am, is, are, was, were) She was cleaning her room, wasn’t she?
Perfect tenses They have been to Paris recently, haven’t they?
(have, has, had) She hadn’t booked in advance, had she?
Modal Verbs I should leave now, shouldn’t I?
(the same modal is used in the I couldn't buy you a drink, could I?
question tag)

Intonation in question tags.

2. If our voice goes up on the tag, we are asking a real question which needs and
answer:

You left the gas on, didn't you? Yes, I did. / No, I didn’t.

You didn’t leave the gas on, did you? Yes, I did. / No, I didn’t.

3. If our voice goes down on the tag, we want the listener to agree with us and we don't
usually expect an answer:

You locked the door, didn't you? (=I assume you did)

You didn't lock the door, did you? (=I assume you didn't)

NOTE: Be careful!
I’m late, AREN’T I? NOT I’m late, AM NOT I?

PRACTICE: Complete with the appropriate question tag.

1. She's late, isn't she?
2. They're on holiday, ______________________?
3. I'm early, ______________________?
4. She isn't at home, ______________________?
5. They aren't at school, ______________________?
6. I’m not late, ______________________?
7. Carla was at home, ______________________?
8. John' wasn’t at the party, ______________________?
9. We were all ill, ______________________?
10. They weren't with Sarah, ______________________?
11. You've finished, ______________________?
12. You haven't even started, ______________________?
13. Mark has gone out, ______________________?
14. Sarah hasn't been to London, ______________________?
15. I always do the wrong thing, ______________________?
16. I don't often do the right thing, ______________________?
17. Tessa works hard, ______________________?
18. Jackson doesn't work hard, ______________________?

6
 4. ECHO TAGS
An echo tag is a response in tag form (auxiliary + pronoun), to an affirmative or negative
statement by which we may or may not request further information depending on the intonation
we use.
● When the main verb is affirmative, the echo tag is affirmative.
+ +
A: He has resigned. B: Has he?
A: She ate it all. B: Did she?
A: Peter will arrive soon. B: Will he?
● When the main verb is negative, the echo tag is negative.
- -
A: I don’t like fish. B: Don’t you?
A: Alex can’t swim. B: Can’t he?
A: They weren’t at home. B: Weren’t they?
1.If our voice goes up on the echo tag, we want more information:

A: I’ve just won $500! B: Have you? (= Tell me more!)

2. If our voice goes down on the echo tag, we confirm that we know or have guessed:

A: He is resigning. B: Is he?

PRACTICE: Supply echo tags in response to these statements.

1. A: Tom's paying. B: ______________________?
2. A: They aren't very happy. B: ______________________?
3. A: Susie was 30 yesterday. B: ______________________?
4. A: I wasn't very well last week. B: ______________________?
5. A: He works very hard. B: ______________________?
6. A: They don't eat much. B: ______________________?
7. A: You shouldn't be here. B: ______________________?
8. A: I can't afford a new car now. B: ______________________?
9. A: We can't go tomorrow. B: ______________________?
10. A: There'll be trouble about this. B: ______________________?

5. SHORT ANSWERS
Auxiliaries are used for “short answers” to avoid repetition of the verb.
Can you speak Russian? Full answer: Yes, I can speak Russian.
No, I can’t speak Russian.

Short answer: Yes, I can.

No, I can’t.
These short answers may be of several types.
a. Yes/No answer:
When answering Yes or No we usually repeat the first word in the question:
Was James late? – Yes, he was. / No, he wasn’t.
Does he live near the city centre? – Yes, he does. / No, he doesn’t.
7
 Can he play chess? Yes, he can. / No, he can’t.
Note: Are you at home? Yes, I am. / No, I’m not.
Were with Paul? Yes, I was. / No, I wasn’t.
We repeat the verb but in a different form.
PRACTICE: Answer these questions with either Yes or No.
1. Is she still at college? ___________________________________
2. Are they on their way here? ___________________________________
3. Are you still learning French? ___________________________________
4. Is Carla applying for the job? ___________________________________
5. Are we staying in the same hotel? ___________________________________
6. Are you going to help me? ___________________________________
7. Was she joking? ___________________________________
8. Were they living there then? ___________________________________
9. Should I go with them? ___________________________________
10. Will you be at the meeting? ___________________________________
11. Does she still write to you? ___________________________________
12. Do you like curry? ___________________________________
13. Did he tell you about the party? ___________________________________
14. Has he finished yet? ___________________________________
15. Have you ever eaten swordfish? ___________________________________
16. Has she been working here long? ___________________________________

b. Answer to a question introduced by an interrogative, e.g.:

Who can answer the question? – I can.

Who went to the party? – I did.
Who was here first, Henry or Richard? – Henry was.
Who works in this office? – Paula does.

PRACTICE:

1. Who will come to the party? _______________________

2. Who hates K-pop? _______________________
3. Who is studying with Paul? _______________________
4. Who can drive me home tonight? _______________________
5. Who finished first Alex or Francie? _______________________

c. Short answers expressing agreement, e.g.:

I think John is working well. – Yes, he is.

Mary has done well in her examination. – Yes, she has.
Jack doesn’t work here. – No, he doesn’t.
They can’t come with us. – No, they can’t.

PRACTICE:
1. I think River Plate will win the cup. _____________________
2. Alex is very smart. _______________________
3. Sara and Paul have always been very kind. _______________________
4. We are going to be early. ________________________
5. John isn’t studying enough. _______________________

8
 6. They don’t like seafood. _________________________
7. They can’t do it. ____________________
8. He shouldn’t do that. _______________________

d. Short answers expressing disagreement, e.g.:

It will take hours to do this work. – No, it won’t.

Richard works hard. – No, he doesn’t.
Alex hasn’t arrived. – Yes, he has.
They couldn’t do it. - Yes, they could
PRACTICE:
1. I think River Plate will win the cup. _____________________
2. Alex is very smart. _______________________
3. Sara and Paul have always been very kind. _______________________
4. We are going to be early. ________________________
5. John isn’t studying enough. _______________________
6. They don’t like seafood. _________________________
7. They can’t do it. ____________________
8. He shouldn’t do that. _______________________

e. Addition and responses to sentences.

a. With so, meaning “also”.
I have written a letter to Jean. – So have I.
John will help and so will Margaret.
Lucille speaks French and so does Anna.
Henry must come and so must Charles.
b. The negative construction parallel to (I) using neither.

Peter hasn’t given the right answer, neither has Mary.

Nick can’t speak Russian. – Neither can Jane.
Alex and Sam don’t work on Saturdays. – Neither does Joe.
Mark won’t come to the party and neither will Alex.
PRACTICE: Reply to the following statements with SO or NEITHER.

a. I have been to Cordoba recently. So have I

b. I didn’t study for the exam. _____________________
c. Tom can speak two languages. _____________________
d. I should wake up earlier. _____________________
e. My cousins don’t live in Buenos Aires. _____________________
f. I once had a holiday in Spain. _____________________
g. Alice loves pop music. _____________________
h. I won’t be at college tomorrow. _____________________
h. I was hoping to finish class earlier today. _____________________
i. I couldn’t finish my homework. _____________________
k. They haven’t washed the car yet. _____________________

9
TIME, TENSE AND ASPECT
Time is a universal non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present, and future. It is
something independent of language.
Tense is a linguistic concept. It is the correspondence between the form of the verb and our
concept of time.
Aspect concerns the manner in which the verbal action is experienced or regarded, for
example, completed or in progress.
English verbs have two elements of meaning:
TIME: Is the verb action present, past or future?
ASPECT: How does the speaker see the verb action?
Examples:
● She’s talking on the phone. Time: Present Aspect: activity in progress now.
● I saw a good film last night. Time: Past Aspect: action completed at a specific time
● Have you seen “gone with the wind”? Time: Before now. Aspect: the exact time when the action
happened is not important. The question asks about an experience at any time in the past.
● I’ll give you my phone number. Time: future Aspect: Spontaneous intention.

There are two aspects in the English tense system: they are called continuous and perfect.
CONTINUOUS ASPECT
The continuous aspect expresses the following ideas:
a. Activity in progress
Don’t interrupt me. I’m thinking. Why aren’t you working?
I was going out of the hotel when someone tapped me on the shoulder.
Don't phone her at eight. She’ll be having dinner.
b. Temporary activity
We are living in a hotel until we find a house to buy.
You are being very silly today. Usually, you are so sensible.
c. Possibly incomplete activity
Who’s been eating my sandwich? (Compare: Who’s eaten my sandwich?)
I was writing a report on the plane. (Compare: I wrote a report on the plane.)

PERFECT ASPECT:
The perfect aspect expresses the following ideas:
a. The exact time when the action happened is not important
I’ve bought a new car.
Have you seen my wallet anywhere? I’ve lost it.

b. The action is completed before another time

Have you ever been to America? (Some time before now)
When I arrived, he had already left. (Some time before I arrived)
I’ll have finished the report by tonight. (Some time before tonight)

10
 PRESENT TENSES
PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS

FORM

Present Simple Present Continuous

Affirmative Form
● I/you/we/they work
My parents go to the cinema every Saturday. ● I am + verb with ing
They never work at weekends. ● He/she/it is working
● We/you/they are
● He/she/it works I’m listening to music now.
Anna goes to school by bus. We’re studying French.
Peter studies French at school. She’s cooking pasta.

Negative Form
● I/you/we/they do not (don’t) work ● I am not + verb with ing
I don’t like tomatoes. ● He/she/it is not (isn’t) working
My parents don’t work in a hotel. ● We/you/they are not (aren’t)
● He/she/it does not (doesn’t) work I’m not studying with Emma.
Anna doesn’t speak Russian. Tom isn’t practicing enough.
Roger doesn't usually do sports. They aren’t listening to me.
Interrogative Form
● Do I/you/we/they work? ● Am I + verb with ing
Do you live with your parents? Yes, I do. No, I ● Is he/she/it working?
don't. ● Are We/you/they
Where do you live? Am I doing it right? Yes, you are. No, you aren’t
● Does he/she/it work? What am I doing?
Does Anna study law at university? Yes, she Is Tom sleeping? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t.
does. No, she doesn’t? Where is he sleeping?
What does Anna study? Are they reading the newspaper?
What are they reading?

Spelling:
PRESENT SIMPLE

1. Most verbs take -s in the third person singular.

I believe – he believes.
I cook – she cooks.
2. Verbs ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x and -o, take -es.
I kiss – He kisses. I reach – He reaches. I do – He does.
I blush - She blushes. I fax – She faxes.
3. Verbs ending in a consonant + y, drop -y and take -ies.
I fly – He flies.
4. Verbs ending in a vowel + y, take -s.
I pray - He prays.

11
 Put the following verbs into the correct box in the 3rd person singular.

Scratch-say-try-set-play-do-stop-miss-saty-fry-drive-fix-cry-freeze-teach-pray-crash-fly-type

+S sets
SS, SH, CH, X, O + es scratches
Vowel + y + s says
Consonant + y + ies tries

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

1. Verbs ending in -e, drop the -e and take the -ing suffix.
Leave – leaving but see - seeing
2. Verbs ending in one stressed vowel between two consonants, double the last consonant
and take -ing suffix.
Put- putting but open - opening
3. Verbs ending in -L, double the L and take the -ing suffix.
Travel - travelling
4. Verbs ending in -ie, drop the ie and take -y + ing.
Lie - lying

Add ING to the following verbs and put them into the correct box.

Draw, lie, dive, put, drink, run, tie, write, type, throw, die, apply, cancel, sit, stop, cook, like,
copy, do, die

+ ING
IE Y + ing
-E ing
Double consonant + ing

PRESENT SIMPLE FORM PRACTICE

1) Expand the following into sentences in order to make true statements with doesn't or don't
where necessary.

1) Water / boil / at 100o C. Water boils at 100oC.

2) Rice / grow / on trees. Rice doesn’t grow on trees.
3) Chicks / hatch / from eggs. ___________________________________________________
4) Kangaroos / live / in Spain. __________________________________________________
5) Plants / need / water to grow._________________________________________________
6) Rain / fall / from clouds. ___________________________________________________
7) Astronauts / travel / in submarines. ____________________________________________
8) Cows / lay / eggs. _________________________________________________________
9) Pandas / live / in Italy. ___________________________________________________
10) Elephants / eat / meat. ___________________________________________________
11) Fish / walk / on land. ___________________________________________________
12) The sun / set / in the east. ___________________________________________________
13) Bees / give milk. ___________________________________________________
14) Caterpillars / turn / into butterflies. _____________________________________________
15) Wool / come / from sheep. ___________________________________________________

12
 2) Complete the sentences with the present simple form of the verbs in the box.

CATCH - COST - ENJOY - FEEL - GO - HAVE - LIVE - STUDY – TRAVEL - UNDERSTAND

1. Ricki has English lessons twice a week.

2. The US President _______________ in the White House.
3. We always _________________ the bus to work at eight in the morning.
4. This bicycle _________________ over $ 500.
5. He __________________ playing computer games with his friends.
6. Most people in France _________________ their summer holiday in July and August.
7. Nigel and Bruce _________________ for their exams in the evenings.
8. The moon ______________ round the earth at 3.683 km per hour.
9. How do you _______________ today? Are you any better?
10. I don’t ___________________ this question. Can you help me?

3) Complete the interview for a school magazine. Use the present simple form of the verbs in
brackets.

4)

13
PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM PRACTICE
1) Complete the sentences with the present participle (-ing form) of the verb in brackets.
1. Please turn the television off. I’m ________________ (try) to study for an exam.
2. We’re ________________ (go) to bed early every day this week.
3. Sorry, I can’t hear you. Someone’s _______________ (make) a lot of noise.
4. David’s in the kitchen. He’s _______________ (get) dinner ready, so come into the garden
and have a drink.
5. They aren’t here at the moment. They’re ________________ (have) lunch, I think.
6. He’s ___________________ (do) a lot of training for the marathon.
7. Is someone __________________ (live) in that house?
8. That ice cream looks delicious. I’m _________________ (die) to try some.
2) Use the present continuous in the sentences below.
1. Don’t rush me. I am working (I/work) as fast as I can.
2. What _____________________ (you/drink)? It looks awful.
3. She __________________________ (still wait) to see the boss.
4. He _______________________ (hurry) to catch his train.
5. Young people _________________ (become) more and more politically aware these days.
6. What __________________ (John / do) nowadays? He ______________ (ride) for the British
cycle team.
7. We _______________________ (enjoy) our holiday very much.
8. What time ________________________ (he / arrive) tomorrow?
9. You can’t believe a word he says. He __________________________ (always / lie).
10. She ___________________________ (run) the 1.500 metres in the next Olympics.
3) Complete the telephone conversation with the present continuous of the verb.

4)

14
USES:

15
STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS

Some verbs are not generally used in continuous forms. They are called stative because they refer to
states (e.g. experience, conditions) rather than to actions. They describe states that are involuntary and
over which the speaker has no control.

Stative verbs include:

● Verbs which express likes and dislikes: like, love, hate, dislike, enjoy, prefer, care, adore,
etc.
e.g., Kathy likes romantic films.
● Verbs of perception: believe, know, notice, remember, forget, recognize, understand,
realise, seem, think, doubt, etc.
e.g., I don't believe a word he’s saying.
● Verbs of the senses: see, hear, feel, taste, look, smell, sound. We often use can or could with
these verbs when we refer to what we see, hear, etc. at the moment of speaking.
e.g. The soup tastes delicious.
John must be in the attic. I can hear his footsteps.
● Some other verbs: be, contain, fit, include, matter, need, belong, cost, owe, mean, own,
appear, want, have (= possess), require, weigh, wish, keep (= continue).
e.g. This book belongs to me.
My uncle owns a hotel.

Dynamic verbs on the other hand, usually refer to actions that are deliberate or voluntary (I’m making
a cake) or they refer to changing situations (He’s growing old), that is, to actions that have a beginning
and an end. Dynamic verbs can be used in progressive as well as simple forms. Compare the following:

Continuous forms Simple forms

Dynamic verbs
I’m looking at you. I often look at you.
I’m listening to music. I usually listen to music in the morning.
Stative verbs
- I love you.
- I hear music in the distance.

Some stative verbs are used in continuous tenses, but there is a difference in meaning. They are
used in continuous tenses when they describe actions and not states. Study the following examples:

1 I think he is lying. (= believe)

I’m thinking about the plan. (= Considering)
2 The food tastes delicious. (=Has a delicious flavour)
He is tasting the food. (is testing the flavour)
3 I can see an airplane in the sky. (= Perceive with my eyes)
I see what you mean. (=Understand)
I’m seeing my doctor tomorrow. (= Am meeting)
4 Susan looks tired. (= Appears)
Mark is looking out of the window. (= Is directing his eyes)
5 This perfume smells nice. (= Has a nice smell)

16
 He is smelling the milk. (= Is sniffing)
6 The baby’s hair feels like silk. (= Has the texture of)
She’s feeling the baby’s forehead. (= Is touching)
7 He is selfish. (=Character – permanent state)
He is being selfish. (= Behaviour – temporary situation)
8 The chicken weighs two kilos. (= Has a weight of)
The butcher is weighing the meat. (= Is measuring how heavy it is)
9 This dress fits you perfectly. (= It is the right size)
We are fitting new locks. (= Are putting in)
10 He appears to be nervous. (= Seems)
He is appearing in a new play. (= Is taking part)
11 He has a sports car. (= Possesses)
He’s having lunch now. (= Is eating – idiom)

Some idioms with have include

Breakfast, lunch, dinner, a tea, a burger, etc.
A bath / shower / swim / party, etc.
HAVE An accident / and experience / a dream, etc.
A baby.
Difficulty / fun / trouble, etc.

NOTE: The verb enjoy can be used in continuous tenses to express a specific preference. e.g.
I’m enjoying this party a lot. (Specific)
BUT: I enjoy going to parties. (in general)

PRACTICE:

1. Indicate whether the underlined verb phrases are stative or dynamic in the context given.
1. This tank holds precisely ten litres.
2. Hold the handle very firmly.
3. I think I hear someone coming.
4. I’d like three tickets, please.
5. Smell this meat. Does it smell bad?
6. I always have coffee in the morning.
7. Does anyone mind if I open the window?
8. Is anyone minding the children while you’re out?

2. Identify the following as stative, dynamic or both. Write examples for each.
1. Understand ____________________________________________________________
2. Arrive ________________________________________________________________
3. Taste _________________________________________________________________
4. Be ___________________________________________________________________
5. Love _________________________________________________________________
6. Jump _________________________________________________________________
7. Possess ______________________________________________________________
8. Write _________________________________________________________________

17
ADVERBS AND EXPRESSIONS OF FREQUENCY (Simple Present)

1)

18
 2) Put the adverbs of frequency in the correct position.
1. A: Do you often go to parties Keith? B: Yes, I go to parties at the weekend. (often)
2. A: Do you wear sports clothes at work? B: No, I do. (never)
3. A: Jack is late again! B: I know! He is late! (always)
4. A: When do you go shopping? B: I do my shopping on Fridays. (usually)
5. A: Does your boss always ask you to work overtime? B: No, he does. (seldom)
6. A: You should listen to your parents’ advice. (always)
3) Choose the correct option.
1. The earth has / is having a population of 6.7 billion people.
2. The climate of the earth becomes / is becoming warmer at the moment.
3. As you move towards the equator, the temperature becomes / is becoming warmer.
4. You live in France now but where do you come / are you coming from originally?
5. My family lives / is living in Nigeria for two years. After that we’ll move to Alaska.
6. Sorry, I can't hear you because I stand / ‘m standing on the platform at the train station.
7. The train comes / is coming into the station now. I'll be home in 10 minutes.
8. This car never starts / is never starting in the winter.
9. How often do you take / are you taking a holiday?
10. Then Do you understand / are you understanding what I'm saying?
4) Complete the article about an Internet businessman. Use the present simple or the present
continuous forms of the verbs.

5) Put the verbs in brackets into the present simple or the present continuous.

19
 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORM

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous

Affirmative Form
● I/you/we/they have (‘ve) left/arrived. ● I/you/we/they have (‘ve) been reading.
My parents have been to Buenos Aires twice. The children have been sleeping since 8.
We’ve never driven a lorry before. I’ve been cooking for two hours.

● He/she/it has (‘s) left/arrived. ● He/she/it has (‘s) been reading.

Anna has lived in London since she was born. It has been raining for hours.
Peter’s bought a new coat. John’s been working very hard recently.
Negative Form
● I/you/we/they have not (haven’t) left/arrived. ● I/you/we/they have not (haven’t) been reading.
My brothers haven’t graduated yet. They haven’t been sleeping recently.
I haven’t finished my homework. I haven't been waiting long.

● He/she/it has not (hasn’t) left/arrived. ● He/she/it has not (hasn’t) been reading.
Anna hasn’t seen Emily for a long time. She hasn’t been talking very long.
The test hasn’t started yet. Alex hasn’t been preparing for an exam.
Interrogative Form
● Have I/you/we/they left/arrived?
● Have I/you/we/they been reading?
Have you ever been to London? Yes, I have. No, I
Have you been running? Yes, I have. No, I haven’t.
haven’t.
What have you been doing?
Where have you been?
● Has He/she/it been reading?
● Has He/she/it left/arrived?
Has he been swimming? Yes, she has. No, she
Has Jane had a holiday this year? Yes, she has.
hasn’t.
No, she hasn’t.
How long has she been learning English?
What has he done?

1) Complete the sentences with the present perfect of the verb in brackets.

1. This is the first time I ________________________ (eat) here. The food is really good.
2. Dave _______________________________ (never win) a prize before. He’s so pleased.
3. ___________________________________ (Jamie/meet) Clara? I think he’d like her.
4. I ______________________________ (not/do) anything like this before. It’s great fun!
5. _______________________________ (you/ever/go) to a football match?
6. My parents __________________________ (not be) here before. It’s their first time.
7. __________________________________ (you / study) this before? You’re very good at it.
8. _______________________________ (Abby / see) the new photo exhibition? She’d love it

2) The parkers have recently won the lottery. As a result, their life has changed. Look at the pictures and
use the verbs in the box to describe the changes.

Put on weight – take up tennis – hire a butler – lose weight – move to a bigger house

20
 – grow a beard – all but new clothes – join the pony club – buy some nice furniture

e.g. Mr. Parker has put on weight

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3)

4) Write a question for each situation.

1. You meet Kate as she is leaving the swimming pool. You say:
Hi, Kate. Have you been swimming (you/swim)?
2. You have arrived a little late to meet Ben who is waiting for you. You say:
I’m sorry I’m late Ben. ________________________________________________ (you/ wait) long?
3. Jane’s little boy comes into the house with a very dirty face and hands. His mother says:
Why are you so dirty? What ______________________________________ (you/do)?
4. You are in a shop and see Anna. You didn’t know she worked there. You say:
HI, Anna. How long _______________________________________ (you/work) here?
5. A friend tells you about his job – he sells phones. You say:
You sell phones? How long _____________________________________ (you / do) that?

5) Read the situations and complete the sentences.

1. It’s raining. The rain starts two hours ago.
It’s __________________________ (rain) for two hours.
2. We are waiting for the bus. We started waiting 20 minutes ago.
We ______________________________________ for 20 minutes.
3. I’m learning Japanese. I started classes in December.
I ______________________________________ since December.
4. Jessica is working in a hotel. She started working there on January 18.
_____________________________________________ since January 18.
5. Our friends always go to Italy for their holidays. The first time was years ago.
__________________________________________________ for years.

21
USES:

22
1) Complete with FOR or SINCE

2) Fill in the gaps with recently, how long, yet, for, 3) Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect
always, ever, already, since, so far or just. or present perfect continuous, using short forms
Sometimes more than one answer is possible. where appropriate.

23
4) Read the situation and complete the sentences. Use the verbs in brackets.

1. Tom started reading a book 2 hours ago. He's still reading it and now he's on page 53.
He has been reading for 2 hours. (read)
he has read 53 pages so far. (read)
2. Rachel is from Australia. She's travelling around Europe. She began her trip 3 months ago.
She _______________________ (travel) for three months.
She ____________________________ (visit) six countries so far.
3. Patrick is a tennis player. He began playing tennis when he was 10 years old. This year he won the
national championship again for the 4th time.
He _______________________________ (win) the national championship four times.
He _______________________________ (play) since he was ten.
4. When they left college, Lisa and Sue started making films together. They still make films.
They _______________________________ (make) films since they left college.
They _______________________________ (made) five films so far.

5) Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect simple or continuous.
1. Where have you been? Have you been playing (you / play) tennis?
2. Look! _______________________________ (somebody / break) that window.
3. You look tired. _______________________________________ (you / work) hard?
4. ____________________________________ (you / ever / work) in a factory?
5. Where's Lisa? _____________________________________________ (where / she / go)?
6. This is a very old book. _____________________________ (I / have it since I was a child.
7. Have you been busy? No, _______________________________________ (I / watch) TV.
8. My brother is an actor. ______________________________ (he / appear) in several films.
9. Sorry I'm late. That's alright ___________________________________ (I / not / wait) long.
10. Are you OK? You look as if _________________________________________ (you / cry).
11. Is it still raining? No, ______________________________________ (it /stop).
12. The children are tired now. _____________________________ (they / play) in the garden.
13. ____________________ (I / lose) my phone. _________________________ (you / see) it.
14. ________________________ (I / read) the book you lent me, but I ________________ (not /
finish) it yet. It's really interesting.
6) Ask questions using the words in brackets, use the present perfect simple or continuous.
1. You have a friend who's learning Arabic. You ask:
(How long / learn / Arabic?) How long have you been learning Arabic?
2. You have just arrived to meet a friend. She's waiting for you. You ask:
(wait / long?) ___________________________________________
3. You see somebody fishing by the river. You ask:
(catch / any fish?) ___________________________________________
4. Some friends of yours are having a party next week. You ask:
(How many people / invite?) __________________________________________
5. A friend of yours is a teacher. You ask:
(How long / teach?)
6. You meet somebody who is a writer. You ask:
(How many books / write?) ______________________________________________
(How long / write / books?) ______________________________________________
7. A friend of yours is saving money to go on a world trip. You ask:
(How long / save?) ______________________________________________
(How much money / save?) __________________________________________________

24
7) Fill in the gaps with have/has been to or have/has gone to. 8) Underline the correct word in bold.

9) Put the verbs in brackets into the correct PRESENT form.

25
26
 SET II: PAST FORMS
PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS
FORM

Past Simple Past Continuous

Affirmative Form
I/he/she/it/you/we/they worked/had
I/he/she/it was + verb with ing
Regular Verbs
We/you/they were working
Mary returned early from school.
They played tennis yesterday.
We studied very hard last week.
I was listening to music yesterday at 5.
He really liked the show.
We were studying French when you called.
Irregular verbs She was cooking pasta.
I went to the cinema last night.
Anna left for school at 8.
Peter wrote ten emails this morning.
They bought a new car last month.

Negative Form

I/you/he/she/it/we/they did not (didn’t) work I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb with ing
We/you/they were not (weren’t) working
He didn’t write her a letter.
They didn’t start the lesson early. I wasn’t studying with Emma.
Anna didn’t pass her biology exam. Terry wasn’t sleeping enough.
I didn’t work yesterday. They weren’t listening to me.
Interrogative Form

Did I /he/she/it/you/we/they work? Was I/ he/she/it + verb with ing

Are we/you/they working?
Did you do your homework? Yes, I did. No, I
didn't. Was she doing it right? Yes, she was. No, she
Did Paul call you yesterday? Yes, he did. No, he wasn’t.
didn’t Were they working when you arrived? Yes, they
were. No, they weren’t.
Where did you go last night? What were you doing yesterday at 8.00?
What time did they go to bed last night? Where was he studying?
When did Anna graduate? What were they reading?

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

All English verbs belong to one of two conjugations: They are either regular verbs or irregular verbs.
Regular verbs are those that form their past tense and past participle by adding –ed, –d or –ied to the
base:
1) Write the past simple of the verbs
in the list in the correct box.

27
Irregular verbs form their past simple and past participle form by a change in the word. A
small number of verbs do not change at all.
2) Fill in the table. Then choose five verbs and make sentences using the past simple.

INFINITIVE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

Become
Begin
Blow
Creep
Dig
Eat
Fall
Feel
Hang
Pay
Ride
Shake
Speed
throw

3) Put the verbs into the correct PAST SIMPLE form.

1. A: Sorry Mum, but I dropped the glass on the floor. B: Never mind. Just be careful next time.
2. A: ___________________________ (you/watch) the horror film last night?
B: Yes, but ______________________ (I / not) enjoy it.
3. A: ___________________________________ (your neighbours / move) house yesterday?
B: Yes, we ___________________________ (help) them move their boxes.
4. A: A train __________________________ (crash) last night.
B: I know. Luckily all the passengers ______________________ (survive).
5. A: Susan ________________________ (not/play) tennis yesterday.
B: I know. She’s playing today instead.
6. A: ___________________________ (you/see) Kate yesterday?
B: Yes, we ___________________ (have) lunch together.

4) Put the verbs in brackets in the correct PAST CONTINUOUS form.

28
USES:

29
30
31
32
33
 PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORM

Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Continuous

Affirmative Form

I/ you/he/she/it/we/they had (‘d) I/you/he/she/it /we/they had (‘d) been reading.

left/arrived.
Anna had been sleeping for an hour when I
They had finished the report when I arrived.
arrived. It had been snowing for hours.
I had heard the news when my friend We had just been talking about my cousin when
phoned. she phoned us.
The film had started when we sat down.
Mark had given me the correct answer.
Negative Form

I/you/ he/she/it /we/they had not (hadn’t) I/you/he/she/it/we/they had not (hadn’t) been
left/arrived. reading.

My brothers hadn’t arrived yet. They hadn’t been sleeping recently.

I hadn’t done my homework. I hadn't been waiting long when he arrived.
Kyle hadn’t tidied the kitchen when his She hadn’t been working in the company long
mom got home. when I met her.

Interrogative Form

Had I/you/he/she/it/we/they left/arrived? Had I/you/ he/she/it/we/they been reading?

Had she already left? Yes, she had. No, Had you been running? Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t.
she hadn’t. What have you been doing?
Had they travelled together before? Yes, Had he been swimming? Yes, she had. No, she
they had. No, they hadn’t. hadn’t.
How long had she been learning English?
Where had they gone?
What had he done?

1)

34
2) Read the situations and write sentences using the past perfect simple.

1) There was a picture lying on the floor.

(It / fall / off the wall) It had fallen off the wall.
2) The people sitting next to you on the plane were nervous.
(They / not / fly / before) They hadn’t flown before.
3) You went back to hometown recently after many years. It wasn’t the same as before.
(It / change / a lot) __________________________________________________
4) Somebody sang a song. You didn’t know it.
(I / not / hear / it / before) _____________________________________________
5) I Invited Rachel to the party, but you couldn’t come.
(She / arrange / to do something else) ____________________________________
6) You went to the cinema last night. You got to the cinema late.
(The film / already / start) ______________________________________________
7) Last year we went to Mexico. It was our first time there.
(We / not / be / there before) ___________________________________________
8) I met Danny last week. It was good to see him again after such a long time.
(I / not / see / him for five years) ________________________________________
9) I offered my friend something to eat, but they weren’t hungry.
(They / just / have / lunch) _____________________________________________
10) Sam played tennis yesterday. He wasn’t very good at it because it was his first game
ever.
(He / never / play / before) __________________________________________

3) Read the situations and write sentences using the past perfect continuous.

1) Tom was very tired when he got home. (He / work hard / all day)
He’d been working hard all day.
2) The children came into the house. They had a football and they were both very tired.
(They / play / football)
_____________________________________________________
3) I was disappointed when I had to cancel my holiday. (I / look / forward to it)
_____________________________________________________
4) Anna woke up in the middle of the night. She was frightened and didn’t know where
she was. (She / have / a bad dream)
_______________________________________________________
5) When I got home, Mark was sitting in front of the TV. He had just turned it off.
(He / watch / a film)
_______________________________________________________
6) The people waiting at the bus stop were getting impatient. The bus was very late.
(They / wait / a long time)
_______________________________________________________

35
USES:

36
4) Say which action happened first. 6) Put the verbs in brackets into the past
Then join them using the word in brackets. perfect or the past perfect continuous.

5) Put the verbs in brackets into the correct

PAST tense.

37
7) Put the verbs in brackets into the 8) Put the verbs in brackets into the
correct PAST tense. correct PAST tense.

9) Identify the tenses, then match them to the correct descriptions.

38
10) Underline the correct tense. 11) Choose the correct answer.

12) Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

39
13) Fill in the gaps with the appropriate 14) Fill in the blanks using any PAST tense.
PAST forms

15) Fill in the blanks with the correct

PRESENT or PAST tense.

16) Fill in the blanks with the correct PRESENT or

PAST tense.

40
 SET III
FUTURE TENSES
We can refer to future actions with the future simple, be going to, the present continuous, the present
simple, future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous.
Future Simple Be Going to
Affirmative Form
Subject + BE + Going to + base form of verb
I/ you/he/she/it/we/they will call.
I am
They will finish the report soon. He/she/it is going to work
I will study for the test. We/you/they are
The film will be fantastic!
Mark will give me the correct answer. I am going to work at a hospital next year.
It’s going to rain.
We’re going to get married in November.
Negative Form

I/you/ he/she/it /we/they will not (won’t) study. I am not + going to + base form
He/she/it is not going to work
My brothers won’t visit me this week. We/you/they are not
I won’t do it!
Delete Kyle won’t clean the kitchen. I’m not going to visit my grandmother.
She isn’t going to cook spaghetti.
They aren’t going to travel to the US.
Interrogative Form

Will I/you/he/she/it/we/they come with us? Am I + going to + base form

Is he/she/it going to work?
Will she do it? Yes, she will. No, she won’t. Are We/you/they
Will they travel with us? Yes, they will. No, they
Are you going to visit The Louvre? Yes, I am. No,
won’t.
I’m not.
Is he going to pay his bills? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t.
Where will they go?
Are they going to do it? Yes, they are. No, they
What will he do?
aren’t.
What are you going to do?
Who is he going to hire?

1) What will life be like in the 21st-century? 2) Write the correct form of going to complete
Look at the prompts and make sentences the sentences.
using will or won’t.
1. People / live longer. ! 1 When are you going to phone (you/phone) her?
People will live longer. 2 They _______________________(not stay) very long.
2. Robots / do most of the work. ! 3 What ___________________ (you/say) to your father?
________________________________ 4 I _____________________ (not pay) anything.
3. People / use electric cars. ✗ 5 _____________________ (we/play) tennis tomorrow?
________________________________ 6 She ___________________ (live) in Mexico next year.
4. Pollution / disappear. ✓ 7 __________________________ (the machine/work)?
________________________________ 8 _________________ (they / have) a holiday this year?
5. People die of serious diseases. " 9 They ________________ (borrow) money from the bank.
________________________________ 10 I ________________________ (not eat) there again.
6. Children / stop going to school. ✗
________________________________
7. People / go on holiday to the moon. !
________________________________
41
USES:

42
43
3) Fill in the FUTURE SIMPLE or 4) Fill in the FUTURE SIMPLE or BE GOING TO.
BE GOING TO form of the verbs.

5) Fill in the gaps with shall, will or the

correct form of be going to.

44
6) Replace the words in bold with will/won’t or
shall I/we, as in the example.

1. Can you buy me some milk please?

Will you buy me some milk please?
2. What do you want me to do with this shopping?
________________________________________
3. I’ve asked Jane to tidy her room, but she refuses
to do it. _________________________________
4. Can you open the door for me please?
________________________________________
5. Do you want me to walk the dog for you?
________________________________________
6. Why don't we go to the theatre tonight?
________________________________________
7. When do you want me to visit next?
________________________________________
8. Please be quiet!
________________________________________
9. Ann is unwilling to talk to me.
________________________________________

7) Put the verbs in brackets into the present simple, 8) Put the verbs in brackets into the future
or future simple. simple, present simple or the present cont.

45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
 SET IV
MOODS

Mood is a grammatical term used to denote the forms that a verb takes to show what work it is
doing (e.g. expressing a statement, a command, a wish, etc. and the manner in which the
action or state is thought of by the speaker.
There are three moods Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive. The one that is by far the most
commonly used is the Indicative. This is the mood used to make statements and ask questions.
All the tenses studied in the previous units are in the indicative mood.
THE INDICATIVE MOOD
The indicative mood is used:

a. To make statements and ask questions. It is used when we speak about a fact, either
affirmatively, negatively or interrogatively.
She is very fond of her mother.
I don't like your pictures.
Have you heard the news?

b. To express suppositions in which the events are treated as if they were facts.
If you study hard, you will not fail the exam.
If he arrives on time, I shall speak with him.
If you don't hurry, we’ll be late for class.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
Form of the imperative

The imperative form is the same as the bare infinitive

Affirmative form (base form of the verb) Wait!

Negative form (Don’t + Base form) Don't wait!
Emphatic form (Do + Base form) Do wait a moment!
Addressing someone (Pronoun + Base form) You wait here!
Imperative + question tag Wait here, will you?

Some common uses of the imperative

We use the imperative for direct orders and suggestions and also for a variety of other
purposes. Stress and intonation, gesture, facial expression and, above all, situation and
context, indicate whether the use of this form is friendly, abrupt, angry, impatient, persuasive,
etc. The negative form is usually expressed by Don't, the full form Do not is used in public
notices. Here are some common uses:

1. Direct commands, Requests and Suggestions.

Follow me.
53
 Shut the door.
Don't worry.
2. Warnings

Look out! There’s a bus!

Don't panic.
Mind your head!
3. Instructions
Use moderate oven and bake for 20 minutes.
4. Prohibitions
Keep off the grass!
Do not feed the animals.
5. Advice (Specially after always or never)
Always answer when you are spoken to!
Never speak to strangers!
6. Invitations
Come and have dinner with us soon.
7. Offers
Help yourself.
Have a biscuit.
8. Expressing Rudeness
Shut up!
Push off!

Uses of the imperative with “DO”

We use do (always stressed) when we particularly want to emphasize what we are saying: e.g.

● When we wish to be polite Do have another cup of tea.

● When we wish to express impatience Do stop talking!
● When we wish to persuade Do help me with my homework.

In response to requests for permission, offers, etc. do and don't can be used in place of a full
imperative.

Shall I switch the lights off? – Yes, do

- No, don’t

54
LET

We commonly use the imperative form LET’S (contraction of Let us) as an auxiliary verb
followed by a bare infinitive when making suggestions for actions that include the speaker.

Let’s take a taxi.

Let’s take a taxi, shall we?
Do let’s take a taxi.

The negative of Let’s in suggestions is: LET’S NOT or DON'T LET’S.

Let’s not argue about it.

Don’t let’s argue about it.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

There are three subjunctive forms of the verb: Present Subjunctive, Past Subjunctive and Past
Perfect Subjunctive.
The present subjunctive of all verbs other than the verb to be is identical in form with the Simple
Present Tense Indicative, except that the third person singular is the same as in all the other
persons. The present subjunctive form of the verb to be is be for all persons. The Past
Subjunctive is identical with the Simple Past Tense Indicative, except that the verb to be has
were for all persons. The Past Perfect Subjunctive is identical in form with the Past Perfect
Indicative.

Uses of the Present Subjunctive

The present subjunctive is used:
a) To express a wish or a prayer: e.g.
God save the Queen.
Heaven help us.
A wish can also be expressed by may: May you be happy all your life.
b) In indirect commands:

The judge decreed that the prisoner be hanged.

The teacher ordered that the students write an essay.
In use b) the subjunctive is often replaced by the subjunctive equivalent SHOULD + THE BARE
INFINITIVE

The judge decreed that the prisoner should be hanged.

The teacher ordered that the students should write an essay.

55
Uses of the Past Subjunctive
The past subjunctive is used:
a) In conditional sentences implying improbability or unreality:
If I were you, I would accept the offer.
If I had money, I would travel around the world.
If you knew him well, you would understand him.
b) After such expressions as “I wish that…” “As if…” “Suppose…”
I wish I were as handsome as he is.
I wish he visited us more often.
Suppose (that) the teacher caught us cheating on the exam.
He ran as if his life depended on it.

Note: The past subjunctive is usually concerned with present time.

It’s a lovely day. I wish I were at the seaside. (NOW)

Uses of the Past Perfect Subjunctive:

The past perfect subjunctive is used to express hypothetical conditions in the past time. There
is usually an implied negative.

If John had worked hard, he would have passed the exam.

If you had asked me, I would have helped you.
It was a lovely day yesterday. I wish I had been at the seaside then.

PRACTICE:

1) Identify mood in the following sentences.

1. Be quiet! ____________________
2. You are not quiet. ____________________
3. The teacher demands that we be quiet. ____________________
4. He wishes we were quiet. ____________________
5. If we had been quieter, we would have understood the problem. _______________

2) Note the position of always and never before imperatives. Put always or never.
Add salt to potatoes when you cook them.
_________________________________________________
1. Check the tyres before you drive a car
_________________________________________________
2. Cook chicken when it’s frozen.
___________________________________________________

56
 3. Put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
___________________________________________________
4. Apologise for things that are not your fault.
___________________________________________________
3) Make sentences beginning with do be or don't be for the following situations. Use
the words and expressions in the box.
Angry - back by midnight – careful - frightened - greedy - jealous - on time - rude - stupid

a. You are a parent; your child is eating too much.

_____________________________________________________________
b. Your child is going to cycle to school through heavy traffic.
_____________________________________________________________
c. You are going to tell somebody that you have damaged their car.
_____________________________________________________________
d. Your fourteen-year-old child is going out to a party.
_____________________________________________________________
e. You are going into a room where a nervous old lady is alone in the dark.
_____________________________________________________________
f. You are arranging to meet somebody who is usually late.
_____________________________________________________________

4) Make these imperatives more polite or more urgent.

1. Have a cup of coffee. Do have a cup of coffee.
2. Make yourself at home. _________________________________________
3. Stop talking! _________________________________________
4. Hurry! _________________________________________
5. Try and ring us. _________________________________________
6. Help me with this letter. _________________________________________
5) Rewrite each request as an imperative + question tag.

1. Will you stop whistling? Stop whistling, will you?

2. Can’t you do something useful? _______________________________________
3. Won’t you stop asking questions? _____________________________________
4. Could you post these letters? ________________________________________
5. Would you hold this bag? ___________________________________________
6. Can you get me more stamps? _______________________________________
7. Won’t you come in? ________________________________________________
8. Will you take a seat? _______________________________________________

6) Write
a) Some advice for people visiting your country.
b) A recipe (instructions for cooking something)
c) Instructions for doing something else. (e.g. using a computer)

57
 SET V
MODAL VERBS
The verbs can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should and ought to are Modal Verbs.
Structurally, modal auxiliaries resemble the auxiliaries be, do and have in some ways and differ
completely from them in others.
SOME WAYS IN WHICH MODALS RESEMBLE “BE”, “DO” AND “HAVE”

1. Formation of the negative

The negative is formed by the addition of NOT after the modal.
Is not = isn’t do not = don’t
Could not = couldn't must not = mustn’t
2. Question formation
Yes/No questions are formed as for be, do and have. We begin with the modal followed by the
subject and then the predicate.

Does she work here?

May we leave early?
In wh-questions:
Where does she work? Why did he leave?
What can we do? When may we leave?

With YES/NO questions, the modal verb used in the answer is normally the same as the one used in
the question:
Did she pass her exam? Yes, she did. / No, she didn’t.
Can you come and see me tomorrow? Yes, I can. / No, I can’t.
Modals also behave like be, do and have in tag questions:
You haven’t finished, have you?
You can’t do it, can you?
3. Formation of Negative questions:
As with be, do and have, we normally use the forms of negative questions.
Isn’t she at home?
Can’t you help me?
SOME WAYS IN WHICH MODALS DIFFER FROM “BE”, “DO” AND “HAVE”
Defective verbs:
Modal verbs are sometimes called defective verbs because they lack forms ordinary full verbs have.
For example:
1. Modals cannot be used as infinitives (compare TO BE, TO HAVE, TO DO).
2. We do not use a to infinitive after modals (compare BE TO, HAVE TO) only the bare infinitive
can be used after modals (except ought to which is always followed by to).
You mustn’t phone him this evening.
3. Modals have no –ing form (compare being, having, doing)

58
 4. Modals have no –s in the third person singular. (Compare is, has, does)
The boss can see you now. (No –s on CAN)
5. Each modal has a basic meaning of its own. By comparison as auxiliaries, BE, DO and HAVE
only have a grammatical function.
6. Modal verbs do not usually have tenses. They can refer to the present or the future, e.g.: I must
go now. (present) You must call me early tomorrow morning (future).

MODAL VERBS ARE USED TO EXPRESS:

ABILITY: CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO
Can is used in the present and future. Could is the past tense of can. We use be able to to form all the
other tenses.
● Can and be able to can express ability in the present.
e.g. Tom can play the guitar.

● Will be able to is used to express ability in the future.

e.g. When you graduate, you will be able to get a job.

BUT we use can when we decide now about something we will do in the near future.
e.g. I haven´t got any money now, but I can pay you tomorrow. (=I decide now about something I will do
tomorrow)

● Could = used to be able to.

Could is used to express ability in the past (repeated past action). We can use was/were able
to with no difference in meaning.
e.g. I could/was able to run fast when I was young.

● Was/were able to = managed to do.

They express ability in the past (single past action). We use was/were able to to show that
someone had the ability to do something in a particular situation in the past.
e.g. Although it was dark, he was able to find his way.

● We normally use could with the verbs see, hear, smell, taste, feel, understand, guess, and
remember.
e.g. She listened carefully, and she could hear people talking in the next door. (NOT … she was able
to hear…).

● In negations we can use couldn´t or wasn´t/weren´t able to with no difference in meaning.

e.g. I couldn´t/wasn´t able to reach him on the phone.

1. Fill in the gaps with can, can´t, could, couldn´t or was/wasn´t able to.
1- I had my hands full, so I …….couldn´t/wasn´t able to……… open the door.
2- When I was young, I ……………………………………………………… stand on my head.
3- Although he felt ill, he …………………………………………. finish all the paperwork.
4- Tony is clever. He …………………………………………………. speak three languages.
5- I ………………………………………………………….. afford that bag. It´s too expensive.
6- Although it was dark, he ……………………………………….to find his way through the woods.
7- I heard his voice calling me, but I ………………………………………………….. see him.

59
 8- We´re busy tonight, so we …………………………………………….…come to the party.
9- When I entered the house, I ………………………………………. smell fresh bread baking.
10- I …………………………………………….…….. drive a car. I learnt it when I was eighteen.

OBLIGATION/ DUTY/ NECESSITY: MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD/OUGHT TO, NEED.

We use must to refer to the present or future.
● Must = it is your duty/ you are obliged to do something.
e.g. You must listen to your teacher.

● Have to = it is necessary to do something.

e.g. We have to be at the airport at 9 o'clock.

● We use must when the speaker decides that something is necessary. We use have to when
somebody else other than the speaker has made the decision.
e.g. I must finish the report by tomorrow. (The speaker decides.)
I have to finish the report by tomorrow. (Somebody else has made the decision.)

● Must and have to have different meanings in questions.

e.g. Must I tidy my room? (= Do you insist that I tidy my room?)
Do I have to tidy my room? (= Is it necessary for me to tidy my room?)
● Have got to has the same meaning as have to and is often used in everyday speech.
e.g. I’ve got to phone Mum tonight.

● We use have to when we need to use other tenses.

e.g. We had to call for the doctor when Aunt Lucy fainted last night.

● Should / Ought express duty. They are less emphatic than Must.
e.g. People should take better care of the environment. / People ought to take better care of the
environment.

● Need = it is necessary to, e.g.: Need I talk to the boss right now?

NOTE:
Need can be used as a main verb or as a modal verb with no difference in meaning. When it is used
as a main verb, it is followed by a to- infinitive and takes -s in the third person singular.
e.g.: Mike needs to buy some new clothes.
We form questions and negations with do/does.
e.g.: You don´t need to do this right now.
Need is used as a modal verb mainly in questions and negations.
e.g.: Need I book a room in advance? (Also: Do I need to book …?) You needn´t give me a lift home. (Also:
you don´t need to …)

ABSENCE OF NECESSITY: NEEDN´T / DON´T HAVE TO / DON´T NEED TO, DIDN´T NEED
TO, NEEDN´T HAVE DONE.
● Needn´t/don´t have to / don´t need to + present infinitive (present or future) = it isn´t
necessary to do something.
e.g. You needn´t/don´t have to/don´t need to work tonight. (= it isn´t necessary for you to work
tonight.)

60
 ● Didn´t need to/didn´t have to = it was not necessary to do something. This structure suggests
that an action did not happen in the past because we knew then that it was not necessary.
e.g. She didn´t need to / didn´t have to take a taxi. (it wasn´t necessary, so she didn´t.)
● Needn´t + bare perfect infinitive = it was not necessary to do something, but it was done. This
structure shows that an action happened in the past, even though it was not necessary.
e.g. You needn´t have bought any bread. I´d already bought some. (= it wasn´t necessary, but you
did.)

PROHIBITION: MUSTN´T / CAN´T

Mustn´t and Can´t = it is forbidden to do something. / You are not allowed to do something. / It is
against the rules or law to do something.

e.g.: You mustn´t / can´t drive over 35 mph. (= It is against the law. You are not allowed to drive over
35 mph.)
2. Fill in the gaps with must, mustn´t or needn´t/don´t have to.
1- A: You …must… study hard to pass the exams.
B: I know. I study every evening.
2- A: You ………………………. Be late for your job interview.
B: I know. I´ll leave early so as to get there on time.
3- A: Shall I collect the children from the party?
B: No, you …………………………………….collect them. Mrs. Shaw is giving them a lift home.
4- A: Do you want me to wait for you after work?
B: No, you ……………………………………..wait. I can walk home by myself.
5- A: You ……………………………………….….. interrupt while people are talking.
B: No. It’s very bad manners to do that.
6- A: My dog has been ill all week.
B: Oh, dear! You …………………………….. take him to the vet.
7- A: It´s Sally´s birthday on Wednesday.
B: I know. I ……………………………………… remember to buy her a present.
8- A: Shall I wash the dishes for you?
B: No, you ……………………………………….. do that. I´ll do them later.
3. Fill in the gaps with needn´t have or didn´t need to and the correct form of the verb in
brackets.
1- I ran all the way to work, but I ………………………………………… (hurry) because I was the
first person to arrive.
2- We ……………………………………….…………. (hurry), so we stopped to have lunch on the
way.
3- I went to college today, but I …………………………………………………. (go) as all the lectures
were cancelled.
4- I …………………………………………………. (ask) the way to Lewes, since I’d been there
before.
5- I …………………………………………………. (buy) any food, so I didn´t go to the supermarket.
6- I …………………………………………………. (buy) any food after all, because we had plenty at
home.
7- I …………………………………………………. (pack) my shorts, as it rained all week.
8- We …………………………………………….. (pack) many things, as we would only be away for
one night.

61
LOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS: MUST / CAN’T
We use MUST to make positive logical assumptions. We use CAN’T to make negative logical
assumptions.

They can’t be at work. She can’t be doing

(=I’m sure they are not her homework.
at work.) (= I’m sure she isn’t
They must be on holiday. doing her homework)
(=I’m sure they are on She must be writing a
holiday.) letter. (I’m sure she is
writing a letter.)
He can’t have done the The drivers can’t have
exercise properly. been driving slowly.
(=I’m sure he hasn’t done (I’m certain they weren’t
the exercise properly.) driving slowly.)
He must have strained They must have been
his back. (=I’m certain he driving too fast.
has strained his shoulder.) (= I’m certain they were
driving too fast.)
Study these examples Tense?
I’m sure he is Spanish. He must be Spanish.
Present inf.
I’m sure you aren’t a doctor. You can’t be a doctor.
I’m sure they’re hiding. They must be hiding.
Present cont. inf. I’m sure they won’t be leaving They can’t be leaving
tomorrow. tomorrow.
I’m certain she has left. She must have left.
I’m sure she didn’t lie. She can’t have lied.
Perfect inf.
I’m certain he hadn’t phoned. He can’t have phoned.

I’m sure they were waiting. They must have been waiting.
I’m certain she has been crying. She must have been crying.
Perfect cont. inf.
I’m certain he hadn’t been He can’t have been trying
trying hard. hard.
4. Complete the following sentences using MUST or CAN’T
1. I’m certain they go to bed early on Monday nights. …They must go to bed early on Monday nights.
2. I’m sure John didn’t stay late at the office. John ………………………………………………………….
3. I’m certain he hasn’t arrived yet. ………………………………………………………………………….
4. I’m certain they are working together. ……………………………………………………………………
5. I’m sure Amy hasn’t finished her homework. …………………………………………………………….
6. I’m certain she was having a bath when I phoned. ……………………………………………………..
7. I’m certain he hasn’t won the prize. ………………………………………………………………………
8. I’m sure she’s looking for a new house. ………………………………………………………………….
9. I’m certain Paul didn’t invite Linda to the party. ………………………………………………………….
10. I’m certain you have been planning the project. ……………………………………………………….
11. I’m sure she was writing a letter. ………………………………………………………………………..
12. I’m certain they hadn’t paid the bill. …………………………………………………………………….
13.I’m sure he had been fixing the pipe. ……………………………………………………………………

62
POSSIBILITY: CAN-COULD/MAY-MIGHT

● Can + present infinitive = general possibility – it is theoretically possible.

This structure is used in affirmative sentences to show that something is possible theoretically
or in general, that is when we are not referring to a specific situation.
e.g. This road can get very busy.
(In general, not in a specific situation.)

● Could/May/Might + present infinitive = it is possible / it is likely / perhaps.

It is used to show that something is likely to happen in a specific situation.

e.g. The roads could/may/might get very busy tomorrow afternoon because there is a
demonstration. (NOT the roads can get…)

NOTE: In questions we use CAN (to talk about general or specific possibility), COULD or
MIGHT. We DO NOT use MAY.
e.g. “I got a bouquet of flowers, but there was no card.”
“ Who CAN/COULD/MIGHT they be from?”

● Could/might + perfect infinitive--- have+ past participle (refers to the past) = it was
possible, but it didn’t happen.

e.g. Yesterday, I left the car unlocked. It could/might have been stolen, but luckily it wasn’t.

Study these examples Tense?

Perhaps she is a nurse. She may be nurse.
Present inf.
It’s possible he will come early. He might come early.
Perhaps they are having a break. They could be having a break.
Present cont. inf.
It’s likely we will be moving house soon. We may be moving house soon.
Perhaps he left yesterday. He might have left yesterday.
It’s possible she has locked the door. She could have locked the door.
Perfect inf.
It’s likely he had gone out. He may have gone out.

It’s possible they were sleeping. They might have been sleeping.
Perfect cont. inf.
Perhaps it has been raining there. It could have been raining there.

5. Rephrase the sentences in as many ways as possible.

1. Perhaps they are at work. …They may/might/could be at work…………………………………

2. Perhaps he is waiting outside. ……………………………………………………………………...
3. It’s possible she will work late today. ………………………………………………………………
4. It’s likely he was driving too fast. …………………………………………………………………...
5. It’s possible they made a mistake. …………………………………………………………………
63
 6. Perhaps he has missed the bus. …………………………………………………………………..
7. It’s possible she has been playing in the snow. …………………………………………………
8. It’s likely we will be leaving tomorrow. ……………………………………………………………
9. It’s likely he will stay here. …………………………………………………………………………
10. Perhaps she had been trying to call you. ………………………………………………………..
11. It’s likely they had seen the film already. …………………………………………………………
12. It’s possible he is studying in the library. …………………………………………………………
Look at the pictures:
6. Write eight sentences expressing logical assumptions
(4 positive and 4 negative)

1. …………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………………………
6. …………………………………………………………………………
7. …………………………………………………………………………
8. …………………………………………………………………………
7. Write 6 sentences expressing possibility.
1. …………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………………………
6. …………………………………………………………………………

PERMISSION: CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT

1. ASKING FOR PERMISSION

● Can / Could / May / Might I….? = Do you / Would you mind if…?
Could and May are more polite than Can. Might is formal. May and Might are used to ask for
permission when we do not the other person very well. We normally reply with: “Certainly” / “Of
course” / “Why not?” / “No, I’m afraid you can’t”
e.g. “Can I use your pen for a minute?” - “Of course.”
“May I see the manager, please? - Certainly.”
2. GIVING PERMISSION
● Can/ May = You are allowed to do something.
Can = informal / May = formal
May is usually used in writing.

64
 e.g. “You may make a phone call here.”
Note: We do not use Could or Might to give permission.
e.g. “Could I borrow your dictionary?” – “Yes, you can. / Yes, you may.” (NOT: Yes, you could.

3. REFUSING PERMISSION
● Can’t / mustn’t / may not = you are not allowed to do something.
May not is formal and is usually used in writing.

e.g. “I’m sorry, but you can’t/ mustn’t use the computer.”
“Customers may not enter this area.”
Note: We do not use couldn’t to refuse permission.
e.g. “Could I stay a little longer?” – “I’m sorry, but you can’t.” (NOT: I’m sorry you couldn’t)

4. TALKING ABOUT PERMISSION

● We use can and be allowed to refer to laws or regulations.
e.g. All Argentinian citizens over the age of 16 can/are allowed to vote. (law)
There is a difference in meaning between may and be allowed to in questions.
Study the following examples:
a) “May I use your phone?” (= Will you allow me to use your phone?)
b) “Are we allowed to use the office phone?” (= What is the rule?)
● We use could or was / were able to say that we had general permission to do something
in the PAST.
We use was/ were allowed to and NOT could, to say that we had general permission to do
something in a particular situation in the PAST.

e.g. “I could/ was allowed to go to parties when I was young.” (I was allowed to go to parties in general)
BUT: I was allowed to go to John’s party last night. (NOT: I could go….as this is a particular
situation.)
8. Fill in the gaps with could or was/ were allowed to.
1. The children …were allowed to… go to the cinema on their own yesterday.
2. When I was young, we ……………………………………… wear whatever we liked to school.
3. Peter ……………………………………………. watch a concert on TV last night, although it was
on quite late.
4. When we were children, we ……………………………………….. play outside until it got dark.
5. Yesterday, we ………………………………………………… bring our favourite toys to school.
6. When Dennis lived with his parents, he …………………………………………………. come in at
whatever time he liked.
9. Underline the correct word(s).
a. A: Could I sleep at my friend’s house tonight?
B: Yes, of course you could / can.
b. I could / was allowed to go to the disco last night.
c. A: Can / Might I have a biscuit please, Mum?
B: Of course. Help yourself.
d. A: Excuse me, sir. May / Am I allowed to leave the room?

65
 B: Yes, but don’t be too long.
e. A: Must/ Might I borrow these files for a moment, sir?
B: Certainly. Take whatever you need.
f. A: Might I use your pen?
B: Of course you may/ might.
g. A: May I / Am I allowed to park in the company car park?
B: Of course you are!

REQUESTS: CAN/COULD/WILL/ WOULD/ MAY/ MIGHT

● Can/ Could/ Will/ Would you … ?

We use this structure to ask someone to do something for us. Can and will are informal. Would
and could are more polite than can and will.
e.g. “Can /Will you get me a glass of water?” (informal)
“Could/ Would you type these e-mails form me, please?” (more polite)
We normally reply with: “Yes, I’ d (would) be happy to.” / “Yes, I’d be glad to”/ “Certainly”/ “ Of
course” / “ I’m sorry but I can’t”.
● May / Might / Can / Could I ….?
We use this structure to ask for information politely. Might is formal and it is not often used.
e.g. “Can / Could/ May I have a piece of that cake, please?”
We normally reply with: “Certainly” / “Yes, certainly” / “Of course” / “Yes, of course”

OFFERS: I’LL - SHALL /CAN / COULD

● I’ll = I’m willing to do something (informal)

e.g. “You look tired. I’ll do the ironing for you.”
● Shall / Can /We … ? - Could I …? = Would you like me/ us to …? Do you want me / us to
…?

66
 e.g. “Shall / Can /Could I give you a hand with the preparations?”

SUGGESTIONS: SHALL / CAN/ COULD

● Shall I / We …? Why don’t we …? / How about …?

I / we can/ could What about …? / Let’s …
e.g. “Shall we go to the theatre tomorrow night?” – “I’d rather not. We can / could go to the
cinema instead.
● We use Shall in questions when we are asking for suggestions or instructions.
e.g. “Where shall I put these flowers?” - “In this vase.”

ADVICE: SHOULD / OUGHT TO

● Should/ Ought to + present infinitive = I advise you to / You had better do something.
e.g. “It’s late. You should go/ ought to go home as soon as possible.”
● We use must to give strong advice. Compare the following examples:
e.g. “You must follow a healthy diet, the doctor said to me.” (an order which is likely to be obeyed)
“You should /ought to follow a healthy diet, my friend said to me.” ( a piece of advice which
may or may not be followed)

CRITICISM: SHOULD/OUGHT TO

67
 ● Should/ought to + perfect infinitive= it would have been better if you had…

We use these structures to criticise someone else’s actions.

e.g. You should have come/ought to have come to me for help. (But you didn’t.)
10. Fill in shall or will.
1. A: Shall I help you with the washing-up?
a. B: No, I can manage by myself.
2. A: ……………………….…..we have pizza for dinner tonight?
a. B: I’d rather have steak.
3. A: ……………………..………..you carry this for me, please?
a. B: Certainly. It looks heavy.
4. A: What ……………………….we buy for Bob’s birthday?
a. B: I think he’d like a book.
5. A: ……………………………………………………you answer the phone, please?
a. B: Of course.
6. A: Where ……………………………………….we sit in the classroom?
a. B: Next to the window.
7. A: …………………………… you take the rubbish outside for me, please?
a. B: Yes, in a minute.
8. A: ……………………………………………. we have a barbecue next weekend?
a. B: Yes, if the weather’s fine.
9. A: …………………………………………… you babysit for me tonight?
a. B: I’m sorry, but I can’t.
10. A: …………………………………………… we try this new recipe tonight?
a. B: Yes. We’ve got all the ingredients.
11. Read the situations and complete the sentences with should/ shouldn’t, ought
to/ought not to and the correct tense of the infinitive.

1. Your friend didn’t see a film on TV last night. You saw it and it was very good.
You …should/ ought to have seen… (see) the film.
2. Liz bought an expensive jacket yesterday and now she hasn´t got enough money for the rest
of the week.
She …………………………………………………….. (buy) such an expensive jacket.
3. Your sister eats a lot of junk food which is bad for her health.
You …………………………………………………….. (eat) so much junk food.
4. Mr Jackson had a stiff back. He lifted some heavy boxes and now his back is worse.
He ……………………………………………………….. (lift) those heavy boxes.
5. Tony always drives too fast. Yesterday, he was arrested for speeding.
He ……………………………………………………….. (drive) more slowly.
6. Sally is clumsy. She is always breaking things.
She ……………………………………………………….. (be) more careful.
7. Paul didn’t do his homework. The teacher punished him.
He ……………………………………………………….. (do) his homework.
8. Amy borrowed her brother’s car without asking. He was very angry.
She ……………………………………………………….. (borrow) his car without asking.

68
12. Underline the correct word(s) in bold.

1. A: I found a briefcase in the rain.

B: You ought to/ can take it to the police station as soon as possible.
2. A: Did you get some money from the bank?
B: No, I didn’t need to/ needn´t. I had enough in my wallet.
3. A: Sorry, I’m late.
B: You should/might wear a watch.
4. A: Couldn’t/May I speak to Claire, please?
B: Just a moment, please. I’ll call her.
5. A: We could/might go out for a meal this evening if you like.
B: Oh yes that would be nice.
6. A: I wonder if Paul and Jim got lost.
B: They can’t/mustn’t have got lost because I gave them a map.
7. A: Could/Would I use your telephone, please?
B: Yes, of course.
8. A: Was the exam very difficult?
B: Yes, but I can/ was able to answer all the questions.
9. A: We mustn’t/needn’t go shopping this week. We’ve got plenty of food.
B: Alright. We´ll go next week instead.
10. A: Should/May I sit down, please?
B: Yes, of course. Make yourself at home.
11. A: When will/shall I visit you?
B: You can/ must call in tomorrow if you like.
12. A: Helen should be here by now.
B: She ought to/ could have missed the train.

13. Match the items in column A to their synonyms in column B.

A B
1. You mustn’t… You are supposed to… ______
2. You can’t be … It wasn’t necessary for us to … (but we did). ______
3. You needn’t… Let’s… ______
4. They ought to… He managed to… ______
5. She didn’t need to… They had better… ______
6. You should… It is forbidden… ___1__
7. May I … I’m sure they are… ______
8. We needn’t have… Do you mind if I…? ______
9. He was able to… You are to… ______
10. Shall we… It isn’t necessary for you to… ______
11. You must… I’m certain you aren’t… ______
12. They must be… It wasn’t necessary for her to… ______

69
14. Rephrase the following sentences in as many ways as possible.

1. It is possible that Sue will be late this evening.

Sue might/may/could be late this evening. Sue is likely to be late this evening.
2. I’m sure David isn’t going to the party tonight.
_________________________________________________________________________
3. The guests are supposed to arrive at 8 o’clock.
_________________________________________________________________________
4. It wasn’t necessary for Toby to go to school today.
_________________________________________________________________________
5. I advise you to book a table in advance.
_________________________________________________________________________
6. They are obliged to wear helmets at work.
_________________________________________________________________________
7. You are to wait here until the manager arrives.
_________________________________________________________________________
8. Steve managed to repair the bike after trying for two hours.
_________________________________________________________________________
9. Perhaps we will go to Italy for a holiday next summer.
__________________________________________________________________________
10. We are obliged to wear a uniform for school.
_________________________________________________________________________
11. You aren’t allowed to run in the corridors.
_________________________________________________________________________
12. How about inviting some friends over to dinner.
_________________________________________________________________________
13. It isn’t necessary for you to buy me a present.
_________________________________________________________________________
14. Do you mind if I use your telephone?
__________________________________________________________________________
15. Would you like me to clean the windows for you?
__________________________________________________________________________
16. How about going for a walk this afternoon?
__________________________________________________________________________

15. Answer the questions using a suitable modal verb.

1- Are the men criminals? They may be criminals.

2- Are they trying to escape? __________________________________
3- Are they in the countryside? ________________________________
4- Is it a cloudy day? _________________________________________
5- Is this their own boat? _____________________________________
6- Are they going to a hiding place? _____________________________
7- Are the police chasing them? _________________________________
70
71
72
73
 SET VI
THE SENTENCE

No discussion of the sentence is possible without an understanding of the terms finite verb,
phrase, clause, and sentence.

FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB PHRASES

The verb forms that can form the predicate by themselves are finite verbs; the ones that cannot
are non-finite verbs.

Finite verbs or verb phrases have:

a) Tense distinction: He studies English

He studied English when he was in high school.
He will study English at university.
b) There is person and number concord between the subject and the finite verb. Concord is
particularly overt with the verb TO BE: I am/he is/you are, etc. With most lexical verbs concord
is restricted to a contrast between 3rd and non-3rd person singular present simple verb forms:
He reads the paper every morning. They read the paper every day.
c) Finite verb phrases have mood. In contrast with the “unmarked” Indicative mood, we
distinguish the “marked” moods Imperative and Subjunctive.
Be quiet! Listen to me. Don’t talk to him again. God save the Queen. FINITE

The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (to call), the -ING participle (calling) and the
– ed participle/past participle (called/done).

FINITE VERB PHRASES NON-FINITE VERB PHRASES

He smokes heavily. To smoke like that must be dangerous.
He is working. I found him working.
He had been offended before. Having been offended before, he was
sensitive.

NOTE: All verb phrases beginning with a modal verb are finite.
You must be able to speak Russian fluently. She should arrive soon. They can’t swim
very well. Perhaps I could see you tomorrow.

PRACTICE: Indicate whether the underlined verb phrases are finite or non-finite in the
context given.

1. I didn’t mean to step on your foot.

2. We expect to get a loan from the bank.
3. Mary admitted lying about her age.
4. Have you ever considered travelling around the world?
74
5. Come here at once!
6. Viewed from the distance, it resembled a cloud.
7. I would like to know the answer.
8. I avoid eating chocolate.
9. Turning the corner, I saw a tile fall off the roof.
10. The students delayed returning to class after the break.
11. I can’t bear to see homeless people on the street.
12. He regretted going to the interview in shorts.
13. I don’t recall giving anyone this information.
14. Although built years ago, it was in good order.

✓ A phrase is a group of words which can be part of a sentence. A phrase may take the form
of:

● A NOUN phrase: e.g. a tube of toothpaste

● A PREPOSITIONAL (or adverbial) phrase: e.g. over the bridge
● A VERB phrase: e.g. built in stone or a combination of verbs e.g. will tell, have done,
will be playing.
● A QUESTION WORD + INFINITIVE: e.g. what to do, when to go

✓ A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject + finite verb (+ complement or object if

necessary).

A sentence which contains one clause is called a simple sentence.

Stephen apologized at once.

Or it may contain more than one clause, in which case it is either a compound sentence

Stephen realized his mistake and (he) apologized at once.

or a complex sentence.

When he realized his mistake, Stephen apologized at once.

✓ A sentence can take any of four forms.

● A statement: The shops close at night. He didn't do it.

● A question: Does she work here?
● A command: Shut the door!
● An exclamation: What a slow train this is!

A SENTENCE IS A COMPLETE UNIT OF MEANING

When we speak, we often say things like All right! Good! Want any help? These are “complete
units of meaning”, but they are not real sentences because they do not contain a finite verb.
Similarly, we can’t say e.g. “Is tired” because we need a subject: He is tired.

75
 1. Put a tick (!) besides real sentences.

2. Made in Germany. ________

3. This car was made in Germany. ________
4. To write a letter. ________
5. Standing in the rain. ________
6. I want to write a letter. ________
7. Is tall. ________
8. The train has arrived. ________
9. Sit down please. ________
10. You can’t park here. ________
11. She seems. ________

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE

Almost every sentence consists of two major parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject
tells us what the topic is (it tells us who or what is or does something), and the predicate tells
us what the subject is or does.

SENTENCE
SUBJECT PREDICATE
They drove him away in a police car.
We live in London

The SUBJECT of the sentence:

Basic word order in an English sentence:

Although variations are possible, the basic word order in a sentence that is not a question or
command is usually:

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT ADVERBIALS

MANNER PLACE TIME
I bought a hat yesterday.
The children ran home.
The taxi driver shouted at me angrily.

Categories functioning as subject of the sentence:

The subject of the sentence may be a noun or a noun equivalent:

● Adjective The rich must help the poor.

● Pronoun We haven’t seen her.
● Verb Singing is her favourite pastime.
● Phrase When to go was the problem.
● Clause Whether he has signed the contract doesn't matter.

76
ANTICIPATORY “IT”

Sometimes sentences beginning with it continue with an infinitive, a gerund or a noun

clause. It is possible to begin such sentences with an infinitive or a gerund, but English
speakers generally prefer it.

It’s pleasant to lie in the sun. (To lie in the sun is pleasant.)
It’s pleasant lying in the sun. (Lying in the sun is pleasant.)
It's a shame that Tom isn’t here. (That Tom isn’t here is a shame.)
It doesn't matter when we arrive. (When we arrive doesn't matter.)

The true subject in the sentences beginning with it is the infinitive, gerund, or noun clause
and it is the formal subject (Preparatory to the subject).

It as a preparatory subject can combine with:

● Adjectives: e.g. difficult, easy, important, vital, etc.
It is easy to make mistakes.
● Nouns: e.g. fun, a pity, a pleasure, a shame, etc.
It’s a pleasure for us to be here.
It’s fun to be here.
It's a pity that we have to leave so early.
● Verbs: e.g. appear, happen, look, seem.
It appears that he forgot to sign the letter.
It now looks certain that the fire was caused by a cigarette end.

Change the following sentences so that each one begins with it.
1. Learning English is not easy. It is not easy learning English.
2. Learning new words every day is important. __________________________________
3. Studying with Mr Nayland is very rewarding. __________________________________
4. To pay so much money for a car that is old is foolish. _______________________________
5. To drive so fast it is dangerous. __________________________________
6. To be able to speak a foreign language is often helpful. _______________________________
7. To blame Rocky for that mistake is unfair. __________________________________
8. To explain this matter to him will be difficult. ____________________________________
9. To get upset about small things is silly. ______________________________________
10. To say no to people is hard. ______________________________________

Put the sentences together using “it”.

1. He wasn’t there. This surprised me. ___________________________________
2. John never talked to her. This worried her. ___________________________________
3. She will be told immediately. This is essential. ___________________________________
4. The children should get to bed early. This is important. _____________________________
5. Wolves attack people. This is not true. ___________________________________
6. She stole money. This shocked me. ___________________________________
7. He can’t come. This is a pity. ___________________________________
8. She’s got some money saved. This is a good thing. _______________________________
77
 9. INTRODUCTORY THERE

An English sentence like A book is on the table is possible but uncommon. The natural way
of putting it is to begin the sentence with an unstressed there and thus postpone the indefinite
subject (A book): There’s a book on the table. This is called a sentence with introductory
there.

All the main verb patterns in English can be turned into such sentences with there, so long as
the subject is indefinite, and the verb phrase contains be.
A bus is coming. There’s a bus coming.
Something must be wrong. There must be something wrong.
Someone was at the door. There was someone at the door.

Change the following sentences by beginning with “there is” or “there are”.
1. A lot of trees are in the park. There are a lot of trees in the park.
2. Several people are waiting to see Dr. Taylor. ______________________________
3. A letter for you is waiting the mailbox. __________________________________
4. A storm is approaching. _______________________________________
5. Two policemen are on the corner. _____________________________________
6. Two tickets to the new show are waiting for you at the box office.
_________________________________________________

Complete the following sentences with “it” or “there”.

1. __________________ a letter for you in the hall table.
2. __________________ are several Germans in our English class.
3. __________________ is hard to learn a foreign language in such a short time.
4. __________________ are a lot of beautiful homes on this street.
5. __________________ is a shame that you can’t come with us.
6. __________________ is someone at the door, isn’t there?
7. __________________ is very unpleasant to work in this cold room.
8. __________________ is dangerous to drive so fast.
9. __________________ is no use complaining now.
10. __________________ is worth visiting the Lake District.

THE PREDICATE
Sentences have subjects and predicates. The predicate of the sentence is the word or group
of words that tells us something about the subject. The essential part of the predicate is the
verb. The predicate of every sentence contains a verb part and a completer part. The type of
completer that is needed depends on the type of principal/lexical verb. There are three types
of lexical verb: transitive, intransitive and linking.

78
A TRANSITIVE verb is a verb that must be followed by an object to complete the meaning of
the verb. The verb usually expresses some kind of physical or mental action that is transmitted
from the subject to the object. That is why it is called transitive.
OBJECT
Scientists of the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite on October 4, 1957.
The whole world learned a new word that day.
The Russians used the word sputnik for satellite.

An INTRANSITIVE verb is a verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning. It
usually expresses motion and is often followed by an adverbial.
Adverbials express when, where, why, under what condition, how, and so on, something takes
place.

A bomb has exploded. (No adverbial)

Something happened yesterday.
The car stopped suddenly.

Quite often the same verb can be used transitively or intransitively.

INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE
The bell rings. The waiter rings the bell.
The window broke with the frost. The burglar broke the window.
The door opened. Tom opened the door.
My watch has stopped. The driver stopped the car and got out.

A LINKING verb is a verb that must be followed by a complement to complete its meaning. As
the name suggests, the main function of a linking verb is to link the subject to the complement.
The linking verb by itself does not have much meaning, but the linking verb and the complement
together describe the state of the subject.
The complement to a linking verb may be a noun or an adjective.

The main linking verb is BE. Some other linking verbs are look, sound, feel, smell,
taste, become, end up, turn, get, grow, stay, remain, keep, seem, appear,
prove, turn out, cost, weigh, total and equal, act.

Some fixed expressions with linking verbs +adjectives include go crazy /go mad, go wrong,
go bald, come true, come alive, grow old, fall asleep, fall silent and fall ill.

Examples:

● William is excited about his promotion.

● She appears upset about the announcement.
● The eggs smell rotten.

79
 ● Your plans for the wedding sound nice.
● You look exhausted after studying all night.
● Tom acted nervous when the teacher found the note.
● The audience fell silent when the conductor walked on stage.
● Dreams come true when we believe in them.
● The crowd stayed calm in spite of the imminent threat.
● All the children seem satisfied with the bouncy castle.
● The cinnamon rolls taste heavenly.
● Building the house proves difficult for them.
● The spectators remained silent after the injury on the field.
● The theater gets dark when the show is about to begin.
● Some couples are lucky enough to grow old together.
● No one likes the idea of going bald.
● Be careful what you wish for - it might come true.
● The town really comes alive in the summer.

PRACTICE:

1) Indicate whether the underlined verb phrases are transitive, intransitive or linking in the
context given.

a. I can’t walk any further. My leg is hurting badly.

b. He had made a great mistake.
c. Organic food is natural.
d. Show me your passport.
e. The young man was going mad.
f. You aren’t looking in the right direction.
g. Mary is looking after the neighbour’s cat.
h. Tom looks very tired today.
i. The door closed.
j. Jane closed the window.
k. She gets tired very quickly.
l. The class begins at 5 o’clock.
m. He began his speech with a humorous story.
n. Jane and Tom went to the cinema last night.
o. My grandpa went bald very young.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS

A direct object refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb. It comes
immediately after a transitive verb.
Please don’t annoy me.
Mary threw the ball over the wall.

80
An indirect object usually refers to the person who “benefits” from the action expressed in
the verb. Someone you give something to or buy something for. It comes immediately after the
verb.
Throw me the ball.
He bought his father a present.
That will teach them a lesson.
ORDER
The indirect object always follows the verb and usually refers to a person:
The firm gave Sam a gold watch.

Sam is an indirect object. However, the direct object can come after the verb if we wish to
emphasize it. When this is the case, the indirect object is replaced by a prepositional phrase
beginning with to or for.
The firm gave a gold watch to Sam.
They bought a beautiful gold watch for Sam.
The indirect object does not have to be a person:
I gave the car a wash.
If the direct object is a pronoun (very often it or them) it normally comes immediately after the
verb. The indirect object is replaced by a prepositional phrase (with TO or FOR).
They gave it to Sam. They gave it to him.
They bought them for Sarah. They bought them for her.

Note: The direct object is by far the more frequent kind of object and, (with certain
outstanding exceptions) it must always be present if there is an indirect object in the
sentence. He has given the girl an apple.
I.O. D.O.
To find out which part of the sentence is the direct object, you can ask a WHAT or WHO
question.
George finished his work.
WHAT did George finish? His work is the direct object.
I knew George Lamb.
WHO did you know? George Lamb is the direct object.
Put an object (a pronoun or a noun) after these verbs only when possible.
1. The books contain ____________________________________
2. The train has arrived ____________________________________
3. The phone rang ____________________________________
4. Someone is singing ____________________________________
5. Who opened ____________________________________
6. The door opened ____________________________________
7. My foot hurts ____________________________________
8. We sat down ____________________________________
9. You need ____________________________________
10. I began ____________________________________
81
 Complete the sentences using the right order of the words in brackets.
1. You must declare (the customs / this camera). ___________________________________
2. Who suggested (this idea / you)? ______________________________________
3. He confessed (his crime / the police). ____________________________________
4. I have never admitted (this /anyone). ____________________________________

COGNATE OBJECT
A cognate object is an object already implied more or less in the verb itself. It is the only object
that an intransitive verb can have. E.g.
He lived a happy life.
He died a sad death.
The girl laughed a merry laugh.
He slept a peaceful sleep and dreamt a happy dream.

COMPLEMENTS
As recently considered, verbs like be and seem are linking verbs. They cannot have an object.
A linking verb is a verb that must be followed by a complement to complete its meaning.

In He is ill. She seems tired. etc. the words ill and tired tell us about he and she. They are
the complement. What is the main function of the linking verb?
A complement may be:

✓ An adjective Frank is clever.

✓ A noun Tom is an architect.
✓ An adjective + noun Anna is a beautiful woman.
✓ A pronoun This book is mine.
✓ An adverb of place or time The meeting is here. The meeting is at 2.30.
✓ A prepositional phrase Alice is like her father.

VERBS OF COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE PREDICATION

A verb of complete predication is a verb that DOES NOT require a complement. There are
two types:

✓ An intransitive verb of complete predication is a verb that makes complete sense by

itself.
Birds fly. Fish swim.
The speaker talked. The audience listened.

✓ A transitive verb of complete predication is a verb that together with its object makes
complete sense.

She teaches English.

The boy hit the dog.

82
A verb of incomplete predication is a verb that REQUIRES a complement to complete its
meaning. There are two types:

✓ An intransitive verb of incomplete predication requires a word or group of words to

complete its meaning. What comes after the verb is called SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
because it relates to the subject of the sentence.

This apple tastes sour.

S.C.
That music sounds too loud.
S.C.
My neighbour is very tall.
S.C.

✓ A transitive verb of incomplete predication takes, besides the object, an OBJECTIVE

COMPLEMENT that completes its meaning and which is related to the object. That
complement may complete, add, or change the meaning of the verb.

The class elected him president.

D.O O.C.
He likes his coffee strong.
D.O O.C.
This noise is driving me crazy.
D.O O.C.
An objective complement may be:

✓ A noun They called the baby Richard.

✓ An Adjective The boy set the bird free.
✓ A prepositional phrase His threats filled her with terror.
✓ A clause You have made me what I am.

Complete the sentences using a different complement for each. Say whether
you have used and noun, an adjective, an adjective + noun, etc.

1. My neighbour is very _____________________________

2. These apples taste ______________________________
3. The children are ________________________________
4. That music sounds ______________________________
5. Your mother seems ______________________________
6. I want to be a _______________________________ when I leave school.

Analyse the following sentences. Separate the sentence components with slashes.
Put an S over the subject, a V over the verb, a DO over the direct object, and an IO
over the indirect object, if there is one. The phrases telling where, when, how long and
why are adverbials. Place an A over them.

83
 e.g.
A S V IO DO
Last week / Michael / showed / us / how to prepare a healthy snack.

1. Last week Michael taught us how to make a fruit leather.

2. He told us to buy overripe and bruised fruit on sale.
3. We bought peaches, apricots, and strawberries for him.
4. He showed us how to cut up the fruit.
5. Then he put it through a food mill.
6. He put the fruit in a large pot.
7. He asked me to add 1 tablespoon of honey per pound of fruit.
8. He heated the mixture.
9. He stirred it until it boiled.
10. Then he cooked mixture for three minutes.
11. He showed us how to prepare the paper plates to dry the fruit.
12. He gave us plastic wrap to cover the plates.
13. After stretching the plastic around the plate, we taped it to the back.
14. He told us the plastic had to be tight and flat.
15. We spread a thin layer fruit on each plate.
16. We placed the plates covered with cheesecloth, in a shadowbox to dry in the sun.
17. We brought the plates inside at night.
18. He explained to us that it would take about two days for the fruit to dry.
19. After three days Michael brought the dry fruit leather to us.
20. We had prepared ourselves a real treat!
OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS
1) Indicate whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object, the
indirect object, the subject complement, or the object complement.
1. Will someone get a doctor, quickly!
2. George and Paul both became famous doctors.
3. Do you call yourself a doctor?
4. May I call you a taxi?
5. Call me Tom.
6. It’s so cold. I can’t get warm.
7. His mother-in-law was driving him mad.
8. He had made a great mistake.
9. Show me your passport.
10. I didn’t tell her the secret.

84
PASSIVE VOICE

85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
HAVE SOMETHING DONE

93
94
7 Rewrite each sentence using have something
done.

Cosmetic surgery which used to be only for film

stars, has recently become very popular among
the population as a whole.

a. Surgeons remove people’s scars and

blemishes.
People have scars and blemishes removed.
b. They also lift people’s faces in order to look
younger.
________________________________________
c. In a recent poll, many people admitted that
surgeons had altered their noses.
In a recent poll, ________________________
_____________________________________
d. Surgeons had also reshaped the eyes of
several people.
_____________________________________
e. Doctors has also thickened one woman’s lips.
_____________________________________
f. Psychologists are worried that so many young
people want doctors to change their appearance.
Psychologists are worried ________________
_____________________________________
g. So, if you’re interested on asking a doctor to
perform an operation, think again.
So, if you’re thinking of __________________
_____________________________________
h. Plastic surgery can also ruin people’s lives.
_____________________________________

95
REPORTED SPEECH

96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
 SET VII
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

A sentence that consists of just one main clause is called a SIMPLE SENTENCE. It has only
one FINTE VERB, even though it may have phrases that contain other verb forms.
Examples:
● John works here.
● The boy working here is my friend.
● I went to the store to buy some bread.
● Having had an accident, she drives more carefully.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more main clauses (clauses of
equal importance). These main clauses may be joined in one of three ways:

1. With a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (and, but, or, so, yet, for, nor)
Examples:
• We lived in a small apartment, AND my aunt lived with us. AND = addition
• We didn’t have much money, BUT we always had enough. BUT = contrast
• I could play with my cousins, OR I could play with my friends. OR = choice
• There were a lot of children, SO I always had someone to play with. SO = result
• There was no park nearby, YET we always found places to play. YET= concession
• We were happy, FOR we had one another’s love. FOR = reason

Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs. They are called CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
These pairs of conjunctions may be used to join either clauses or smaller grammatical units.
The structures that follow them must be parallel.

Examples:
● EITHER I could live in a single room, OR two other students and I could share an
apartment.
● NEITHER is he dependable, NOR is he trustworthy.
● I could NEITHER pay all my expenses myself, NOR expect my parents to pay them.
● NOT ONLY is he dependable, BUT ALSO, he is trustworthy.
● NOT ONLY is he dependable, BUT he is ALSO trustworthy.

2. With a semicolon (;)

Examples:
● We were happy; we liked to be together.
● Cowards die many times before their deaths; the brave man dies only once.
● Mary lives in Canada; Ralph lives in Russia.

3. With a SEMICOLON and a CONNECTOR. Connectors, often called conjunctive

adverbs, are used to connect main clauses to make compound sentences. The principal

106
 connectors are: HOWEVER, THEREFORE, OTHERWISE, MOREOVER,
NEVERTHELESS, FURTHERMORE, HENCE, ALSO, CONSEQUENTLY, BESIDES,
ACCORDINGLY, MEANWHILE.

Examples:
● Alice moved to New York; HOWEVER, her mother stayed in Boston.
● You have disobeyed me; THEREFORE, I will not help you again.
● Harrison is kind; MOREOVER, He is generous.
● Television is entertaining; FURTHERMORE, it is instructive.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Complex sentences usually connect ideas of unequal importance. They are formed by joining
an independent clause with a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause cannot stand by itself
as a sentence. When an independent clause forms part of a sentence it is called the MAIN
CLAUSE.
Example:
Before I took the test, I was a little nervous.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

We can determine the function of a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE in relation to the main clause or
to another clause by asking:

● Does it qualify a noun in the main clause or in another subordinate clause? Is it an

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE?

AN ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE (or relative clause) is a subordinate clause used as an adjective.

Like single-word adjectives, adjectival clauses describe and modify nouns.

● Does it provide the main clause or another subordinate clause with a SUBJECT,
OBJECT or COMPLEMENT? Is it a NOUN CLAUSE?

A NOUN CLAUSE is a subordinate clause used in the same way as a single-word noun.
Single-word nouns have many different functions in sentences; therefore, noun clauses have
many different functions (subject of a sentence, object of a sentence, object of a preposition,
complement of the adjective, etc.)

● Does it modify the verb in the main clause or in another subordinate clause? Is it an
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE?

AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE is a subordinate clause used as an adverb; therefore, it can modify

a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

107
PRACTICE: Identity the following sentences as (S) simple, (C) compound, or (C)
complex.

1. Folk dancing can be a lot of fun.

2. I'd love to see a play tonight; however, I've got an important test tomorrow.
3. The young woman was in trial for murder, but the jury said she wasn't guilty.
4. I knew that he was here.
5. The students said that the woman at the travel agency was very helpful.
6. Which dictionary do you prefer?
7. The law gravitation was discovered in 1687.
8. Pure radium resembles common table salt.
9. The silkworm is not a worm; on the contrary, it is a Caterpillar.
10. Capital punishment is morally wrong.
11. John thinks that capital punishment is morally wrong.
12. There was an earthquake in Italy last week.
13. Anyone who believes everything he hears is a fool.
14. John will get a job as soon as he graduates from the University.
15. Good research requires a lot of information.
16. Many people like spy novels, but there haven't been many good ones lately.
17. I’ll lend you 100 pounds until next month.
18. Mary doesn't cook very well, and her husband doesn't either.
19. Mark wants a degree in economics, not history.
20. Ted broke his ankle last week; therefore, he cannot play soccer for several months.
21. We may go to a movie, or we may see a play.
22. Our new secretary, who can type faster than anyone I have ever met, has completely
reorganized our office.
23. Junko is always in a hurry.
24. Napoleon originated the idea of placing odd and even numbers on the houses on
different sides of the street.
25. Although Ben is quite tired, he must stay awake until he finishes his homework.
26. The alarm was raised when the fire was discovered.
27. I took the shoes back to the shop and complained about them.
28. Sit down please.
29. I have cooked a meal for you, and I hope you enjoy it.
30. They are the people whose cars were stolen.
108
 SET VIII
RELATIVE CLAUSES (adjectival clauses)

An adjectival clause, also called a relative clause, is a subordinate clause used as an

ADJECTIVE. Like single-word adjectives, adjective clauses describe and modify nouns. If the
adjective is a single word, it is usually found either before the noun or after a linking verb, but
if the adjective is a phrase or a clause, it comes immediately
after or as close as possible to the noun it describes.

Examples:

Single word-noun adjective Adjective clause

I saw a pretty house. (before the noun) I saw a house that was very pretty.
(after a noun)

The house is pretty. (After linking

verb)

THE TERMINILOGY OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

The connecting words, WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH and THAT are called RELATIVE
PRONOUNS.

● Use WHO for people

The man WHO lives next door is a Professor.

● Use WHOM (the objective form of who) for people

He is one Police Officer WHOM I respect very much.

● Use WHOSE (indicates possession) for people, animals and things

The first puppy, WHOSE coat was really beautiful, was six weeks old.
He is the man WHOSE car was stolen.
A tree WHOSE leaves have fallen.

● Use WHICH for objects, group of people or things

Last week Samuel found a dog WHICH was only a puppy.
The driver ran through a stop sign WHICH is on the corner.
Officer Smith often lectures to high school classes WHICH are learning safe driving
principles.

● You can replace both WHO and WHICH with THAT in defining relative clauses.
That is the woman THAT identified the thief.
That’s the handbag THAT was stolen.

109
110
The connecting words WHERE, WHEN and WHY are called RELATIVE ADVERBS

● Use WHERE to refer to a place

There was the castle of Camelot WHERE king Arthur lived.
● Use WHEN to refer to a time
King Arthur lived in the 5th century, WHEN Britain was a collection of much smaller
kingdoms.

● Use WHY to refer to a reason

My friend didn’t tell me the reason WHY he quit his job.

NOTE: The noun that is modified by the adjective clause is called ANTECEDENT.

ANTECEDENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

(Relative pronoun or
relative adverb)

The house WHICH Mary bought is pretty.

John, WHO came here is my friend.

yesterday

Do you know the man WHO just left?

The room WHERE we met Was spacious.

111
112
GRAMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronoun as SUBJECT of the clause (WHO, WHICH, THAT)

Examples:
● I have a friend WHO has many beautiful classical records.
● I really enjoy the symphony WHICH is by Beethoven.
● Here is a beautiful recording THAT was made by the Boston Pops Orchestra.

Relative pronoun as OBJECT of the clause (WHOM, WHICH, THAT)

● He is the friend WHOM I visited last night.

● He has many beautiful paintings WHICH he bought in Europe.
● I ‘m looking for the bookshop THAT I found last month.

Relative pronoun as MODIFIER OF A NOUN (WHOSE)

● He is a conductor WHOSE orchestra is well known.

● The house WHOSE roof is very old needs a lot of repair work.
● They had to shoot the horse WHOSE leg was broken.

Relative pronoun as OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION (WHOM, WHICH, THAT)

Sometimes, a preposition is used with a relative pronoun, for example, with which, for which,
to whom. The preposition is part of the adjective clause, and it is determined by the verb and
the meaning you want to communicate. For example: Speak to, speak with, and speak for.
Examples:
● The man TO WHOM we spoke had just arrived in the United States.
● The man WITH WHOM we spoke had just arrived in the United States.
● The man FOR WHOM we spoke had just arrived in the United States.

Positions of the prepositions:

a. In front of a relative pronoun

● Professor Ray is the man ABOUT WHOM I told you.

● That is the house IN WHICH he lives.

b. At the end of the adjective clause

● He is the man WHOM I told you ABOUT.

● That is the house WHICH/ THAT he lives IN.

Relative pronoun as DIRECT OBJECT

Examples:
● She is the teacher (WHOM) I had last semester.
● This is the book (THAT) we used at school.
● Here is a copy of the first test (WHICH) she gave to us.

113
NOTE: in speaking and writing, speakers of English often leave out the relative pronoun that
introduces the adjective clause when the pronoun functions as direct object or object of the
preposition (when the preposition is at the end of the adjective clause)

Relative pronoun as OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION

Examples:
● This is the book (THAT) I’m interested in.
● Here is a copy of the comic (WHICH) I told you about.

TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES: DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES (also called identifying)

An adjective clause is either essential to identify the word it modifies or non-essential. When
the information in the relative clause is essential, it is called a DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE.
Without the defining relative clause, the meaning of the main clause can be unclear or need
further explanation.

Examples:
● Woman: That’s him.
Police Officer: who?
Woman: That’s the man WHO I saw.
● A doctor is a person WHO has been trained in medical sciences.
● A liar is a person WHO habitually tells lies.
● She is the novelist WHOSE book won first prize.
● He is the boy WHOM I sent the money to.
NOTES:

You can replace both, WHO or WHICH with the relative pronoun THAT in defining relative
clauses:
That’s the woman THAT identified the thief.
That’s the handbag THAT was stolen.
You can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the relative clause (i.e. when it is
followed by a subject + verb):

That’s the man I saw (That’s the man who/ that I saw)

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE (also called non-identifying)

When the information in the relative clause is non-essential, it is called a NON-DEFINING

RELATIVE CLAUSE. The relative clause gives additional information about the antecedent,
but it does not define it.
Examples:
● The witness, WHO the police have not named, was also the victim of Slack.
● The crowd of football fans, WHOSE excitement was evident, shouted loudly.
● My cousin, WHO is on a business trip to Rome, sent me a postcard.
● Inferno, WHICH was written by Dan Brown, was published in 2013.

114
 ● My sister, WHO works at the United Nations headquarters, visited us last summer.
NOTES:
Non- defining clauses are also different from defining relative clauses because…

● You cannot replace WHO or WHICH with THAT

The Witness, THAT police have not named, had her bag stolen.

● You cannot omit the relative pronoun

The witness, who police have not named, had also her bag stolen.

● In written English, the non-defining relative clause is separated from the main clause by
commas.
Mr. Slack, who is still in police custody, lives at 28 Habersham Gardens.
Tips to remember

Defining Non-defining
Adds extra information NO YES
Adds essential information YES NO
Can use that instead of who and which YES NO
Can omit the subject relative pronoun NO NO
Can omit the object relative pronoun YES NO
Uses commas NO YES

PRACTICE

115
116
REDUCTION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases which will modify a noun without changing
the meaning of the sentence. E.g.
A. The student who is talking to the teacher is from China.
Full Clause
The student talking to the teacher is from China.
Reduced Clause

B. Last night he gave a lecture which was on technological developments in this country.
Full Clause
Last night he gave a lecture on technological developments in this country.
Reduced Clause
C. Anyone that is interested in this country should plan to attend another lecture tonight.
Full Clause
Anyone interested in this country should plan to attend another lecture tonight.
Reduced Clause

Note: only adjective clauses having who, which or that as the subject of the clause can
be reduced to a phrase modifying a noun.
There are three common ways to reduce adjective clauses beginning with who, which or that
to a phrase. Read the examples and complete the chart.

Explanation FULL CLAUSES REDUCED PHRASES

1. Omit the relative pronoun and The man who is wearing the The man wearing the gray suit
the be form of the verb gray suit is my uncle. is my uncle.
. He is the person who is most He is the person most
concerned about my success. concerned about my success.
The essays that are written in
this book are very interesting.
The book which is on my desk
also contains many interesting
essays.
2. In adjective clauses that do not Anyone who has a library card Anyone having a library card
contain a form of BE, it is often may check out books. may check out books.
possible to omit the pronoun This library does not contain
and change the verb to its- ING any studies which deal with
form. the psychological effects of the
civil war.
3. Some adjective clauses can be History, which is my favourite History, my favourite subject,
reduced to APPOSITIVE subject, has always fascinated has always fascinated me.
PHRASES. An appositive me.
phrase is a noun or a pronoun Mrs. Bryson, who is the head
with modifiers that is placed librarian, has a degree in
after a noun or a pronoun to history.
explain it and it is always set off Boston, which is an interesting
the rest of the sentence by city, has many historical points
commas. of interest.

Note: Because an appositive phrase only adds “extra, unnecessary information, it is

always set off the rest of the sentence by commas.

117
 PRACTICE:
1 Combine the two sentences with a reduced relative clause.
1. A bag was stolen from my hotel room. It had my passport in it.
The bag stolen from my hotel room had my passport in it.
2. She’s the one. She is demanding a pay rise.
She’s the one………………………………………………………...a pay rise.
3. This s a job. It needs someone with plenty of experience.
This is a job…………………………………...someone with plenty of experience.
4. A package was delivered this morning. It’s on my desk.
The package………………………………………. this morning is on my desk.
5. It’s a university. It specializes in medicine.
It’s a university………………………………….in medicine.
6. That’s the baby. She was born only three hours ago.
That’s the baby………………………………. only three hours ago.
2 Read these announcements. Reduce the relative clauses where possible.
1. All passengers who are travelling to Delhi, please proceed to gate number 31, where your plane is
ready for boarding. That’s flight A1 511. Which departs from gate 31.
2. Could those passengers who are waiting for their luggage from flight A1 552 please come to the
baggage claim desk where we have their suitcases.
3. Anyone that enters Passport Control should have their passport and boarding card for inspection.
Any hand luggage which is carried with you must conform to size restrictions.
4. This is a non-smoking flight. Any passenger who is caught smoking will be detained by the airport
police after landing.
5. We are about to land. All electronic items which are switched on should be turned off.
3. Reduce the adjective clauses.
1. Dr. William Fry Jr., who is a Stanford University professor of psychiatry, is an authority on laughter.
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. He notes that of all the major psychological studies which were done on human emotions between 1877
and 1962 only 32 percent were concerned with pleasant reactions such as laughter.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Many members of the medical profession now believe that laughter, which is a common element of
everyday life, has valuable therapeutic effects on the human body.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Patients who suffer from heart disease, which is the major illness that exists in the western world today,
can benefit from laughter.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Science has demonstrated that the healthy effects that are provided by laughter are the activation of the
muscles. The increase of heart rate, and the amplification of respiration.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Sudden and intense anger is a emotion which is often responsible for starting a heart attack in people
who have heart trouble.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
7. Dr. Fry, who is a respected authority on the subject, believes that laughter can save many lives.

118
 SET VIII
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverb clauses can be grouped according to the type of relationship they express:
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverb clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. The most commonly used
subordinating conjunctions are: THAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHILE, BEFORE, UNTIL, IF,
AFTER, SINCE, BECAUSE, (AL) THOUGH, UNLESS, AS.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME (when)

● AFTER it had stopped snowing, I went outside.

● My roommate had decided to go skiing BEFORE I returned.
● I had never seen snow UNTIL my family moved from Florida to Boston.
● WHEN I was a young child, I thought snow was only in Alaska.
● In Boston, my father tried to get me outside WHENEVER it snowed.
● AS SOON AS she finished that project, she started working on the next.
● Don’t use the cell phone WHILE you are driving.
● AS I was walking down the street, I saw James driving a Porsche.
● We will have finished our homework BY THE TIME they arrive.
● I'll wait TILL you finish.
● I have played tennis SINCE I was a young boy.
● We take a hike EVERY TIME he visits.

NOTE: An adverb clause of time can come before or after the main clause. When it comes
before the main clause, we usually separate it with a comma. Commas are not necessary when
the adverb clause goes after the main clause.

1. Underline the correct words.

1. As soon as/Until he had finished his lunch, he went back to work.
2. We didn’t touch anything until/as the police arrived.
3. Please return the books while/as soon as you have finished them.
4. I saw the accident since/while I was working in the garden.
5. When/Since we got home, we realized our dog was missing.
6. The taxi arrived as/whenever I was locking the door.
7. After/While he had checked into the hotel, he went to get something to eat.
8. I’d love to see you before/by the time you leave.
9. Can you buy me a carton of orange juice when/until you go shopping, please?
10. Since/As long as he moved to the countryside he’s been more relaxed.

2. Fill in the gaps with before, after, since, until, by the time.

1. ______________ Carol had fed the baby; she went to bed.

2. ______________ we reached the port; the weather had improved.
3. She bought the newspaper _____________ she went to work.

119
 4. _________________ he’s been in London he’s visited the Tate Gallery and the
Natural History Museum.
5. Tommy met his friends ______________ he had finished studying for the exam.
6. Yesterday she worked _____________ she finished the report.
7. ________________ we got home, the rain had stopped.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE (Where)

● I prefer to live WHERE the sun shines all year.
● He works WHERE I was born.
● WHEREVER it is sunny and warm, I am happy.
● He led the caravan, WHEREVER he wanted to go.

3. Put the parts in order to form a sentence.

1. Wherever / he / John / them. / saw / looked,

_______________________________________________
2. aren’t / going. / is, / it / Wherever / you
_______________________________________________
3. Politician / striking. / The / where / gave / were / a speech / the workers
_______________________________________________
4. exactly / you / where / are standing / She / now. / was / standing
_______________________________________________
5. dog / go. / I / follows / me / wherever / That
_______________________________________________
6. where / Stay / are. / you
_______________________________________________

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON (Why)

● My brothers are studying in Cordoba BECAUSE they like big cities.

● SINCE it is so beautiful there, my parents are going to move.
● He was furious DUE TO THE FACT THAT his book was criticized by most reviewers.
● AS he has apologized, we will take no further action against him.
● All passengers were asked to leave the ship BECAUSE OF/ON ACCOUNT OF/OWING
TO the fact that there was a fire in the engine room.
4. Join the sentences using the words in brackets as in the example.

1. Many of the planet’s forests are being destroyed because contractors are cutting down trees
to build roads and offices. (as)
Many of the planet’s forests are being destroyed as contractors are cutting down trees to build
roads and offices.
2. The plane ticket was extremely expensive, so she borrowed the money from her parents.
(on account of the fact that)
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Dave had some friends round because it was his birthday. (since)
_______________________________________________________________________

120
4. The children wore their costumes because it was Halloween. (owing to the fact that)
_______________________________________________________________________
5. As his grandparents were celebrating their 50th anniversary, he bought them a watercolour
painting. (because)
________________________________________________________________________
6. The reason why the employees had to use the stairs was that the lift was out of order. (due
to the fact that)
________________________________________________________________________
7. The hospital closed down because there wasn’t enough money to keep it open. (as)
________________________________________________________________________

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

● I’m planning to live with my brothers SO THAT I can live near the beach.
● I want to be near the beach IN ORDER THAT I might learn to water ski.
● Put on your warm clothes LEST you should catch a chill.
● Schools were closed early IN ORDER THAT students might reach home before the
thunderstorm.

5. Underline the correct words

1. She went to the chemist’s so that/lest she could get some cough syrup.
2. He gripped his brother's arm lest/in order that he be trampled by the mob.
3. They will go to England lest/in order that they can improve their speaking.
4. They left the house early lest/so that they would arrive on time.
5. Natasha asked in a whisper, afraid to move lest/in order that she should rouse the
sleeping baby.
6. Study my lessons very hard lest/in order that I can pass my exams.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER (HOW)

● In California, we can enjoy the beach AS we used to in Florida.
● My sisters swim AS IF they were mermaids.
● In California, I will fell AS THOUGH I were alive again.
● She cooks spaghetti exactly AS my mother did.
● He could do it AS no one else could.

6. Match the items in column A to those in column B and join them using as if or as though.

e.g. 1-C He feels as if/as though he hasn’t slept properly for weeks.

A B
1. Rick is tired. He feels A. he has won the lottery.
2. Claire is out of breath. She sounds B. he had a cold.
3. Jim is very angry. He feels C. he hasn’t slept properly for weeks.
4. Sarah spoke very quickly. She sounded D. she was in a hurry.
5. Martin looked very happy. He was smiling E. he is going to explode.
6. Tom sneezed. He sounded F. she has run a marathon.

121
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION
● If I study, I will pass the exam.
● AS LONG AS they keep it clean, I will stay with them.
● IN CASE they become too messy, I’m going to save enough money to get my own
apartment.
● I will become a good water skier PROVIDED THAT I can find a good teacher.
● UNLESS the lessons are very cheap, I won’t be able to take any.
● I’m definitely planning to take painting lessons, WHETHER they are cheap or not.
● I’m definitely planning to take painting lessons, WHETHER OR NOT they are cheap.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT

● Edinburgh is SO beautiful THAT I can’t imagine staying in California.
● They fought SO bravely THAT the enemy fled.
● It is SUCH a beautiful state THAT I can’t imagine staying in a different place.
● He spoke in SUCH a low voice THAT few people could hear him.

7. Fill in SO, SUCH or SUCH A/AN.

1. She runs __________ fast that she will surely win the championship.
2. Chris is ___________ generous person that he is always giving his friends gifts.
3. The music at the party next door was __________ loud that I couldn’t sleep.
4. How can you swim in _________ cold water?
5. We had __________ great time when we were in Dublin that we want to go again.
6. There was __________ much noise in the room that I found it impossible to concentrate.
7. She studies __________ little that it’s amazing she passes her exams.
8. Have you ever seen such polite children before?

8. Complete each sentence with two to five words including the word in bold.

1. The weather was so hot that we couldn’t sleep at night.

SUCH It was such hot weather (that) we couldn’t sleep at night.
2. It was such a lovely holiday resort that we wanted to stay a bit longer.
SO The holiday resort was _________________________ to stay a bit longer.
3. The dress was so small that it didn’t fit me.
SUCH It was __________________________ that it didn’t fit me.
4. It was such a funny film that we couldn’t stop laughing.
SO The film ________________________ we couldn’t stop laughing.
5. That woman is so rich that she can afford to buy herself an aeroplane.
SUCH She’s ____________________she can afford to buy herself an aeroplane.
6. It was such a cold room that we kept our coats on.
SO The room was ___________________our coats on.
7. The house was so old that the Greens decided to look for another one.
SUCH It was ____________________ the Greens decided to look for another one.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONTRAST

● ALTHOUGH Boston is a nice city, I just don’t like cold weather.

122
 ● THOUGH my father likes mountains and snow, I’m sure he will learn to like beaches
and sand.
● He will probably enjoy water skiing, EVEN THOUGH he prefers to ski in the snow.
● WHILE I will never miss the cold weather, I will miss my friends in Canada.
● I will probably visit Boston from time to time, IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT/ DESPITE
THE FACT THAT I will never live there again.

9. Complete the sentences as in the example

1. Although it had snowed, we still played outside.
Even though it had snowed, we still played outside.
2. In spite of the fact that they are very rich, they live a simple life.
Although ___________________________________________________
3. Even though he went to bed early, he woke up late.
Despite the fact ______________________________________________
4. Even though we arrived in good time, there were no tickets left.
Despite the fact ______________________________________________
5. Even though they are twins, they don’t look alike.
In spite of the fact ____________________________________________
6. He wasn’t accepted onto the postgraduate course in spite of the fact that he had excellent
references.
Despite the fact that _____________________________________________
7. The athletes were exhausted. They were extremely happy, though.
Although ______________________________________________________
8. In spite of the fact that she was experienced, she didn’t get the job.
Even though ___________________________________________________

10. Join the sentences using the words in brackets as in the example.
1. It was hot and sunny. The children weren’t wearing hats. (Despite the fact)
Despite the fact that it was hot and sunny, the children weren’t wearing hats.
2. She’s a vegetarian. She eats chicken and fish. (although)
_____________________________________________________________
3. She was told her car had mechanical problems. She drove it. (In spite of the fact)
_____________________________________________________________
4. The children tried to save the injured bird. It died. (though)
_____________________________________________________________
5. He spent hours preparing the meal. It tasted awful. (despite the fact that)
_____________________________________________________________
6. Eve doesn’t study very hard. She is very clever.
_____________________________________________________________
7. I did most of the housework. My sister only did the washing-up. (while)
_____________________________________________________________

123
Extra Practice:

11

12

124
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

A conditional sentence contains two clauses: a subordinate clause beginning with IF (or
another conjunction performing the same general function) that describes a situation and a
main clause that describes the consequences. There are four types of conditional sentences;
each type is composed of a different combination of tenses.

THE ZERO CONDITIONAL

FORM:
If clause: situation / condition: Main clause: consequence / result:

IF + Present Simple a. Present Simple

USE: It expresses conditions that are always true, with automatic or habitual results. IF means
WHEN or WHENEVER.

Examples:
● If you heat ice, it melts.
● Flowers die, if you don’t water them.
● If living things don’t get oxygen, they die.

THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

FORM:

If clause: situation / condition Main clause: consequence / result

a. Will + base form of the verb

b. Imperative
IF + Present Simple
c. Modal verbs such as: can, must,
should or might.

USE: The first conditional is used to express a possible condition and a probable consequence
or result.
Examples:
● If you go, I will go too.
● If I don’t find it, I will phone you.
● What will you do if you don’t find a job?
● If the plan doesn’t work, change the plan but not the goal.
● If it rains, can you take Nick with you?

NOTE1: According to the situation, it can express different functions.

● If you do that again, I will kill you! (A threat)
● Careful! If you touch that, you will burn yourself a warning)
● I will post the letter if you like. (An offer)
125
 NOTE2: Alternative forms

a. IF can be replaced by UNLESS or IN CASE.

● UNLESS I hear from you, I will come at 8.00.
● I’ll take my umbrella IN CASE it rains.
b. WILL can be replaced by another future form.
● If it doesn’t rain, I’M GOING to play tennis

c. The Present Simple can be replaced by the Present Perfect in the IF clause
● If you have finished this exercise, you can do the next one.
● If you have never been to Wales, you should try to go there.

PRACTICE - THE ZERO AND THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

1

126
 3

127
 THE SECOND CONDITIONAL
FORM:
If clause: situation / condition: Main clause: consequence / result
IF + Past Simple WOULD + base form of the verb

If I had enough money, I would eat in restaurants all the time.

If I saw a ghost, I’d run away
USE: The second conditional is used to express a hypothetical condition and its probable
result.
a. The condition is hypothetical because the speaker knows what she/he is saying is
improbable or impossible or contrary to known facts.
● I’d lend Peter the money if he needed it.
b. The condition can be possible in theory, but improbable in practice.
● If I were the president of my country, I’d abolish taxation.
c. The condition can be an impossible speculation
● If we could travel in time, I’d go back to the Roman era.
d. The second conditional can express advice
● If I were you, I’d have a rest.
NOTES:
1. After if, WAS sometimes changes to WERE.
If I were you I would call him.
If he were cleverer, he wouldn't do that.
2. Alternative forms or variations
a. If … not can be replaced by unless.
I wouldn't do it unless I loved you.
b. Would can be replaced by another modal verb in the result clause.
If I stopped smoking, I could run faster.
If I stopped smoking, I might have more money.

PRACTICE:

128
2

4)

129
THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

FORM:

If clause: the situation / condition: Main clause: consequence /

result

IF + Past Perfect WOULD (COULD, MIGHT, etc.)

HAVE + Perfect infinitive

If you had explained your problem to me, I would have been able to help you.
If she had taken the medicine, she would have felt much better.
If you hadn’t told me, I would never have known.
I might have made a mistake.
I could have got lost.

USE: Third conditional sentences express imaginary situations about the past.

If we had caught the 10 o’clock train, we would have got there by lunch time.

This sentence is completely hypothetical and represents what is contrary to past fact. In this
case, the Past Perfect is used to indicate past unreality (we didn’t catch the 10 o’clock train, so
we didn’t get by lunch time)

PRACTICE

1)

130
2

131
NOW LET’S PRACTICE ALL OF THEM TOGETHER

1) Underline the correct form of the verb.

2) Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

132
3) Choose the correct option. 4) Put the verbs in bracket into the correct tense.

133
 SET IX
NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is used in the same way as a single-word noun. Single word nouns have different
functions in sentences; therefore, noun clauses have many different functions. (Subject, object,
complement, object of a preposition, etc.). A noun clause consists of a SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTION (SC), a SUBJECT (S) and a VERB (V).

I never thought THAT IT COULD BE SO DIFFICULT.

SC S V

Noun clauses occur frequently when we present our own thoughts or report on the ideas of
others. The following words, called subordinating conjunctions, introduce noun clauses.
● THAT
If that appears after the verb, it can be omitted
I never thought (that) it could be so difficult.
● WH-SUBORDINATORS
You cannot omit WH- SUBORDINATING WORDS
WHAT, HOW, WHEN, WHETHER/IF, WHERE, WHY
You can imagine HOW awful the food is here.
I don’t know WHEN I can come home.
I’m not sure whether I‘ll have a lot of work.

FUNCTIONS OF NOUN CLAUSES

Noun clause as SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

Single -word noun Noun Clause

His house is beautiful. WHERE HE LIVES is beautiful.
Her speech was excellent. WHAT SHE SAID was excellent.

Noun clause as OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

Single -word noun Noun Clause

I don’t know the answer. I don’t know WHAT THE ANSWER IS.
I like her house. I like WHERE SHE LIVES.

Noun clause as OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION

Single -word noun Noun Clause

She was looking at my painting. She was looking at WHAT I HAD
PAINTED.
I was worried about his health. I was worried about HOW SICK HE
WAS.

134
Noun clause in APPOSITION TO A NOUN

Noun clauses occur in opposition to nouns like fact, belief, idea, doubt, etc.

● The fact that you haven’t enough time is no excuse.

● The idea that I would graduate soon frightened me.
● The rumor that prices will soon go down is unfortunately untrue.
Noun clause as COMPLEMENT OF A VERB

● What surprise me most was that he spoke English so well.

● That is not what I want
● It seems that he has never been paid the money.

Noun clause as ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

As an adjective complement, the noun clause completes the meaning started by the adjective.
THAT is the most commonly used subordinator in this pattern; however, it can be omitted from
the sentence.

He will succeed. I’m sure. I’m sure that he will succeed.

I’m sure he will succeed.
She’s unhappy. I’m convinced. I’m convinced that she is unhappy.
I’m convinced she is unhappy.
Noun clauses beginning with THAT
THAT can often be omitted when it introduces a noun clause as object of the verb.
● We assumed our son was sick.
● I could not believe he had lied to us.
THAT cannot be omitted when it introduces a noun clause as subject of the verb.
● That he lied to us was unbelievable.
● That we accepted his apology made him feel better.

Using IT as subject of the sentence

The use of a noun clause beginning with THAT is very formal. In conversation, speakers of
English often use the word IT as subject of the sentence and place the noun clause at the end
of the sentence. In this pattern, a noun clause can follow a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective.

● It is a fact that the world is facing a food shortage.

● It is true that many people are starving.
● It doesn’t surprise anyone that she has become a pop star.

Noun clause derived from questions

WHETHER/ IF introduce clauses derived from yes/ no questions. We use REPORTING
VERBS like ask, tell me, want to know, wonder, didn’t say/ tell me.
● Tell me if he has signed the contract.
● Ask him whether he has signed it.
● I want to know whether/ if he has passed his exams.

135
PRACTICE

1)

2)

136
3) Underline the noun clause in each of the following sentences and indicate how each noun
clause is used.

1. Fans could not understand why the referee had called a technical foul on the coach.
2. The nutritionist explained which vegetables are richest in vitamin C.
3. Guess what grandparents gave me for my birthday.
4. What happened to the English colony on Roanoke Island in 1587 remains a mystery.
5. My mother offered a special surprise to whoever finished cleaning first.
6. The teacher showed me how I could better organize the ideas of my research paper.
7. The principal was pleased with what the student council had achieved.
8. What the players want to know is who their new coach is.
9. Whether the class goes on the field trip depends on the weather conditions.
10. I didn’t know that the brown pelican is an endangered species

137
138
139
Bibliography:

● Alexander, L. G., & Close, R. A. (1990). Longman English grammar practice. London:
Longman
● Alexander, L. G., & Close, R. A. (1990). Longman English grammar. London: Longman
● Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (1999). Grammarway 2: with answers. Express Publishing.
● Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (1999). Grammarway 3. Express Publishing.
● Dooley, J., & Evans, V. (1999). Grammarway 4: with answers. Express Publishing.
● Evans, V., & Dooley, J. (1999). Enterprise Grammar 3. Express publishing.
● Evans, V., & Dooley, J. (1999). Enterprise Grammar 4. Express publishing.
● Hughes, J., & Jones, C. (2011). Practical Grammar 2. Heinle, Cengage Learning.
● Hughes, J., & Jones, C. (2011). Practical Grammar 3. Heinle, Cengage Learning.
● Murphy, R. (2004). Grammar in use intermediate. Ernst Klett Sprachen.
● Quirk, R. (2007). A University Grammar of English. Pearson Education India.
● Vince, M., & McNicholas, K. (2008). Macmillan English Grammar in Context:
Intermediate. Macmillan Education.

140