Angle

In Euclidean geometry, an angle is the

figure formed by two rays, called the sides
of the angle, sharing a common endpoint,
called the vertex of the angle.[1] Angles
formed by two rays are also known as
plane angles as they lie in the plane that
contains the rays. Angles are also formed
by the intersection of two planes; these
are called dihedral angles. Two intersecting
curves may also define an angle, which is
the angle of the rays lying tangent to the
respective curves at their point of
intersection.

A green angle formed by two red rays on the Cartesian

coordinate system

The magnitude of an angle is called an

angular measure or simply "angle". Angle
of rotation is a measure conventionally
defined as the ratio of a circular arc length
to its radius, and may be a negative
number. In the case of a geometric angle,
the arc is centered at the vertex and
delimited by the sides. In the case of a
rotation, the arc is centered at the center
of the rotation and delimited by any other
point and its image by the rotation.

History and etymology

The word angle comes from the Latin word

angulus, meaning "corner". Cognate words
include the Greek ἀγκύλος (ankylοs)
meaning "crooked, curved" and the English
word "ankle". Both are connected with the
Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning
"to bend" or "bow".[2]
Euclid defines a plane angle as the
inclination to each other, in a plane, of two
lines that meet each other and do not lie
straight with respect to each other.
According to the Neoplatonic
metaphysician Proclus, an angle must be
either a quality, a quantity, or a
relationship. The first concept, angle as
quality, was used by Eudemus of Rhodes,
who regarded an angle as a deviation from
a straight line; the second, angle as quality,
by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as
the interval or space between the
intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third:
angle as a relationship.[3]
Identifying angles

In mathematical expressions, it is
common to use Greek letters (α, β, γ, θ,
φ, . . . ) as variables denoting the size of
some angle[4] (the symbol π is typically not
used for this purpose to avoid confusion
with the constant denoted by that symbol).
Lower case Roman letters (a, b, c, . . . ) are
also used. In contexts where this is not
confusing, an angle may be denoted by the
upper case Roman letter denoting its
vertex. See the figures in this article for
examples.
The three defining points may also identify
angles in geometric figures. For example,
the angle with vertex A formed by the rays
AB and AC (that is, the half-lines from
point A through points B and C) is denoted
∠BAC or . Where there is no risk of
confusion, the angle may sometimes be
referred to by a single vertex alone (in this
case, "angle A").

Potentially, an angle denoted as, say,

∠BAC might refer to any of four angles:
the clockwise angle from B to C about A,
the anticlockwise angle from B to C about
A, the clockwise angle from C to B about
A, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B
about A, where the direction in which the
angle is measured determines its sign
(see § Signed angles). However, in many
geometrical situations, it is evident from
the context that the positive angle less
than or equal to 180 degrees is meant, and
in these cases, no ambiguity arises.
Otherwise, to avoid ambiguity, specific
conventions may be adopted so that, for
instance, ∠BAC always refers to the
anticlockwise (positive) angle from B to C
about A and ∠CAB the anticlockwise
(positive) angle from C to B about A.
Types of angles

Individual angles

There is some common terminology for

angles, whose measure is always non-
negative (see § Signed angles):

An angle equal to 0° or not turned is

called a zero angle.[5]
An angle smaller than a right angle (less
than 90°) is called an acute angle[6]
("acute" meaning "sharp").
An angle equal to 14 turn (90° or π
2
radians) is called a right angle. Two lines
that form a right angle are said to be
normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular.[7]
An angle larger than a right angle and
smaller than a straight angle (between
90° and 180°) is called an obtuse angle[6]
("obtuse" meaning "blunt").
An angle equal to 12 turn (180° or π
radians) is called a straight angle.[5]
An angle larger than a straight angle but
less than 1 turn (between 180° and
360°) is called a reflex angle.
An angle equal to 1 turn (360° or 2π
radians) is called a full angle, complete
angle, round angle or perigon.
 An angle that is not a multiple of a right
angle is called an oblique angle.

The names, intervals, and measuring units

are shown in the table below:

Right angle Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight Reflex angle
(c) angles. The acute and obtuse
angles are also known as oblique
angles.

zero acute right obtuse straight reflex

Name perigon
angle angle angle angle angle angle

Unit Interval
1 1 1 1 1
turn 0 turn (0, 4 ) turn 4 turn ( 4 , 2 ) turn 2
turn ( 12 , 1) turn 1 turn
1 1 1
radian 0 rad (0, 2 π) rad 2 π rad ( 2 π, π) rad π rad (π, 2π) rad 2π rad

degree 0° (0, 90)° 90° (90, 180)° 180° (180, 360)° 360°

gon 0g (0, 100)g 100g (100, 200)g 200g (200, 400)g 400g
Vertical and adjacent angle pairs

Angles A and B are a pair

of vertical angles; angles
C and D are a pair of
vertical angles. Hatch
marks are used here to
show angle equality.

When two straight lines intersect at a

point, four angles are formed. Pairwise,
these angles are named according to their
location relative to each other.

A pair of angles opposite each other,

formed by two intersecting straight lines
that form an "X"-like shape, are called
vertical angles or opposite angles or
vertically opposite angles. They are
abbreviated as vert. opp. ∠s.[8]

The equality of vertically opposite

angles is called the vertical angle
theorem. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed
the proof to Thales of Miletus.[9][10] The
proposition showed that since both of a
pair of vertical angles are
supplementary to both of the adjacent
angles, the vertical angles are equal in
measure. According to a historical
note,[10] when Thales visited Egypt, he
observed that whenever the Egyptians
drew two intersecting lines, they would
measure the vertical angles to make
sure that they were equal. Thales
concluded that one could prove that all
vertical angles are equal if one accepted
some general notions such as:

All straight angles are equal.

Equals added to equals are equal.
Equals subtracted from equals are
equal.

When two adjacent angles form a

straight line, they are supplementary.
Therefore, if we assume that the
measure of angle A equals x, the
measure of angle C would be 180° − x.
Similarly, the measure of angle D would
be 180° − x. Both angle C and angle D
have measures equal to 180° − x and are
congruent. Since angle B is
supplementary to both angles C and D,
either of these angle measures may be
used to determine the measure of Angle
B. Using the measure of either angle C
or angle D, we find the measure of angle
B to be
180° − (180° − x) = 180° − 180° + x = x.
Therefore, both angle A and angle B
have measures equal to x and are equal
in measure.
 Angles A and B are adjacent.

Adjacent angles, often abbreviated as

adj. ∠s, are angles that share a common
vertex and edge but do not share any
interior points. In other words, they are
angles side by side or adjacent, sharing
an "arm". Adjacent angles which sum to
a right angle, straight angle, or full angle
are special and are respectively called
complementary, supplementary, and
explementary angles (see § Combining
angle pairs below).
A transversal is a line that intersects a pair
of (often parallel) lines and is associated
with alternate interior angles,
corresponding angles, interior angles, and
exterior angles.[11]

Combining angle pairs

The angle addition postulate states that if

B is in the interior of angle AOC, then

I.e., the measure of the angle AOC is the

sum of the measure of angle AOB and the
measure of angle BOC.
Three special angle pairs involve the
summation of angles:

The complementary
angles a and b (b is the
complement of a, and a is
the complement of b).

Complementary angles are angle pairs

whose measures sum to one right angle
( 14 turn, 90°, or π
2 radians). [12] If the two

complementary angles are adjacent,

their non-shared sides form a right
angle. In Euclidean geometry, the two
acute angles in a right triangle are
complementary because the sum of
internal angles of a triangle is 180
degrees, and the right angle accounts
for 90 degrees.

The adjective complementary is from

the Latin complementum, associated
with the verb complere, "to fill up". An
acute angle is "filled up" by its
complement to form a right angle.

The difference between an angle and a

right angle is termed the complement of
the angle.[13]

If angles A and B are complementary,

the following relationships hold:
(The tangent of an angle equals the
cotangent of its complement, and its
secant equals the cosecant of its
complement.)

The prefix "co-" in the names of some

trigonometric ratios refers to the word
"complementary".

The angles a and b are supplementary angles.

Two angles that sum to a straight angle
( 12 turn, 180°, or π radians) are called
supplementary angles.[14]

If the two supplementary angles are

adjacent (i.e., have a common vertex
and share just one side), their non-
shared sides form a straight line. Such
angles are called a linear pair of
angles.[15] However, supplementary
angles do not have to be on the same
line and can be separated in space. For
example, adjacent angles of a
parallelogram are supplementary, and
opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
(one whose vertices all fall on a single
circle) are supplementary.

If a point P is exterior to a circle with

center O, and if the tangent lines from P
touch the circle at points T and Q, then
∠TPQ and ∠TOQ are supplementary.

The sines of supplementary angles are

equal. Their cosines and tangents
(unless undefined) are equal in
magnitude but have opposite signs.

In Euclidean geometry, any sum of two

angles in a triangle is supplementary to
the third because the sum of the internal
angles of a triangle is a straight angle.
 Angles AOB and COD are conjugate
as they form a complete angle.
Considering magnitudes, 45° + 315° =
360°.

Two angles that sum to a complete

angle (1 turn, 360°, or 2π radians) are
called explementary angles or conjugate
angles.[16]

The difference between an angle and a

complete angle is termed the explement
of the angle or conjugate of an angle.
Polygon-related angles

Internal and external angles.

An angle that is part of a simple polygon

is called an interior angle if it lies on the
inside of that simple polygon. A simple
concave polygon has at least one
interior angle, that is, a reflex angle.

In Euclidean geometry, the measures of

the interior angles of a triangle add up to
π radians, 180°, or 12 turn; the measures
of the interior angles of a simple convex
quadrilateral add up to 2π radians, 360°,
or 1 turn. In general, the measures of the
interior angles of a simple convex
polygon with n sides add up to (n − 2)π
radians, or (n − 2)180 degrees, (n − 2)2
right angles, or (n − 2) 12 turn.

The supplement of an interior angle is

called an exterior angle; that is, an
interior angle and an exterior angle form
a linear pair of angles. There are two
exterior angles at each vertex of the
polygon, each determined by extending
one of the two sides of the polygon that
meet at the vertex; these two angles are
vertical and hence are equal. An exterior
angle measures the amount of rotation
one must make at a vertex to trace the
polygon.[17] If the corresponding interior
angle is a reflex angle, the exterior angle
should be considered negative. Even in a
non-simple polygon, it may be possible
to define the exterior angle. Still, one will
have to pick an orientation of the plane
(or surface) to decide the sign of the
exterior angle measure.

In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the

exterior angles of a simple convex
polygon, if only one of the two exterior
angles is assumed at each vertex, will
be one full turn (360°). The exterior
angle here could be called a
supplementary exterior angle. Exterior
angles are commonly used in Logo
Turtle programs when drawing regular
polygons.
In a triangle, the bisectors of two
exterior angles and the bisector of the
other interior angle are concurrent (meet
at a single point).[18]: 149
In a triangle, three intersection points,
each of an external angle bisector with
the opposite extended side, are
collinear.[18]: p. 149
 In a triangle, three intersection points,
two between an interior angle bisector
and the opposite side, and the third
between the other exterior angle
bisector and the opposite side extended
are collinear.[18]: 149
Some authors use the name exterior
angle of a simple polygon to mean the
explement exterior angle (not
supplement!) of the interior angle.[19]
This conflicts with the above usage.

Plane-related angles

The angle between two planes (such as

two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is
called a dihedral angle.[13] It may be
 defined as the acute angle between two
lines normal to the planes.
The angle between a plane and an
intersecting straight line is equal to
ninety degrees minus the angle between
the intersecting line and the line that
goes through the point of intersection
and is normal to the plane.

Measuring angles

The size of a geometric angle is usually

characterized by the magnitude of the
smallest rotation that maps one of the
rays into the other. Angles of the same
size are said to be equal congruent or
equal in measure.

In some contexts, such as identifying a

point on a circle or describing the
orientation of an object in two dimensions
relative to a reference orientation, angles
that differ by an exact multiple of a full
turn are effectively equivalent. In other
contexts, such as identifying a point on a
spiral curve or describing an object's
cumulative rotation in two dimensions
relative to a reference orientation, angles
that differ by a non-zero multiple of a full
turn are not equivalent.
 s
The measure of angle θ is r radians.

To measure an angle θ, a circular arc

centered at the vertex of the angle is
drawn, e.g., with a pair of compasses. The
ratio of the length s of the arc by the radius
r of the circle is the number of radians in
the angle:[20]

Conventionally, in mathematics and the SI,

the radian is treated as being equal to the
dimensionless unit 1, thus being normally
omitted.
The angle expressed by another angular
unit may then be obtained by multiplying
the angle by a suitable conversion
k
constant of the form 2π , where k is the
measure of a complete turn expressed in
the chosen unit (for example, k = 360° for
degrees or 400 grad for gradians):

The value of θ thus defined is independent

of the size of the circle: if the length of the
radius is changed, then the arc length
changes in the same proportion, so the
ratio s/r is unaltered.[nb 1]
Units

Definition of 1 radian

Throughout history, angles have been

measured in various units. These are
known as angular units, with the most
contemporary units being the degree ( ° ),
the radian (rad), and the gradian (grad),
though many others have been used
throughout history.[22] Most units of
angular measurement are defined such
that one turn (i.e., the angle subtended by
the circumference of a circle at its centre)
is equal to n units, for some whole number
n. Two exceptions are the radian (and its
decimal submultiples) and the diameter
part.

In the International System of Quantities,

an angle is defined as a dimensionless
quantity, and in particular, the radian unit is
dimensionless. This convention impacts
how angles are treated in dimensional
analysis.

The following table list some units used to

represent angles.
 number
in
name in one description
degrees
turn

The radian is determined by the circumference of a circle

that is equal in length to the radius of the circle
(n = 2π = 6.283...). It is the angle subtended by an arc of a
circle that has the same length as the circle's radius. The
symbol for radian is rad. One turn is 2π radians, and one
180°
radian is π , or about 57.2958 degrees. Often,
particularly in mathematical texts, one radian is assumed
radian 2π ≈57°17′
to equal one, resulting in the unit rad being omitted. The
radian is used in virtually all mathematical work beyond
simple, practical geometry due, for example, to the
pleasing and "natural" properties that the trigonometric
functions display when their arguments are in radians. The
radian is the (derived) unit of angular measurement in the
SI.

The degree, denoted by a small superscript circle (°), is

1/360 of a turn, so one turn is 360°. One advantage of this
old sexagesimal subunit is that many angles common in
simple geometry are measured as a whole number of
degrees. Fractions of a degree may be written in normal
degree 360 1°
decimal notation (e.g., 3.5° for three and a half degrees),
but the "minute" and "second" sexagesimal subunits of the
"degree–minute–second" system (discussed next) are
also in use, especially for geographical coordinates and in
astronomy and ballistics (n = 360)
1
arcminute 21,600 0°1′ The minute of arc (or MOA, arcminute, or just minute) is 60
1
of a degree = 21,600 turn. It is denoted by a single prime
( ′ ). For example, 3° 30′ is equal to 3 × 60 + 30 = 210
30
minutes or 3 + 60 = 3.5 degrees. A mixed format with
decimal fractions is sometimes used, e.g., 3° 5.72′ = 3 +
5.72
60
degrees. A nautical mile was historically defined as
 an arcminute along a great circle of the Earth.
(n = 21,600).
1
The second of arc (or arcsecond, or just second) is 60 of a
1
minute of arc and 3600 of a degree (n = 1,296,000). It is
arcsecond 1,296,000 0°0′1″
denoted by a double prime ( ″ ). For example, 3° 7′ 30″ is
7 30
equal to 3 + 60 + 3600 degrees, or 3.125 degrees.

The grad, also called grade, gradian, or gon. It is a decimal

subunit of the quadrant. A right angle is 100 grads. A
kilometre was historically defined as a centi-grad of arc
grad 400 0°54′ along a meridian of the Earth, so the kilometer is the
decimal analog to the sexagesimal nautical mile (n = 400).
The grad is used mostly in triangulation and continental
surveying.

The turn is the angle subtended by the circumference of a

turn 1 360°
circle at its centre. A turn is equal to 2π or tau radians.
1
The astronomical hour angle is 24 turn. As this system is
amenable to measuring objects that cycle once per day
(such as the relative position of stars), the sexagesimal
hour angle 24 15° subunits are called minute of time and second of time.
These are distinct from, and 15 times larger than, minutes
π
and seconds of arc. 1 hour = 15° = 12 rad = 16 quad = 24
1

turn = 16 23 grad.
1
The point or wind, used in navigation, is 32 of a turn.
(compass) 1 point = 18 of a right angle = 11.25° = 12.5 grad. Each
32 11.25°
point point is subdivided into four quarter points, so one turn
equals 128.

milliradian 2000π ≈0.057° The true milliradian is defined as a thousandth of a radian,

which means that a rotation of one turn would equal
exactly 2000π mrad (or approximately 6283.185 mrad).
Almost all scope sights for firearms are calibrated to this
definition. In addition, three other related definitions are
used for artillery and navigation, often called a 'mil', which
are approximately equal to a milliradian. Under these three
 other definitions, one turn makes up for exactly 6000,
6300, or 6400 mils, spanning the range from 0.05625 to
0.06 degrees (3.375 to 3.6 minutes). In comparison, the
milliradian is approximately 0.05729578 degrees (3.43775
1
minutes). One "NATO mil" is defined as 6400 of a turn. Just
like with the milliradian, each of the other definitions
approximates the milliradian's useful property of
subtensions, i.e. that the value of one milliradian
approximately equals the angle subtended by a width of 1
2π
meter as seen from 1 km away ( 6400 = 0.0009817... ≈
1
1000
).

The binary degree, also known as the binary radian or brad

or binary angular measurement (BAM).[23] The binary
degree is used in computing so that an angle can be
efficiently represented in a single byte (albeit to limited
binary
256 1°33'45" precision). Other measures of the angle used in
degree
computing may be based on dividing one whole turn into
2n equal parts for other values of n.
[24] 1
It is 256 of a turn.[23]

The multiples of π radians (MULπ) unit is implemented in

π radian 2 180° the RPN scientific calculator WP 43S.[25][26][27] See also:
IEEE 754 recommended operations
1
One quadrant is a 4 turn and also known as a right angle.
The quadrant is the unit in Euclid's Elements. In German,
quadrant 4 90°
the symbol ∟ has been used to denote a quadrant. 1 quad
π 1
= 90° = 2 rad = 4 turn = 100 grad.

The sextant was the unit used by the Babylonians,[28][29]

The degree, minute of arc and second of arc are
sexagesimal subunits of the Babylonian unit. It is
sextant 6 60°
straightforward to construct with ruler and compasses. It
is the angle of the equilateral triangle or is 16 turn. 1
Babylonian unit = 60° = π/3 rad ≈ 1.047197551 rad.
 The hexacontade is a unit used by Eratosthenes. It equals
hexacontade 60 6°
6°, so a whole turn was divided into 60 hexacontades.
1
144 to The pechus was a Babylonian unit equal to about 2° or 2 2
pechus 2° to 2 12 °
180 °.

The diameter part (occasionally used in Islamic

1
diameter mathematics) is 60 radian. One "diameter part" is
≈376.991 ≈0.95493°
part approximately 0.95493°. There are about 376.991
diameter parts per turn.

In old Arabia, a turn was subdivided into 32 Akhnam, and

zam 224 ≈1.607° each akhnam was subdivided into 7 zam so that a turn is
224 zam.

Dimensional analysis

Plane angle may be defined as θ = s/r,

where θ is the subtended angle in radians,
s is arc length, and r is radius. One radian
corresponds to the angle for which s = r,
hence 1 radian = 1 m/m.[30] However, rad
is only to be used to express angles, not to
express ratios of lengths in general.[31] A
similar calculation using the area of a
circular sector θ = 2A/r2 gives 1 radian as
1 m2/m2.[32] The key fact is that the radian
is a dimensionless unit equal to 1. In SI
2019, the radian is defined accordingly as
1 rad = 1.[33] It is a long-established
practice in mathematics and across all
areas of science to make use of
rad = 1.[34][35]

Giacomo Prando writes "the current state

of affairs leads inevitably to ghostly
appearances and disappearances of the
radian in the dimensional analysis of
physical equations".[36] For example, an
object hanging by a string from a pulley
will rise or drop by y = rθ centimeters,
where r is the radius of the pulley in
centimeters and θ is the angle the pulley
turns in radians. When multiplying r by θ
the unit of radians disappears from the
result. Similarly in the formula for the
angular velocity of a rolling wheel, ω = v/r,
radians appear in the units of ω but not on
the right hand side.[37] Anthony French
calls this phenomenon "a perennial
problem in the teaching of mechanics".[38]
Oberhofer says that the typical advice of
ignoring radians during dimensional
analysis and adding or removing radians in
units according to convention and
contextual knowledge is "pedagogically
unsatisfying".[39]
In 1993 the American Association of
Physics Teachers Metric Committee
specified that the radian should explicitly
appear in quantities only when different
numerical values would be obtained when
other angle measures were used, such as
in the quantities of angle measure (rad),
angular speed (rad/s), angular
acceleration (rad/s2), and torsional
stiffness (N⋅m/rad), and not in the
quantities of torque (N⋅m) and angular
momentum (kg⋅m2/s).[40]

At least a dozen scientists between 1936

and 2022 have made proposals to treat
the radian as a base unit of measurement
for a base quantity (and dimension) of
"plane angle".[41][42][43] Quincey's review of
proposals outlines two classes of
proposal. The first option changes the unit
of a radius to meters per radian, but this is
incompatible with dimensional analysis for
the area of a circle, πr2. The other option is
to introduce a dimensional constant.
According to Quincey this approach is
"logically rigorous" compared to SI, but
requires "the modification of many familiar
mathematical and physical equations".[44]
A dimensional constant for angle is "rather
strange" and the difficulty of modifying
equations to add the dimensional constant
is likely to preclude widespread use.[43]
In particular, Quincey identifies Torrens'
proposal to introduce a constant η equal
to 1 inverse radian (1 rad−1) in a fashion
similar to the introduction of the constant
ε0.[44][a] With this change the formula for
the angle subtended at the center of a
circle, s = rθ, is modified to become
s = ηrθ, and the Taylor series for the sine
of an angle θ becomes:[43][45]

where . The capitalized

function Sin is the "complete" function
that takes an argument with a dimension
of angle and is independent of the units
expressed,[45] while sinrad is the traditional
function on pure numbers which assumes
its argument is in radians.[46] can be
denoted if it is clear that the complete
form is meant.[43][47]

Current SI can be considered relative to

this framework as a natural unit system
where the equation η = 1 is assumed to
hold, or similarly, 1 rad = 1. This radian
convention allows the omission of η in
mathematical formulas.[48]

Defining radian as a base unit may be

useful for software, where the
disadvantage of longer equations is
minimal.[49] For example, the Boost units
library defines angle units with a
plane_angle dimension,[50] and
Mathematica's unit system similarly
considers angles to have an angle
dimension.[51][52]

Signed angles

Measuring from the x-axis, angles on

the unit circle count as positive in the
counterclockwise direction, and
negative in the clockwise direction.

It is frequently helpful to impose a

convention that allows positive and
negative angular values to represent
orientations and/or rotations in opposite
directions or "sense" relative to some
reference.

In a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system, an angle is typically defined by its
two sides, with its vertex at the origin. The
initial side is on the positive x-axis, while
the other side or terminal side is defined by
the measure from the initial side in
radians, degrees, or turns, with positive
angles representing rotations toward the
positive y-axis and negative angles
representing rotations toward the negative
y-axis. When Cartesian coordinates are
represented by standard position, defined
by the x-axis rightward and the y-axis
upward, positive rotations are
anticlockwise, and negative cycles are
clockwise.

In many contexts, an angle of −θ is

effectively equivalent to an angle of "one
full turn minus θ". For example, an
orientation represented as −45° is
effectively equal to an orientation defined
as 360° − 45° or 315°. Although the final
position is the same, a physical rotation
(movement) of −45° is not the same as a
rotation of 315° (for example, the rotation
of a person holding a broom resting on a
dusty floor would leave visually different
traces of swept regions on the floor).

In three-dimensional geometry, "clockwise"

and "anticlockwise" have no absolute
meaning, so the direction of positive and
negative angles must be defined in terms
of an orientation, which is typically
determined by a normal vector passing
through the angle's vertex and
perpendicular to the plane in which the
rays of the angle lie.

In navigation, bearings or azimuth are

measured relative to north. By convention,
viewed from above, bearing angles are
positive clockwise, so a bearing of 45°
corresponds to a north-east orientation.
Negative bearings are not used in
navigation, so a north-west orientation
corresponds to a bearing of 315°.

Equivalent angles

Angles that have the same measure (i.e.,

the same magnitude) are said to be
equal or congruent. An angle is defined
by its measure and is not dependent
upon the lengths of the sides of the
angle (e.g., all right angles are equal in
measure).
Two angles that share terminal sides,
but differ in size by an integer multiple
of a turn, are called coterminal angles.
The reference angle (sometimes called
related angle) for any angle θ in standard
position is the positive acute angle
between the terminal side of θ and the x-
axis (positive or negative).[53][54]
Procedurally, the magnitude of the
reference angle for a given angle may
determined by taking the angle's
magnitude modulo 12 turn, 180°, or π
radians, then stopping if the angle is
acute, otherwise taking the
supplementary angle, 180° minus the
 reduced magnitude. For example, an
angle of 30 degrees is already a
reference angle, and an angle of 150
degrees also has a reference angle of 30
degrees (180° − 150°). Angles of 210°
and 510° correspond to a reference
angle of 30 degrees as well (210° mod
180° = 30°, 510° mod 180° = 150° whose
supplementary angle is 30°).

Related quantities

For an angular unit, it is definitional that

the angle addition postulate holds. Some
quantities related to angles where the
angle addition postulate does not hold
include:
The slope or gradient is equal to the
tangent of the angle; a gradient is often
expressed as a percentage. For very
small values (less than 5%), the slope of
a line is approximately the measure in
radians of its angle with the horizontal
direction.
The spread between two lines is defined
in rational geometry as the square of the
sine of the angle between the lines. As
the sine of an angle and the sine of its
supplementary angle are the same, any
angle of rotation that maps one of the
lines into the other leads to the same
value for the spread between the lines.
 Although done rarely, one can report the
direct results of trigonometric functions,
such as the sine of the angle.

Angles between curves

The angle between the two curves at

P is defined as the angle between the
tangents A and B at P.

The angle between a line and a curve

(mixed angle) or between two intersecting
curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be
the angle between the tangents at the
point of intersection. Various names (now
rarely, if ever, used) have been given to
particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr. ἀμφί,
on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or cissoidal
(Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or
sistroidal (Gr. ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping),
concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. κοίλη, a
hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.[55]

Bisecting and trisecting

angles

The ancient Greek mathematicians knew

how to bisect an angle (divide it into two
angles of equal measure) using only a
compass and straightedge but could only
trisect certain angles. In 1837, Pierre
Wantzel showed that this construction
could not be performed for most angles.
Dot product and
generalisations

In the Euclidean space, the angle θ

between two Euclidean vectors u and v is
related to their dot product and their
lengths by the formula

This formula supplies an easy method to

find the angle between two planes (or
curved surfaces) from their normal vectors
and between skew lines from their vector
equations.
Inner product

To define angles in an abstract real inner

product space, we replace the Euclidean
dot product ( · ) by the inner product ,
i.e.

In a complex inner product space, the

expression for the cosine above may give
non-real values, so it is replaced with

or, more commonly, using the absolute

value, with
The latter definition ignores the direction
of the vectors. It thus describes the angle
between one-dimensional subspaces
and spanned by the
vectors and correspondingly.

Angles between subspaces

The definition of the angle between one-

dimensional subspaces and
given by

in a Hilbert space can be extended to

subspaces of finite dimensions. Given two
subspaces , with
 , this
leads to a definition of angles called
canonical or principal angles between
subspaces.

Angles in Riemannian geometry

In Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor

is used to define the angle between two
tangents. Where U and V are tangent
vectors and gij are the components of the
metric tensor G,
Hyperbolic angle

A hyperbolic angle is an argument of a

hyperbolic function just as the circular
angle is the argument of a circular
function. The comparison can be
visualized as the size of the openings of a
hyperbolic sector and a circular sector
since the areas of these sectors
correspond to the angle magnitudes in
each case. Unlike the circular angle, the
hyperbolic angle is unbounded. When the
circular and hyperbolic functions are
viewed as infinite series in their angle
argument, the circular ones are just
alternating series forms of the hyperbolic
functions. This weaving of the two types
of angle and function was explained by
Leonhard Euler in Introduction to the
Analysis of the Infinite.

Angles in geography and

astronomy

In geography, the location of any point on

the Earth can be identified using a
geographic coordinate system. This system
specifies the latitude and longitude of any
location in terms of angles subtended at
the center of the Earth, using the equator
and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as
references.
In astronomy, a given point on the celestial
sphere (that is, the apparent position of an
astronomical object) can be identified
using any of several astronomical
coordinate systems, where the references
vary according to the particular system.
Astronomers measure the angular
separation of two stars by imagining two
lines through the center of the Earth, each
intersecting one of the stars. The angle
between those lines and the angular
separation between the two stars can be
measured.

In both geography and astronomy, a

sighting direction can be specified in
terms of a vertical angle such as altitude
/elevation with respect to the horizon as
well as the azimuth with respect to north.

Astronomers also measure objects'

apparent size as an angular diameter. For
example, the full moon has an angular
diameter of approximately 0.5° when
viewed from Earth. One could say, "The
Moon's diameter subtends an angle of half
a degree." The small-angle formula can
convert such an angular measurement
into a distance/size ratio.

Other astronomical approximations

include:
 0.5° is the approximate diameter of the
Sun and of the Moon as viewed from
Earth.
1° is the approximate width of the little
finger at arm's length.
10° is the approximate width of a closed
fist at arm's length.
20° is the approximate width of a
handspan at arm's length.

These measurements depend on the

individual subject, and the above should be
treated as rough rule of thumb
approximations only.
In astronomy, right ascension and
declination are usually measured in
angular units, expressed in terms of time,
based on a 24-hour day.

Unit Symbol Degrees Radians Turns Other

Hour h 15° π⁄ rad 1⁄ turn

12 24

Minute m 0°15′ π⁄ rad 1⁄ turn 1⁄60 hour

720 1,440

Second s 0°0′15″ π⁄ rad 1⁄86,400 turn 1⁄60 minute

43200

See also

Angle measuring instrument

Angles between flats
Angular statistics (mean, standard
deviation)
Angle bisector
Angular acceleration
Angular diameter
Angular velocity
Argument (complex analysis)
Astrological aspect
Central angle
Clock angle problem
Decimal degrees
Dihedral angle
Exterior angle theorem
Golden angle
Great circle distance
Horn angle
Inscribed angle
 Irrational angle
Phase (waves)
Protractor
Solid angle
Spherical angle
Transcendent angle
Trisection
Zenith angle

Notes

1. This approach requires, however, an

additional proof that the measure of the
angle does not change with changing
radius r, in addition to the issue of
"measurement units chosen". A smoother
 approach is to measure the angle by the
length of the corresponding unit circle arc.
Here "unit" can be chosen to be
dimensionless in the sense that it is the
real number 1 associated with the unit
segment on the real line. See Radoslav M.
Dimitrić, for instance.[21]

a. Other proposals include the abbreviation

"rad" (Brinsmade 1936), the notation
(Romain 1962), and the constants ‫ם‬
(Brownstein 1997), ◁ (Lévy-Leblond 1998),
k (Foster 2010), θC (Quincey 2021), and

(Mohr et al. 2022).

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This article incorporates text from a

publication now in the public
domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911),
"Angle", Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2
(11th ed.), Cambridge University Press,
p. 14
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