INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY POSSIBLE SOURCES OF PARASITIC

INFECTIONS
Parasite 1. Soil
- Greek words: “para” = near & “sites” = a. Embryonated eggs which are present in
food soil may be ingested, e.g. roundworm,
- a living organism which for the purpose whipworm.
of procuring food & shelter take up their b. Infective larvae present in soil may
abode temporarily, on or within another enter by penetrating exposed skin, e.g.
living organism hookworm
- the one organism, usually the physically 2. Water
smaller of the two (the parasite) benefits a. Infective forms present in water may be
and the other (the host) is harmed swallowed
- This relationship can be loose or mostly b. Water containing the intermediate host
intimate, and for the parasite, it is usually may be swallowed
obligatory. c. Infective larvae in water may enter by
penetrating exposed skin
Macroparasites - multicellular parasites d. Free-living parasites in water may enter
that are visible to the naked human eye, through vulnerable sites such as the
such as helminth parasites (parasitic nasopharynx
worms, such as flukes, tapeworms, and 3. Food
roundworms, or nematodes). a. Contamination with human or animal
feces
b. Meat containing infective larvae
4. Insect Vectors
i. Biological vectors
a. Mosquito—malaria, filariasis
Microparasites - small, generally, b. Sandflies—kala-azar
unicellular and invisible to the naked eye, c. Tsetse flies—sleeping sickness
such as protozoan parasites. d. Reduviid bugs—Chagas’ disease
e. Ticks—Babesiosis
ii. Mechanical vectors
a. Housefly—amoebiasis
5. Animals
i. Domestic
a. Cow, e.g. beef tapeworm, sarcocystis.
The parasite causes harm to the host in b. Pig, e.g. pork tapeworm, Trichinella
many ways: spiralis
1. depriving the host of digested food; c. Dog, e.g. hydatid disease, leishmaniasis
2. erecting mechanical blockades of food, d. Cat, e.g. toxoplasmosis, opisthorchis
blood, lymph, and bile passages; and ii. Wild
3. causing tissue damages by rupture, a. Wild game animals, e.g.
enzymatic digestion, induction of trypanosomiasis.
autolysis, or secretion of toxins. b. Wild felines, e.g. Paragonimus
westermani
iii. Fish, e.g. fish tapeworm 4) INTERMITTENT PARASITE
iv. Molluscs, e.g. liver flukes - visits and leaves their hosts at intervals
v. Copepods, e.g. guinea worm like that during its feeding time, a.k.a.
6. Other Persons temporary parasite
Carriers and patients - leeches, bed bugs visit their host only for
7. Self (autoinfection) a short period of time
a. Finger to mouth transmission
b. Internal reinfection CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
PATHOGENICITY
KINDS OF PARASITES 1) Pathogenic – capable of causing disease
1) ECTOPARASITE 2) Non-pathogenic - incapable of causing
- lives on surface of the host disease
- have elaborate mechanisms and
strategies for finding hosts
- some aquatic leeches, e.g., locate hosts
by sensing movement and then confirm
their identity through skin temperature
and chemical cues before attaching
Examples: Ticks, Lice, Leeches, Mites &
Fleas
2) ENDOPARASITE
- lives within the host
- many endoparasites acquire hosts
through entrance of the tissue, as well as
through consumption of raw foods
Examples: Roundworms & Tapeworms in
the Gut

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE NEEDS

FOR A HOST
1) OBLIGATORY PARASITE CLASSIFICATION BASED ON WHERE THEY
- majority of parasites are obligatory ARE FOUND
parasites and are totally dependent on the 1) Coprophilic parasite – able to live and
host for food, shelter, and/or protection; multiply in moist fecal matter outside the
- they cannot survive without the host body
2) FACULTATIVE PARASITE 2) Hematozoic parasite – a parasite living
– one capable of choosing either a free- inside a red blood cell
living or a parasitic existence 3) Cytozoic Parasite – a parasite living
3) SPURIOUS PARASITE inside the cell or tissue
- a parasite of another animal which pass 4) Coelozoic parasite – the parasite living
through the human body without further in body cavities
development or without causing any 5) Enterozoic parasite – the parasite living
injury or damage inside the lumen of the intestines
OTHER TERMS 6) DIOECIOUS – having female & male
1) HYPERPARASITEOR SECONDARY reproductive organs in different
PARASITE individuals; or separate sexes (e.g.
- parasite within a parasite; i.e. malaria in nematodes, schistosomes)
mosquitoes, tapeworm larvae in fleas. 7) MONOECIOUS – having female and
- sometimes referred to as male reproductive organs in same
"hyperparasitoidism" individual; hermaphroditic (e.g.
2) PSEUDOPARASITE tapeworms)
- an object that is mistaken for a parasite
VECTORS – transmit parasites from host to
host
a) Biological Vector - essential in the life
cycle of a parasite.
b) Mechanical Vector - unessential in the
life cycle of a parasite (e.g. cysts of
intestinal protozoa carried over to food by
legs of vectors.
3) WANDERING OR ABBERANT PARASITE c) Anthropophilic Vector – when the
- one which is never transmitted from man vector prefers human blood when it is
to man & which develops abnormally in available.
man. d) Zoophilic Vector – when the vector
- instead of arriving at the site of infection prefers animal blood when it is available.
in the definitive host, reach an unusual
place as a dead end, becoming unable to ZOONOSIS – literally means “diseases of
complete the life cycle. For example, the animals”
tapeworm Taenia solium may migrate to – now used to describe those diseases of
the brain and remain there unless animals, which are transmittable to
removed via an operation. humans.
4) MONOXENOUS – these parasites have
only one host, rest of the cycle being TYPES OF HOSTS
spent outside the host (e.g. Entamoeba 1)DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST
histolytica; a.k.a. monogenic parasites) - host in which parasite reaches sexual
5) HETEROXENOUS – these parasites have maturity & reproduces.
two or more hosts, usually belonging to - is usually the main host. For digenetic
parasite widely separated taxonomic parasites, it is the host for the adult stage
groups (e.g. Taenia, various flukes) and for the completion of sexual part of
- a.k.a. digenetic parasite needs, in life cycle.
addition to a primary host, also a - e.g. humans (Schistosomes), mosquito
secondary host to complete the entire life (Plasmodium vivax)
cycle. Plasmodium vivax (malaria parasite) 2) INTERMEDIATE HOST/SECONDARY HOST
completes its asexual part of life cycle in - Some development in host, but does not
people and the sexual part in the female reach sexual maturity; often asexual
Anopheles mosquito. stages.
- a temporary environment, but one that i. Contact and entry to the host
is essential for the completion of a ii. Migration of the parasite in the
particular parasite's life cycle. host to its habitat
- true for digenetic parasites iii. Maturation and reproduction
- e.g. snails (Clonorchis sinensis)
3) PARATENIC HOST - an IH in which no
development of the parasite occurs, A. Contact & Entry to the Host:
although its presence may be required as - This involves EXPOSURE (the act/ process
an essential link in the completion of the of introduction of the parasite to its host)
parasite's life cycle from one or more sources as:
- e.g. the successive fish hosts that carry 1) Contaminated soil – oral ingestion
the plerocercoid of D. latum, to larger food 2) Contaminated water – oral ingestion
fish eventually eaten by humans or other 3) Food containing the immature infective
final hosts. stage of the parasite
4)RESERVOIR HOST 4) Skin penetration from bites of
- Non-human animals that serve as arthropod vector or from direct
sources penetration of infective forms.
of infection to humans. 5) A domestic or wild animal harboring the
- It can harbor a pathogen indefinitely parasite
with 6) Another person, his clothing, bedding,
no ill effects. or immediate environment which he has
- are permissive host alternatives to contaminated.
definitive hosts, such that the infective 7) Airborne transmission
stage can be passed from the host to the 8) Transplacental (i.e. congenital)
population of the definitive host. 9) Blood transmission
The Roof rat (Rattus rattus) is a reservoir 10) One’s self – autoinfection
host of bubonic plague with the oriental B. Migration of parasite in the host to its
rat fleas that infest them being a prime habitat.
vector of the disease. C. Maturation & Reproduction
5)SUSCEPTIBLE HOST - one that is readily - involves the parasite’s use of the host’s
infected by a particular parasite nutrients for growth, energy and
6)PERMISSIVE HOST - is either a definitive, multiplication.
intermediate, or accidental host that
allows the parasite to complete its life Biological Incubation Period
cycle in part or the whole. - period related to the development of the
7)NON-PERMISSIVE HOST - is a host parasite.
organism other than a true definitive host, - starts w/ the entry of the parasite to its
which receives the parasite but the host & ends as soon as the parasite or
parasite finds itself in a dead end. their products can be demonstrated in the
feces or other excreta or in the circulating
PHASES OF PARASITISM blood (parasitemia), by aspiration, biopsy
- For a parasite to establish itself in its or other diagnostic procedure.
host, it must undergo various stages/
phases: Clinical Incubation Period
- refers to the interval between exposure 1) Clinical (based of medical signs and
& the earliest evidence of symptoms reported symptoms, rather than
produced as a result of the infection (or diagnostic tests)
infestation). 2) Laboratory (based significantly on
laboratory reports or test results, rather
than the physical examination of the
Infection patient.
- is the entry & development or
multiplication of a pathogen in the body of Epidemiology - the branch of medicine
man or animals. which deals with the incidence,
Infestation distribution, and possible control of
- is the lodgment, development & diseases and other factors relating to
reproduction of arthropods on the surface health.
of the body or in the clothing of man, or Epidemiologic studies will:
the fur of animals. ✓ provide info on the prevalence of
parasites in a population;
THE ENVIRONMENT ✓ indicate whether the infections are
- The presence or absence of a number of endemic, hyperendemic, epidemic &
biological, chemical & physical factors in sporadic;
the environment directly or indirectly ✓ provide clues as to the sources of
affects the densities & distribution of exposure; and
parasites. These are: ✓ direct attention to the amount of illness
1) Flora – vegetation that serves as food & in the community for the application of
shelter for hosts, both definitive & control/preventive measures
intermediate, greatly influences parasite • PREVALENCE RATE - the frequency of
population. occurrence of a disease in a population in
2) Fauna – animal population constitute a certain period of time. It includes old &
potential hosts for parasites so that the new cases; & is usually expressed in %.
latter can maintain themselves. • INCIDENCE RATE - the frequency of
3) Water – some infective forms of occurrence of a disease (involving new
parasites are free-swimming & requires cases only) in a popl’n for a certain pd of
water to migrate & reach its host. time. (%)
4) Host population density & behavior • MORTALITY RATE – expresses the
- population densities of transport, frequency of deaths among those having
intermediate & definitive hosts affect the disease in a community. It is expressed
parasite population densities. in deaths per 100,000 per year.
5) Influence of Seasons/ Climate/ • MORBIDITY RATE – expresses the
Temperature/ Humidity frequency of being sick of the disease; & is
commonly reported as cases of notifiable
DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT, PREVENTION disease per 1,000 per year.
AND CONTROL OF PARASITOSES • ENDEMIC – when disease in the human
Diagnosis has 2 methods of approach: population maintains a relatively steady,
moderate level; always present
• HYPERENDEMIC – if prevalence is high b) the conditions under which it survives
• EPIDEMIC – if there is a sharp rise in the &propagates.
incidence or an outbreak of considerable c) the means of exposure & transmission
intensity occurs to man & other hosts.
• SPORADIC – if it appears only
occasionally in one or at most a few The practicing physician can contribute to
members of the community. their control in the following ways:
• EPIDEMICITY – typically results from a) the detection, accurate diagnosis &
introduction of an agent or a new strain evaluation of the clinical importance of
into a community. the
disease in the patient;
Once accurate specific diagnosis has been b) adequate treatment of the patient;
made the following points must be c) search for & treatment of other cases in
considered before proceeding with the patient’s family;
treatment: d) determination, if possible, of the source
1) severity, duration & intensity of of the infection, prompt reporting to
infection & the probability of reinfection health officials;
2) efficacy, availability, toxicity, & e) advise to patients & their families as to
acceptability of the treatment. how they can avoid further exposure;
- chemotherapy, surgical intervention (e.g. f) support& cooperation in community
lesions found in the brain or eye produced preventive measures; and
by Cysticercus cellulosae g) education of patients in ways utilizing &
strengthening local health depts.
CONTROL
- of a disease means its restraint Methods applicable to the control &
- in the patient = may constitute prevention of parasitic diseases are
symptomatic relief or repression of the directed to anyone or all of the
activities of the causative agent but not its components of parasitism and are
elimination. designed to cut a link in the parasitic cycle.
PREVENTION a) Measures directed to the HOST
- in public health = a check to sufficiently - prompt examination & treatment of
remove the likelihood of further human cases
dissemination of an epidemic or to reduce b) Measures directed against the
the prevalence of disease in a population. PARASITE
- implies interception, so that the - use of synthetic & natural chemical
individuals in a community are no longer preparations that are parasiticidal
exposed to the hazards of the disease. c) Measures directed against the VECTOR,
RESEVOIR HOSTS, AND OTHER
A prerequisite to control & prevention of ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
the parasitoses is a clear understanding of - application of chemicals to eradicate or
the epidemiology of each causative kill arthropod vectors.
organism such as: - application of molluscides on bodies of
a) the distinctive characteristics of the fresh to brackish H2O to kill snails.
parasite.
- control thru environmental sanitation& millions of people especially in the
sanitary waste disposal. Americas, Africa & Eurasia
• may cause five principal forms of plague:
(a) bubonic, (b) septicemic, (c) pneumonic,
(d) meningeal, and (e) pharyngeal plague
Y. pestis on proventricular spines lining the
digestive tract of an Oriental rat flea.

(a)Bubonic Plague
- incubation period: 2-8 days
MODULE 2 History-Altering - patients develop fever, headache, chills,
Microorganisms and weakness and one or more swollen,
painful lymph nodes (buboes)
HISTORY-ALTERING MICROBES: - bite of an infected flea
BACTERIA - bacteria multiply in a lymph node near
Thermus aquaticus the portal of entry.
• discovered by Thomas Brock in 1969 at
the Yellowstone National Park, USA
• heterotrophic, rod-shaped, immotile,
often filamentous, Gram (-) bacteria
• thermophilic hot spring bacterium
• the DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase)
used in Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
is isolated from this species
→ stable & functional at 95°C through (b) Septicemic Plague
multiple cycles = unaffected by the - incubation period: poorly-defined; likely
denaturation step employed in the PCR; within days of exposure
incredibly accurate! - patients develop fever, chills, extreme
weakness, abdominal pain, shock, and
possibly bleeding into the skin and other
organs
- bite of an infected flea or from handling
infected animals
- can occur as the first symptom of plague
or may develop from untreated bubonic
plague
(c) Pneumonic Plague
- incubation period: 1-3 days
- patients develop fever, headache,
Yersinia pestis weakness, and a rapidly developing
• nonmotile, aerobic, Gram (-) bacilli or pneumonia with shortness of breath,
coccobacilli chest pain, cough, and sometimes bloody
• caused the infamous Plague that killed or watery mucous
- from inhalation of infectious droplets or - a serious infection that can affect the
may develop from untreated bubonic or blood, heart, brain, eyes, bones, and other
septicemic plague after the bacteria parts of the body
spread to the lungs = person-to-person - Candidemia, is a common infection in
transmission hospitalized patients
- Symptoms: fever and chills that don’t
HISTORY-ALTERING MICROBES: BACTERIA improve after antibiotic treatment
Yersinia pestis - Prevention: antifungal medication, be a
• PPE: long robes, high boots, gloves, hats safe patient: speak up & keep hands clean
& beak-shaped masks (c) Thrush: Infections of the mouth,
→Why the beak-shaped masks? – space throat & esophagus
for - common in cancer, diabetic, HIV/AIDS
natural, aromatic herbs that “filter” the patients and other immunocompromised
bad air (miasma) - Symptoms: white patches on the inner
→Cane = measure of distance from cheeks, tongue, roof of the mouth, throat;
patients redness/soreness; cotton-like feeling in
• Etiology was resolved in 1894 in Hong the mouth, loss of taste, pain while
Kong by Alexandre Yersin (also contributed eating/swallowing, cracking & redness at
to resolving part of the transmission cycle) the corners of the mouth
- Prevention: maintaining good oral
HISTORY-ALTERING MICROBES: FUNGI health, rinsing after inhaled
Candida albicans corticosteroids
• Yeast, a natural inhabitant of the body
• Overgrowth = Candidiasis Penicillium sp.
• Common infections: • Genus of blue or green mold
(a)Vaginal yeast infection • Found on foodstuffs, leather and fabrics
(b) Thrush •Of economic importance = antibiotic
(c) Invasive candidiasis (penicillin), and cheese production
• Not an STI: The balance of yeast could
change as a result of sexual activity but (a) Antibiotic production
having sex does not cause infection. • Penicillium chrysogenum
• it inhibits the bacterial enzymes
(a)Vaginal candidiasis (or Vaginal yeast responsible for cell wall synthesis in
infection) replicating microorganisms and by
- hormones, medicines, or changes in the activating other enzymes to break down
immune system can make infection more the protective wall of the microorganism
likely (esp. Gram +)
- Symptoms: itching/soreness, pain during • Penicillins: treatment of throat
sexual intercourse, pain/discomfort when infections,
urinating, abnormal vaginal discharge syphilis, meningitis, etc.
- Prevention: wearing cotton underwear; (b) Cheese production
take antibiotics exactly as prescribed • Penicillium roqueforti
(b) Invasive candidiasis • Used in making blue cheese
• asexual spores (conidia) are inoculated complexity of the host ≠ complexity of the
into the cheese curd at the beginning of virion
the cheese-making process
• initially collected from naturally-rotten
bread
• Common spoiling agent in food (e.g.,
bread, fruits)

ACELLULAR ENTITIES: VIRUSES

• acellular parasitic entities
• lack most of the components of cells,
such as organelles, ribosomes, and the
plasma membrane
• not classified within any domain or
kingdom
• vary in their structure, their replication
methods, and in their target hosts
Virions: Very small (~ 20–250nm) virus VIRUS LIFE CYCLE
particles outside of the cell; the infectious 1. Attachment (adsorption) of the virion to
form of a virus outside the host cell the host cell
2. Penetration (entry, injection) of the
virion nucleic acid into the host cell
3. Synthesis of virus nucleic acid and
protein by host cell machinery as
redirected by the virus
4. Assembly of capsids and packaging of
viral genomes into new virions
5. Release of new virions from the cell

THE PLAQUE ASSAY

The shapes and sizes of viruses vary and

are distinct for each family.
Structures:
• nucleic acid core
• outer protein coating or capsid
• outer envelope made of protein and
phospholipid membranes derived from
the host cell (sometimes, notably among
viruses that infect animal cells)
VIRUSES: TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS one flattened end or as bacilliform
TMV is usually transmitted from plant to particles.
plant by mechanical means (e.g., worker's • generally acquired from the bite of an
hands, cultivation, etc.) infected animal.
Symptoms: • The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) is the
• smaller than normal size most important vector but may also occur
• mosaic of dark and light green areas on in bats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes
foliage TRANSMISSION:
• vein-banding (darker green tissue 1. Bite of infected rabid animal
following along veins) 2. Contact of saliva with broken skin, with
• distorted or puckered foliage tips mucous membrane, or with lesions
• necrosis or browning = “mosaic burn” 3. Corneal transplant

VIRUSES: THE RABIES VIRUS

• Order Mononegavirales, Rhabdoviridae
Family
• Mature virion appears either as bullet
shaped particles with one rounded and
 • No viroids are known that infect animals
or microorganisms.
ACELLULAR ENTITIES: VIROIDS
Viroid movement inside plants
• After entry into a plant cell, viroids
replicate either in the nucleus or the
chloroplast.
• Viroids can move between plant cells via
the plasmodesmata.
• On a larger scale, viroids can move
around the plant via the plant vascular
system.
VIROID DISEASE
• Viroid-infected plants can be
symptomless or develop symptoms that
range from mild to lethal.
• Most are growth related, and it is
believed that viroids mimic or in some way
interfere with plant small regulatory RNAs
ACELLULAR ENTITIES: VIROIDS & PRIONS
• The opposite extreme from that of
viroids
• infectious agents whose extracellular
form consists entirely of protein = lacks
both DNA and RNA.
• cause several neurological diseases e.g.,
scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE or “mad cow
disease”) in cattle, chronic wasting disease
in deer and elk, and kuru and variant
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.
• No prion diseases of plants are known,
ACELLULAR ENTITIES: VIROIDS & PRIONS although prions have been found in yeast.
• small, circular, infectious ssRNA • Collectively, animal prion diseases are
molecules known as transmissible spongiform
• differ from viruses: they lack protein encephalopathies.
• Size range: 246 to 399
• cause a number of important plant If prions lack nucleic acid, how is prion
diseases and can have a severe protein encoded?
agricultural impact • The host cell itself encodes the prion.
• A few well-studied viroids include • The host contains a gene, Prnp (“Prion
coconut cadang-cadang viroid (246 protein”), which encodes the native form
nucleotides) and potato spindle tuber of the prion, known as PrPC (Prion Protein
viroid (359 nucleotides). Cellular).
• This is primarily found in the neurons of 4. Blurry vision or blindness
healthy animals, especially in the brain. 5. Insomnia
• The pathogenic form of the prion 6. Problems with coordination
protein is designated PrPSc (prion protein 7. Trouble speaking
Scrapie), because the first prion disease to 8. Trouble swallowing
be discovered was that of scrapie in 9. Sudden, jerky movements
sheep.
• PrPSc is identical in amino acid sequence
to PrPC from the same species, but has a
different conformation.

PRIONS: BOVINE SPONGIFORM

ENCEPHALOPATHY
• “mad cow disease”
• progressive neurological disorder of
cattle
• possibly originated as a result of feeding
cattle meat-and-bone meal that contained
BSE-infected products from a
spontaneously occurring case of BSE or
scrapie-infected sheep products.

PRIONS: CREUTZFELDT–JAKOB DISEASE

• rapidly progressive, invariably fatal
neurodegenerative disorder that leads to
dementia
• very rare: 1-2 cases in per million people
each year
SYMPTOMS:
1. Personality changes
2. Memory loss
3. Impaired thinking