CASE HARDENING

This steel gear has been case

hardened -- a process in which
carbon atoms have been diffused
into the surface of the steel. This
increases the surficial carbon
content of the steel, making it
harder and more wear resistant.
The interior that is not carbon en-
riched remains softer and non-
brittle.
 VACANCY DIFFUSION

 

substitutional impurity atom host atom

 INTERSTITIAL DIFFUSION

 

interstitial impurity atom host atom

 DIFFUSION COUPLE

nickel copper
100

75

C'Ni (at %)
50

25

0
lateral position

before heat treatment

 DIFFUSION COUPLE

nickel copper
100

75

C'Ni (at %)
50

25

0
lateral position

after heat treatment

 FICK'S FIRST LAW: SETUP

Suppose that the concentra-

tion of a diffusing species
through a slab of host mate- d
rial is held at Cf (higher) on
the front surface and at Cb
(lower) on the back surface. Cf slab
Assuming steady-state condi-
tions exist in which the con-
centration profile is stationary Cb
and linear, a steady diffusion
flux through the slab from front
to back surfaces will result. 0 d
 FICK'S FIRST LAW

Given a slab of host material and a second species

diffusing through that material:

J = -D[dC(x)/dx]

J is the diffusion flux of the diffusing species (kg/s/m2);

D is the diffusion coefficient of the diffusing species in
the host material (m2/s); C(x) is the concentration of
the diffusing species in the host material (kg/m3); and
dC(x)/dx (= [Cf - Cb)/d) is the concentration gradient
(kg/m3/m).
 FICK'S FIRST LAW PROBLEM

Problem: Hydrogen gas is purified by allowing it to

diffuse through a .25-mm thick rectangular sheet of
palladium with dimensions 20 cm by 10 cm. One side
of the sheet is exposed to gaseous hydrogen with
impurities. The hydrogen molecules selectively diffuse
through the sheet to the opposite side, which is main-
tained at a lower (hydrogen) pressure. At what mass
flow rate would hydrogen diffuse through this sheet if
the high and low pressure sides of the sheet have
hydrogen concentrations of 2.4 kg/m3 and 0.6 kg/m3
respectively? Take the diffusion coefficient in this in-
stance to be 1.0x10-8 m2/s.
 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT CALCULATION

The diffusion coefficient for a diffusing species-host

material combination is predicted by the empirical for-
mula:

D(T) = Doe-Qd/RT

Do is a temperature-independent pre-exponential (found

in diffusion data tables and measured in m2/s); Qd is
the activation energy for the diffusion (found in diffu-
sion data tables and measured in J/mol); R is the
universal gas constant 8.31 J/mol.K; and T is the treat-
ment temperature (absolute temperature in kelvins).
 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT PROBLEM

Problem: Predict the diffusion coefficient for copper

atoms through aluminum at a treatment temperature
of 500 °C. Use Do = 6.5x10-5 m2/s and Qd = 136,000 J/
mol.
 CALCULATED DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS

T(°C) C in a-Fe Zn in Cu Mg in Al

0 2.495x10-52 1.581x10-41 1.003x10-29

100 1.902x10-39 7.927x10-32 5.303x10-23
200 5.179x10-32 3.145x10-26 4.027x10-19
300 3.582x10-27 1.387x10-22 1.352x10-16
400 9.032x10-24 5.052x10-20 8.061x10-15
500 3.001x10-21 4.001x10-18 1.669x10-13
600 2.637x10-19 1.164x10-16 1.726x10-12
700 9.236x10-18 1.693x10-15 above host
800 1.667x10-16 1.495x10-14 M.P.

note: all coefficient values given in m2/s

 FICK'S SECOND LAW: SETUP

Suppose that the initial con-

centration of a diffusing spe-
cies throughout a slab of host d
material is a constant Co. At t
= 0 assume that the left and
right boundaries of the slab (x Cs slab
= 0 and x = d) are maintained
at concentrations Cs and Co Cx
respectively. C(x,t) is the dif- Co Co
fusing species concentration
at any point within the slab at
any time t. 0 x d
 FICK'S SECOND LAW

Fick's Second Law is a partial differential equation

relating the concentration C(x,t) of a diffusing species
in a host material to time (t) and lateral position (x) in
the host.

C,t = DC,xx

This equation is solved for the boundary conditions

C(0,t) = Cs and C(d,t) = Co by:

C(x,t) = Cs - (Cs - Co)erf[x/2(Dt)1/2]

note: C(x,t) can be measured in kg/m3 or wt %.

 ERROR FUNCTION TABLE

z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z)

0.0000 0.0000 0.5000 0.5205 1.0000 0.8427 1.5000 1.5500
0.0500 0.0564 0.5500 0.5633 1.0500 0.8624 1.5500 0.9716
0.1000 0.1125 0.6000 0.6039 1.1000 0.8802 1.6000 0.9763
0.1500 0.1680 0.6500 0.6420 1.1500 0.8961 1.6500 0.9804
0.2000 0.2227 0.7000 0.6778 1.2000 0.9103 1.7000 0.9838
0.2500 0.2763 0.7500 0.7112 1.2500 0.9229 1.7500 0.9867
0.3000 0.3286 0.8000 0.7421 1.3000 0.9340 1.8000 0.9891
0.3500 0.3794 0.8500 0.7707 1.3500 0.9438 1.8500 0.9911
0.4000 0.4284 0.9000 0.7969 1.4000 0.9523 1.9000 0.9928
0.4500 0.4755 0.9500 0.8209 1.4500 0.9597 1.9500 0.9942
0.5000 0.5205 1.0000 0.8427 1.5000 0.9661 2.0000 0.9953

z
note: erf(z) = 2π-1/2 S exp{-t2} dt
0
 FICK'S SECOND LAW PROBLEM

Problem: Suppose you want to improve the wear re-

sistance of a steel gear (which is .25 wt % carbon) by
hardening its surface (case hardening). A carburiza-
tion process is selected in which the surface carbon
concentration of the gear is to be maintained at 1.00
wt %. The goal of the process is to produce a carbon
concentration of .50 wt % at a position .40 mm below
the suface of the gear. If the diffusion treatment is to
be done at 950 °C, how long will the process take?
Use the following diffusion data for carbon in γ-iron: Do
= 2.3x10-5 m2/s and Qd = 148,000 J/mol.
 TREATMENT TIME STRATEGY

For a given diffusing species-host material combina-

tion, concentrations (Cs, Cx, and Co), target depth (x),
and treatment temperature (T), predict the time (t)
required for the diffusion process.

(1) find D = Doexp{-Qd/RT}

(2) find z for erf(z) = (Cs - Cx)/(Cs - Co)
(3) find t = x2/4Dz2
 TREATMENT TEMPERATURE STRATEGY

For a given diffusing species-host material combina-

tion, concentrations (Cs, Cx, and Co), target depth (x),
diffusion time (t), calculate the temperature (T) at which
the process must be maintained.

(1) find z for erf(z) = (Cs - Cx)/(Cs - Co)

(2) find D = x2/4tz2
(3) find T = Qd/Rln(Do/D)
 TREATMENT DEPTH STRATEGY

For a given diffusing species-host material combina-

tion, concentrations (Cs, Cx, and Co), treatment time
(t), and treatment temperature (T), calculate the depth
(x) at which the concentration Cx will be present.

(1) find D = Doexp{-Qd/RT}

(2) find z for erf(z) = (Cs - Cx)/(Cs - Co)
(3) find x = 2z[Dt]1/2
Engineering B45 DIFFUSION PROBLEMS

Fick's First Law Problem: Hydrogen gas is sometimes purified by allowing it to diffuse through a thin sheet of
palladium. One side of the sheet is exposed to a gas composed of molecular hydrogen and other impurities. The
hydrogen molecules, due to their small size, selectively diffuse through the sheet to the opposite side, which is
maintained at a constant (and lower) hydrogen pressure. At what rate would hydrogen gas diffuse through a .25-
mm thick sheet of palladium with dimensions 10 cm by 20 cm if the high and low pressure sides of the sheet have
hydrogen concentrations of 2.4 kg/m3 and 0.6 kg/m3 respectively? Assume that the diffusion coefficient at the
temperature this is carried out at is 1.0x10-8 m2/s, and that the process is a steady state one.

Diffusion Coefficient Problem: Predict the diffusion coefficient for copper atoms through aluminum at a treatment
temperature of 500 K. Use Do = 6.5x10-5 m2/s and Qd = 136,000 J/mole.

Fick's Second Law Problem: Suppose you want to improve the wear resistance of a steel gear (which is .25 wt
% carbon) by hardening its surface (case hardening). A carburization process is selected in which the surface
carbon concentration of the gear is to be maintained at 1.00 wt %. The goal of the process is to produce a carbon
concentration of .50 wt % at a position .40 mm below the suface of the gear. If the diffusion treatment is to be done
at 950 °C, how long will the process take? Use the following diffusion data for carbon in γ-iron: Do = 2.3x10-5 m2/
s and Qd = 148,000 J/mole.