Contouring 2019

CONTOURING
Contour: A Contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation. It is a
line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. A contour line is a line on the
map representing a contour.
Contour Interval: The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour
interval. The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan, otherwise the general appearance of
the map will be misleading. The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contours
is known as the horizontal equivalent and depends upon the steepness of the ground. The choice of
proper contour interval depends upon the following considerations:
(1) The nature of the ground: The contour interval depends upon whether the country is flat or
highly undulated. A contour interval chosen for a flat ground will be highly unsuitable for
undulated ground. For every flat ground, a small interval is necessary. If the ground is more
broken, greater contour interval should be adopted; otherwise the contour will come too close
to each other.
(2) The scale of the map: The contour interval must be inversely proportional to the scale. If the
scale is small, the contour interval should be large. If the scale is large, the contour interval
should be small.
(3) The purpose and extent of the survey: The contour interval largely depends upon the purpose
and the extent of the survey. For example, if the survey is intended for detailed design work
or for accurate earth work calculations, small contour interval is to be used. The extent of
survey in such cases will generally be small. In the cases of location surveys, for lines of
communications and for reservoir and drainage areas, where the extent of survey is large, a
large contour interval is to be used.
(4) Time and expense of field and office work: If the time available is less, greater contour
interval should be used. If the contour interval is small, greater time will be taken in the field
survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.
Considering all these aspects, the contour interval for a particular contour plan is selected. This
contour interval is kept constant in that plan, otherwise it will mislead the general appearance of
the ground.

Characteristics of Contours: The following characteristics features may be used while plotting
or reading a contour plan.
(1) Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. If they did, the point of
intersection would have two different elevations which are absurb. However, contour
lines of different elevations can intersect only in the case of an overhanging cliff or a
cave.

Fig: 5.8 Overhanging Cliff

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(2) Contour lines close together indicate steep slope. They indicate a gentle slope if they are
far apart. If they are equally spaced, uniform slope is indicated. A series of straight,
parallel and equally spaced contours represent a plane surface. Thus, Fig: 5.9 represents
the above cases

Fig: 5.9 Contour lines indicating different ground profiles

(3) A contour passing through any point is perpendicular to the line of steepest slope at that
point.
(4) A closed contour line with one or more higher ones inside it represents a hill. Similarly, a
closed contour line with one or more lower ones inside it indicates a depression without
an outlet

Fig: 5.10 Contours representing a hill and depression

(5) To contour lines having the same elevation cannot unite and continue as one line.
Similarly, a single contour cannot split into two lines. This is evident because the single
line would, otherwise, indicate a knife edge ridge or depression which does not occur in
nature. However, two different contours of the same elevation may approach very near to
each other.
(6) A contour line must close upon itself, through not necessarily within the limits of the
map.
(7) Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line at right angles. They form curves of U-shape
round it with the concave side of the curve towards the higher ground
(8) Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form sharp curves of V-shape
across it with convex side of the curve towards the higher ground.

Fig : 5.11 Contours representing Ridge line and Valley line

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METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS:

The location of a point in topographic survey involves both horizontal as well as vertical
control. The method of locating contours, therefore, depends upon the instruments used. In general,
however, the field method may be divided into two classes:
(a) Direct Method: In the direct method, each contour is located by determining the positions of a
series of points through which the contour passes. The operation is also sometimes called
tracing out contours. The field work is two-flod:
(i) Vertical Control: Location of points on the contour:
The points on the contour are traced either with the help of a level and staff or with
the help of a hand level. The level is set at a point to command as much area as is
possible and is levelled. The staff is kept on the B.M and the height of the instrument
is determined. Now the staff is calculated so that the bottom of the staff is at an
elevation equal to the valve of the contour. For example, if the height of the
instrument is 101.80 metres, the staff reading to get a point on the contour of 100.0
metres will be 1.80 metres. The staff man is directed to keep the staff on the points on
contour so that reading of 1.80 m is obtained every time. The staff man should be
instructed to insert a lath or twig at that point thus located.

Fig : 5.12 Vertical and horizontal Control

(ii) Horizontal Control: Survey of located points:
After having located the points on various contours, they are to be surveyed with a
suitable control system. The system to be adopted depends mainly on the type and
extent of areas. For small area, chain surveying may be used and the points may be
located by offsets from the survey lines. In a work of larger nature, a traverse may be
used. The traverse may be a theodolite or a compass or a plane table traverse.

Note: In the direct method, two survey parties generally work simultaneously- one locating
the points on the contours and the other surveying those points. However, if the work is of a
small nature, the points may be located first and then surveyed by the same party.

(b) Indirect method: In this method, some guide points are selected along a system of straight
lines and their elevations are found. The points are then plotted and contours are then drawn
by interpolation. While interpolation, it is assumed that the slope between any two adjacent
guide points is uniform. The following are some of the indirect methods of locating the
ground points:
(i) By Squares: This method is used when the area to be surveyed is small and the
ground is not very much undulating. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number
of squares. The size of square may vary from 5 to 20 m depending upon the nature of
the contour and contour interval. The elevations of the corners of the square are then
determined by means of a level and a staff. The contour lines may then be drawn by
interpolation. It is not necessary that the squares may be of the same size. Sometimes,

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rectangles are also used in place of squares. The method is also known as spot
levelling.

Fig: 5.13 By squares

(ii) By Cross-sections: In this method, cross-sections are run transverse to the centre line
of a road, railway or canal etc. The method is most suitable for railway route surveys.
The spacing of the cross-section depends upon the character of the terrain, the
contour interval and the purpose of the survey. The contour lines are interpolated on
the assumption that there is uniform slope between two points on two adjacent
contours. Thus in Fig: 5.14, the points marked with dots are the points actually
surveyed in the field while the points marked with x on the first cross-section are the
points interpolated on contours.

Fig : 5.14 By Cross-sections

(iii) By Tacheometric Method: In the case of hilly terrain, the tacheometric method may
be used with advantages. A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm
so that staff readings against all the three hairs may be taken. The staff intercept s is
then obtained by taking the difference between the readings against the top and
bottom wires. The line of sight can make any inclination with the horizontal, thus
increasing the range of instrument observations. The horizontal distance need not be
measured, since the tacheometer provides both horizontal as well as vertical control.
Thus, if θ is the inclination of the line of sight with horizontal (Fig.5.15), the
horizontal distance (D), between the instrument and the staff, and the vertical
difference in elevation (V) between the instrument axis and the point in which the
line of sight against the central wire intersects the staff are given by,
D = K1s cos2θ + K2 cos θ and V = D tan θ
Where, K1 and K2 are instrumental constants.

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Fig: 5.15 Tacheometric Method

The tacheometer may be set on a point from which greater control can be obtained.
Radial lines can then be set making different angles with either the magnetic meridian
or with the first radial line (Fig: 5.16). On each radial line, readings may be taken on
levelling staff kept at different points. The point must be so chosen that approximate
vertical difference in elevation between two consecutive points is less than the
contour interval. Now all the points with same elevation should be joined to get the
contour map.

Fig: 5.16 Radial lines

INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS:
Interpolation of the contours is the process of spacing the contours proportionately between
the plotted ground points established by indirect methods. The methods of interpolation are based on
the assumption that the slope of ground between the two points is uniform. The chief methods of
interpolation are:
(i) By Estimation: This method is extremely rough and is used for small scale work only.
The positions of contour points between the guide points are located by estimation.
(ii) By Arithmetic Calculations: This method, though accurate, is time consuming. The
positions of contour points between the guide points are located by arithmetic calculation.
For example, let A, B, D and C be the guide points plotted on the map, having elevations
of 607.4, 617.3, 612.5 and 604.3 feet respectively (Fig:5.17). Let AB = BD = CD =CA =
1 inch on the plan and let it be required to locate the position of 605,610 and 615 feet
contours on these lines. The vertical difference in elevation between A and B is (617.3-
604.4) = 9.9ft. Hence, the distances of the contour points from A will be:
Distance of 610ft contour points = (1/9.9) * 2.6 = 0.26” (approx.)
Distance of 615ft contour point = (1/9.9) * 7.6 = 0.76” (approx.)
These two contour points may be located on AB. Similarly, the position of the contour
points on the lines AC,CD, BD and also on AD and BC may be located. Contour lines may
then be drawn through appropriate contour points, as shown in Fig:5.17

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Fig : 5.17 By Arithmetic Calculation

(iii) By Graphical Method: In the graphical method, the interpolation is done with the help of
a tracing paper or a tracing cloth. There are two methods:
First method
The first method is illustrated in Fig:5.18. On a piece of tracing cloth, several lines are
drawn parallel to each other, say at an interval representing 0.2 metre. Let the bottom line
of the diagram, so prepared on the tracing cloth, represent an elevation of 99 m and let it
be required to interpolate contours of 99.5, 100 and 100.5 m values between two points A
and B having elevation of 99.2 and 100.7 m respectively. Keep the tracing cloth on the
line in such a way that point A may lie on a parallel representing an elevation of 99.2
metres. Now rotate the tracing cloth on drawing in such a way that point B may lie on a
parallel representing 100.7 metres. The points at which the parallels representing 99.5
(point x), 100.0 (point y) amd 100.5 (point z) may now be picked through the respective
positions of the contour point on the line AB.

Fig : 5.18 First method

Second method
The second method is illustrated in Fig:5.19. A line XY of any convenient length is taken
on a tracing cloth and divided into several parts, each representing any particular interval,
say 0.2m. On a line perpendicular to XY at its mid-point, a pole O is chosen and radial
lines are drawn joining the pole O and the division on the line XY. Let the bottom radial
line represent an elevation of 97.0. let it be required to interpolate contours of 98.0,
99.0,100.0 and 101.0 metres elevations between two points A and B having elevations of
97.6 and 101.8 metres. Arrange the tracing cloth on the line AB in such a way that the
point A and B lie simultaneously on radial lines representing 97.6 and 101.8 metres
respectively. The points at which radial lines of 98, 99,100 and 101 metres intersect AB
may then be picked.

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Fig: 5.19 Second Method

CONTOUR GRADIENT:
Contour gradient is a line throughout on the surface of the ground and preserving a constant
inclination to the horizontal. If the inclination of such a line is given, its direction from a point may be
easily located either on the map or on the ground. To locate the contour gradient in the field, a
clinometer, a theodolite or a level may be used.
To locate a rising gradient of 1 in 100 from the station A in Fig: 5.20, a levelling instrument is
set up at a commanding position and backsight is taken on the staff held at A. Let us say the B.S is
2.50m. The reading of the staff held at any point on the contour gradient can be calculated from its
distance from A. For a distance of 30m, the required staff reading is , [ 2.50- (30/100)] = 2.2m.

Fig: 5.20 Contour gradient

To locate a point a at a distance of 30m from A, the staffman holds the 30m mark of the tape
whose zero-mark is at A, and moves till the staff reading of 2.20m is obtained. Likewise, another
point b at a distance of 60m may be located with the staff reading of 1.9m. In this manner a number of
points are located on the contour gradient. If the point A lies on a contour of 100.0, the point B on the
contour of 105.0 will lie at a distance of 500m from A for a contour gradient of 1 in100.

USES OF CONTOUR MAPS:

A contour map is extremely useful for various engineering purposes, as explained below.
(1) Determination of character of terrain: The most important use of the contour maps is that the
character of the terrain can be determined by its inspection, without going to the site. The
characteristics of the various contours provide sufficient information for a preliminary design
and estimate.
(2) Selection of a suitable site: The most suitable site for various engineering works, such as a
reservoir, canal, sewer, road or railway may be selected if the contour map of the area is
available. The contour map will help in the preliminary selection. For the final selection, the
detailed survey would be required in most cases.
(3) Determination of sections: If the contour map is available, the section along any line can be
determined. Fig:.5.21.shows the contour plan. The section along the line AB can be
determined by projecting the points of intersection 1,2,3 etc. The elevations of these points
are plotted on Y-axis of the section, after choosing a suitable scale. The points are joined to
obtain the section AB. The section obtained is useful for determining the general shape of the
ground along this line, and for calculation of earthwork along a route.

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Fig : 5.21 Determination of sections

(4) Inter-visibility between two points: The contour map can be used to determine the inter-
visibility between two points on the surface. Let us find out whether the two points A and B
shown in Fig: 5.22. would be inter-visible. The difference of elevations of A and B is 40.0m.
If the distance between A and B is 1000m, the line of sight between A and B will have an
inclination of 1 in 25. On the line AB, mark the points of elevation of 130, 120 and 110,as
shown. Compare these points with the corresponding ground points on the section, and see
whether the line of sight is above the ground surface or not. If the line of sight is above the
ground, the points are inter-visible. The ground level is higher than the line of sight in the
reach CD. Therefore, the points A and B will not be inter-visible. However, the points A and
C are inter-visible. Likewise, the points D and B are inter-visble.

Fig : 5.22 Inter-visibility between two points

(5) Location of a route: A contour map is extremely useful for locating the route of a highway,
railway, canal or a sewer line, at a given gradient. The process is also known as the tracing of
contour gradients.
(6) Determination of the catchment area: The contour map may be used to determine the
catchment area of a river. The line that separated the catchment basin of a river from the rest
of the area is called the watershed line. This line (shown dotted) passes through the ridges and
saddles and it marks the limit of the catchment area (Fig : 5.23.). The rainwater which falls on
the catchment is drained into the corresponding river. The catchment area is also known as
the drainage area. The catchment area contained between the watershed line and the river
outlet can be easily measured with a planimeter. The watershed line begins and ends at the
river outlet.
(7) Estimation of Reservoir Capacity: The storage capacity of a reservoir can be determined from
the contour map. The contour line indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the
contour map. The line begins and ends at the dam. The areas enclosed by various contours are

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measured by a planimeter. The volume of water between any two consecutive contours is
equal to the average area of the two contours multiplied by the contour interval. The total
volume of the reservoir is equal to the sum of the volumes of water between successive
contours. The area submerged by a reservoir can also be estimated from a contour map.

Fig : 5.23 contours showing watershed line and reservoir

CONTOURS MAPPING USING COMPUTER TECHNIQUES (SURFER, CAD)

Surfer

Surfer is a contouring and 3D surface mapping software program that runs under Microsoft Windows.
The Surfer software quickly and easily converts your data into outstanding contour, surface,
wireframe, vector, image, shaded relief, and post maps. Virtually all aspects of your maps can be
customized to produce exactly the presentation you want using Surfer's software tools. Producing
publication quality maps has never been quicker or easier

Surfer is used extensively for terrain modeling, bathymetric modeling, landscape visualization,
surface analysis, contour mapping, watershed and 3D surface mapping, gridding, viewshed analysis,
volumetrics, and much more

Surfer’s sophisticated interpolation engine transforms your XYZ data into publication-quality maps. It
provides more gridding methods and more control over gridding parameters than any other software
package on the market. You can also use grid files obtained from other sources, such as USGS DEM
files or ESRI grid files. Display your grid as outstanding contour, 3D surface, 3D wireframe,
watershed, vector, image, shaded relief, and viewshed maps. Add base maps to show boundaries and
imagery, post maps to show point locations, and combine map types to create the most informative
display possible. Virtually all aspects of your maps can be customized to produce exactly the
presentation you want.

Generating contour lines in autocad.

You can just automatically generate contour lines if you have a set of spot elevations. The basic steps
required to

(1) Import survey data into AutoCAD and build a surface,

(2) Explore representations of a surface

(3) Generate a profile of your surface.

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Fig: 5.24 Map Generated using Surfer

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