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MODULE 1:
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF
STEEL STRUCTURES

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. Understand why steel is one of the materials in constructions
2. Know the classification of steel
3. Know the advantages and disadvantages of using steel as a construction
material.
4. Know the different types of structural shapes used in design.
5. Know the philosophies or methods used in design using steel as a material.

II. OVERVIEW
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES

• Metal as a structural material began with cast iron in England in 1777-1779,

where a number of cast-iron bridges were built during the period 1780-1820
mostly arch shaped with main girders consisting of individual cast-iron pieces
forming bars or trusses.
• Wrought iron began replacing cast iron soon after 1840. The earliest structure
built was the Brittania Bridges over Menai Straits in Wales in 1846-1850. This
was a tubular girder bridge having spans 70-140-140-70 m, which was made
from wrought-iron plates and angles.
• The process of rolling various shapes was developing as cast iron and wrought
iron received wider usage. Bars were rolled on an industrial scale beginning
about 1780 and extended to I-shapes in 1820 to 1870.
• The development of the Bessemer process (1855), the introduction of a basic
liner in the Bessemer converter (1870), and the open-hearth furnace brought
widespread use of iron ore products in building materials.
• Since 1890, steel has replaced wrought iron as the principal metallic building
material.
• Currently (1995), steels having yield stresses ranging from 165 MPa to 690
MPa are available for structural uses.

III. COURSE MATERIALS

1.0 STRUCTURAL STEELS

Structural steels are referred to by ASTM designation. Steels for structural use in
hot-rolled applications may be classified as
a) Carbon steels
b) High-strength low-alloy steels
c) Alloy steels

2.0 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1) High Strength
• The high strength of steel per unit of weight means that the weight of
structures will be small. This fact is of great importance foe long-span
bridges, tall buildings and structures situated on poor foundations.
2) Uniformity
• The properties of steel do not change appreciably with time, as do
those of a reinforced-concrete structure.
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3) Elasticity
• Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials
because it follows Hooke’s law up to fairly high stresses.
4) Permanence
• Steel frames that are properly maintained will last indefinitely. Recent
research on newer steels indicates that under certain conditions no
painting maintenance will be required.
5) Ductility
• It is the property of a material by which it can withstand extensive
deformation without failure under high tensile stresses.
• In structural members under normal loads, high stress concentrations
develop at various points. The ductile nature of the structural steels
enables them to yield locally at those points, thus preventing
premature failures. More so, ductile structures when subjected to
overload produces large deflections giving a visible evidence of
impending failure (jokingly referred to as “running time”).
6) Toughness
• It is the ability of a material to absorb energy in large amounts.
• Structural steels are tough – that is, they have both strength and
ductility. This is a very important characteristic of steel, because it
means that steel members can be subjected to large deformations
during fabrication and erection without fracture – thus allowing them to
be bent, hammered, and sheared and to have holes punched in them
without visible damage.
7) Additions to Existing Structures
• Steel structures are quite well suited to have additions made of them.
New bays or even entire new wings can be added to existing steel
frame buildings, etc.
8) Miscellaneous
• Several other important advantages of structural steel are as follows:
a) ability to be fastened together by several simple connection
devices, including welds and bolts
b) adaptation to prefabrication
c) speed of erection
d) ability to be rolled into a wide variety of sizes and shapes
e) possible reuse after a structure is disassembled
f) scrap value, even though not reusable in its existing form

3.0 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

In general, steel has the following disadvantages:

1) Corrosion
• Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and
water, and therefore must be painted periodically. The use of weathering
steels, however, in suitable applications tends to eliminate this cost.
(Copper are usually used as anti-corrosion component)
• Weathering steels can be effective in certain situations for limiting
corrosions; however there are many cases where their use is not feasible.
For instance, corrosion-fatigue failures can occur where steel members
are subject to cyclic stresses (load) and corrosive (aggressive chemical)
environment.
2) Fireproofing Costs
• Although structural members are incombustible, there strength is
tremendously reduce at temperatures commonly reached in fires when the
other materials in building burn.
• Excellent heat conductor
3) Susceptibility to Buckling
• As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its
danger of buckling increases. Additional steel is needed to stiffen them so
they do not buckle; this tends to reduce their economy.
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4) Fatigue
• Strength is reduced if it is subjected to a large number of stress reversals
or even to a large number of variations of tensile stresses.
5) Brittle Fracture
• Steel may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at places of
stress concentration. Fatigue-type loadings and very low temperature
aggravate the situation.

4.0 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS

1) Structural Steel Shapes

``
Figure 1 : Standard rolled shapes

In manufacturing steel products, ingots obtained from the refining of pig iron are rolled
into several steel shapes; plates of varying widths and thickness; round, square and
rectangular bars; and pipes. The most common structural steel shapes are described
below.

W-Shapes
American wide-flange I-or-H shaped steel beams are referred to as W-
Shapes and are designated by the letter W followed by their nominal depth in
millimeters, with their mass in kilograms per lineal meter given last. For example,
W460 x 95 means that this W shape is 460 mm deep ad has a mass of 95 kg/m.
This shape consists of two rectangular-shaped flanges connected by a
rectangular web.

S-Shapes
These shapes were formerly called I-beams and American Standard beams.
They are produced in accordance with dimensions adopted in 1896. The
differences between W and S shapes are:
• The flange width of the S shape is narrower than the W shape.
• The inner face of the flange of the S shape has a slope of about 16.7 0.
• The theoretical depth of the S shape is the same as its nominal depth. A
S310 x 74 is a shape with a nominal depth 310 mm x 74 kg/m.

C-Shapes
These are channel shapes formerly called American Standard Channels. The
theoretical and nominal depths are identical. The inner face of the flange has the
same slope as S shapes. A [230 x 22 is a standard channel shape with a
nominal depth of 230 mm and a mass of 22 kg/m
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L-Shapes
These are either equal or unequal leg angles. All angles have parallel flange
faces. An ∟76 x 76 x 12.7 is an equal leg angle with leg dimensions of 76 mm
and 76 mm respectively, and a leg thickness of 12.7 mm.

M-Shapes (Also called HP Shapes)

These are doubly symmetrical (symmetrical about both the x-and y-axes)
shapes which are not classified as W or S shapes.

MC-Shapes
These are formerly called Shipbuilding or Miscellaneous Channels and are
not classified as C shapes.

T-Shapes
Structural tees are obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes, such that each
split section has one-half the area of the original shape. Material loss caused by
splitting either by sawing or flame cutting is disregarded. A WT230 x 47.5 is a
structural tee with 230 mm nominal depth and mass of 47.5 kg/m obtained by
splitting the W460 x 95 shapes.

Pipe Section
Pipe sections are designated “standard”, “extra strong” and “double-extra
strong” in accordance with the thickness and are nominally prescribed by the
diameter.

Structural Tubing
Structural tubing is used where pleasing architectural appearance is desired
with exposed steel. Tubing is designated by outside dimension and thickness
such as structural tubing 8 x 6 x ¼.
The sections shown in Figure 1 are all hot-rolled, that is, they are formed from
hot billet steel (blocks of steel) by passing through rolls numerous times to obtain
the final shapes.

Many other shapes are cold-formed from plate material having a thickness
not exceeding 25 mm (1 in.) as shown in the Figure 2 below. These are made by
bending thin sheets of carbon or low-alloy steels into almost desired cross
section. These shapes – which may be used for light members in roofs, floors,
and walls – vary in thickness from about 0.01 in to 0.25 in. Regarding size and
designation of cold-formed steel members, there are no truly standard shapes
even though the properties of many common shapes are in the Cold-Formed
Steel Design Manual.

Figure 2: Some cold-formed shapes

2) Tension Members
The tension member occurs commonly as a chord member in a truss, as
diagonal bracings in many types of structures, as direct support for balconies, as
cables in suspended roof systems, and as suspension bridge main cables and
suspenders that support the roadway.
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3) Compression Members
Because compression members’ strength is a function of the cross-sectional
shape (radius of gyration) the area is generally spread out as much as is
practical. Chord members in trusses, and many interior columns in buildings, are
examples of members subject to axial compression. Even under most ideal
condition, pure axial compression is not attainable so, design for “axial” loading
assumes the effect of any small simultaneous bending may be neglected.

4) Beams
Beams are members subjected to transverse loading and are most efficient when
their area are distributed so as to be located at the greatest practical distance
from the neutral axis. The most common beam sections are the wide-flange (W)
and the I-beams (S), as well as smaller rolled I-shaped sections designated as
“miscellaneous shapes” (M).

For deeper and thinner-webbed sections that can economically be rolled,

welded I-shaped sections are used including stiffened plate girders.

For moderate spans carrying light loads, open-web “joist” are often used.
These are parallel chord truss-type members used for the support of floors and
roofs. The steel may be hot-rolled or cold-formed.

5.0 STEEL STRUCTURES

Steel structures may be divided into three general categories:
a) Framed structures – where elements may consist of tension members,
columns, beams and members under combined bending and axial loads;
b) Shell-type structures, where axial forces predominate; and
c) Suspension-type structure, where axial tension predominates the principal
support system.

6.0 PHILOSOPHIES (METHODS) OF DESIGN

Two philosophies of design are in current use:

a) the Working Stress Design or WSD referred to by the American Institute

of Steel Construction (AISC) as the Allowable Stress Design or ASD ;
and,
b) the Limit States Design referred to by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) as the Load and Resistance Factor Design or LRFD.

Working stress design has been the principal philosophy used during the past 100
years. During the past 40 years or so, structural design has been moving toward a
more rational probability-based design procedure referred to as “limit states” design.
Limit states design includes the methods commonly referred to as “ultimate
strength design,” “strength design,” “plastic design,” and the recent “load
and resistance factor design (LRFD).”

Structures and structural members must have adequate strength, as well as

adequate stiffness and toughness to permit proper functioning during the service life
of the structure. The design must provide some reserved strength above that which
is needed to carry the service loads: that is, the structure must provide for the
possibility of overload. Overloads can arise from changing the use for which a
particular structure was designed, from underestimation of the effects of loads by
oversimplifications in structural analysis, and from variations in construction
procedures. In addition, there must be provision for the possibility of understrength.
Deviations in the dimensions of members, even though within accepted tolerance,
can result in a member having less than its computed strength.

Structural design must provide for adequate safety no matter what philosophy of
design is used. Provisions must be made for both overload and understrength. The
study of what constitutes the proper formulation of structural safety has been
continuing during the past 30 years. The main thrust has been to examine by various
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probabilistic methods the chances of “failure” occurring in a member, connection or a

system.

Rather than refer to “failure” the term “limit state” is preferred. Limit states
means “those conditions of a structure at which it ceases to fulfill its intended
function”. Limit states are generally divided into two categories: strength and
serviceability.

• Strength (i.e. safety) limit states define load-carrying capacity, including

excessive yielding (plastic strength), fracture, buckling, fatigue and gross
rigid body motion. It is behavioral phenomena as achieving ductile
maximum strength.
• Serviceability limit states define performance or those concerned with
occupancy of a building such as deflection, vibration, permanent
deformation, cracking, slipping and deterioration.

1) AISC – Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

In Allowable Stress Design (ASD), the focus is on service load conditions

(i.e., unit stresses assuming an elastic structure) when satisfying the safety
requirement (adequate strength) for the structure.

For Allowable Stress Design, the equation may be reformatted as follows:

Rn
  Qi


In this philosophy, all loads are assumed to have the same average
variability. The entire variability of the loads and the strengths is placed on the
strength side of the equation. To examine the equation of ASD for beams, the
left side would represent nominal beam strength M n divided by the factor of
safety FS (equal to   ) and the right side would represent the service load
bending moment M resulting from all types of loads. Thus the equation would
become
Mn
M
FS

Dividing the above equation by I c to obtain stress units, and assuming that
the nominal strength M n is reached when the extreme fiber stress is the yield
stress F y , (i.e., M n = Fy I c ), then

Fy I c M

FS I c I c
or
Fy  M c
  fb =
FS  I 

In ASD, the F y FS would be the allowable stress Fb and f b would be

computed elastic stress under full service load. If the nominal strength M n
has been based on achievement of a stress Fcr less than F y because of, say
buckling, then the allowable stress Fb would be Fcr FS . Thus the safety
criterion in ASD may be written

 Fy F 
f b   Fb = or Fb = cr 
 FS FS 
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2) AISC – Plastic Design

Plastic design is a special case of limit state design, wherein the limit state
for strength is the achievement of plastic moment strength M p . Plastic
moment strength is the moment strength when all fibers of the cross-section
are at yield stress F y (one side of the neutral axis in tension and the other
side in compression). Plastic design does not permit using other limit states,
such as instability, fatigue, or brittle fracture. The design philosophy as used
by AISC applies to flexural members including beam-columns. If Rn = M p and
 i  = 1.7, then

M p 1.7  Qi

The provisions for overload and for understrength are combined into a single
factor 1.7 used for all gravity loads.

3) AISC – Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

The “limit states design” gained acceptance particularly for steel design in the
United States with the adoption in 1986 of a Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification by AISC. In Canada, limit states design has been used
since 1974 and since 1978 has been only method used.

The safety requirement of the LRFD Specification is given by

 Rn   i Qi

This means the design strength  Rn provided by the resulting design must be
at least equal the sum  i Qi of the applied factored service load. The
subscript i indicates that there are terms for each type of load Qi acting such
as dead load D, live load L, wind load W snow load S, and earthquake load E.
The  i may be different for each load type.

7.0 FACTOR FOR SAFETY

1) Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

The traditional AISC ASD value of FS = 1.67. Dividing by 1.67 the equations
Fb = Fy FS or Fb = Fcr FS gives a multiplier of 0.60 on F y or Fcr . The basic
values of FS are
a) FS = 1.67 for tension members and beams, and for zero-length
columns
b) FS = 1.92 for long columns
c) FS = 2.5 to 3 for connections
It must be noted that using these values for   in Equation Rn   Qi still

leaves the “real” safety against “failure” unknown.

2) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

The factors for overload are variable depending upon the type of load, and
the factored load combinations that must be considered are those given by
the ASCE 7 Standard and LRFD-A4.1. The other part of the safety-related
provisions is the  factor, known as the resistance factor. The resistance
factor  varies with the type of remember and with the limit state being
considered. Some representative resistance factors  are as follows:
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a. Tension Members
 r = 0.90 for yielding limit state
r = 0.75 for fracture limit state
b. Compression Members
c = 0.85
c. Beams)
b = 0.90 for flexure
b = 0.90 for shear
d. Welds
 = same as type of action: i.e, tension, shear etc
e. Fasteners
 = 0.75

8.0 LOADS

1) Dead Loads – are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position.
These are the :structural frame, walls, floors, roof, plumbing and fixtures

2) Live Loads – are loads that may change in position and magnitude. They
are caused when a structure is occupied, used and maintained.
• Live loads that move under their power such as people, trucks,
and cranes are called moving loads.
• Loads that may be moved are movable objects such a s furniture
and warehouse materials.

3) Environmental Loads – these are live loads that are caused by the
environment in which a particular structure is located. These are the: snow
load, rain, wind loads, earthquake load and temperature change.

Load combination plays and important role in the Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD). It is one of the major differences noted between the Allowable
Strength Design (ASD) and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). As have
been stated the difference between LRFD and ASD are (a) the methods used for
calculating the design loads; and, (b) the use of resistance factors ( in LRFD) and
safety factors ( in ASD).

4) Computation of Combined Loads

Loads factors are calculated to increase the magnitudes of service loads to
use with the LRFD procedure. The purpose of these factors is to account for
the uncertainties involved in estimating the magnitudes of dead loads and live
loads.

The required strength of a member for LRFD is determined from the load
combinations. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual
provides the following load factors for buildings based on ASCE 7:

a. LRFD Expressions
a) U = 1.4 D
b) U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 ( L r or S or R )
c) U = 1.2 D + 1.6 ( L r or S or R ) + ( 0.5 L or 0.8 W )
d) U = 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 ( L r or S or R )
e) U = 1.2 D  1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S
f) U = 0.9 D  ( 1.6 W or 1.0 E )
b. ASD Expressions
a) D
b) D + L
c) D + ( L r or S or R )
d) D + 0.75 L + 0.75 ( L r or S or R )
e) D  ( W or 0.7 E )
f) D + 0.75 ( W or 0.7 E ) + 0.75 L + 0.75 ( L r or S or R )
g) 0.6 D  ( W or 0.7 E)
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where :
U = design or ultimate load or factored load
D = dead load
L = live load due to occupancy
L r = roof live load
S = snow load
R = nominal load due to initial rain mater or ice
W = wind load
E = earthquake load

These various load combinations that feasibly may occur at the same time
are grouped together. The largest load group (ASD) or the largest linear
combination of loads in a group (in LRFD) is then used for analysis and design.
Moreover, from these load combinations the “lifetime maximum” is taken as 50
years.

9.0 LRFD, WHY SHOULD IT BE USED?

1) LRFD is another “tool” for structural engineers to use in steel design. Why not
have the same tools (variable overload factors and resistance factors)
available for steel design as are available concrete design?
2) Adoption of LRFD is not mandatory but provides a flexibility of options to the
designer. The marketplace will dictate whether or not LRFD will become the
sole method.
3) ASD is an approximate way to account for what LRFD does in a more rational
way. The use of plastic design concepts in ASD has made ASD such that it
no longer may be called an “elastic design” method.
4) The rationality of LRFD has always been attractive, and becomes an
incentive permitting the better and more economical use of material for some
load combinations and structural configurations. It will also likely lead to
having safer structures in view of the arbitrary practice under ASD of
combining dead and live loads and treating them the same.
5) Using multiple load factor combinations should lead to economy.
6) LRFD will facilitate the input of new information on loads and load variations
as such information becomes available. Considerable knowledge of the
resistance of steel structures is available. On the other hand, our knowledge
of loads and their variation is much less. Separating the loading from the
resistance allows one to be changed without the other if that should be
desired.
7) Changes in overload factors and resistance factors  are much easier to
make than to change the allowable stress in ASD.
8) LRFD makes design in all materials more compatible. The variability of loads
is actually unrelated to the materials used in the design. Future specifications
not in the limit states format for any material will put that material at a
disadvantage in design.
9) LRFD provides the framework to handle unusual loads that may not be
covered by the Specification. The design may have uncertainty relating to the
resistance of the structure, in which case the resistance factors may be
modified. On the other hand, the uncertainty may relate to the loads and
different overload factors may be used.
10) Future adjustments in the calibration of the method can be made without
much complication. Calibrator for LRFD was done for an average situation but
might be adjusted in the future.
11) Economy is likely to result for low live load to dead loads ratios. For high live
load to dead load ratios there will be slightly greater costs.
12) Safer structures may result under LRFD because the method should lead to
better awareness of structural behavior.
13) Design practice is still at the beginning with regard to serviceability limit
states; however, at least LRFD provides the approach.
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IV. ACTIVITIES / ASSESSMENT

1. Identify then differentiate one from each other.
a. Cast iron d. Metal
b. Wrought iron e. Steel
c. Iron ore
2. As referred by ASTM designation, what are the three classification of structural
steel use in hot-rolled application? Discuss the difference of the type of steel
from each other.
3. Discuss the following properties of steel.
a. Uniformity e. Toughness
b. Elasticity f. Corrosion
c. Permanence g. Fatigue
d. Ductility
4. From your own understanding based on the different steel properties, which
material is more advantageous in construction in terms of strength, ductility,
toughness and fatigue, steel or concrete? Justify your answer.
5. What is the difference between rolled-shape and built-up shape members?
6. Discuss the meaning of the following design methodologies in steel.
a. Working Stress Design (WSD) or Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
b. Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
7. From amongst the 13 reasons why LRFD shall be used over ASD, choose one
reason and explain why did you choose it.

Read : Textbook / Reference books enumerated in the course syllabus