Superposition and

Standing Waves
Physics 212
Dr. Kotowich
Lecture 3
Many wave phenomena in nature can not be described by a single traveling
wave. Instead one must analyze those phenomena in terms of a combination of
traveling waves.

Waves have a remarkable difference from particles in that waves can be

combined at the same location in space.

To analyze such wave combinations, we use the superposition principle which

states:

If two or more traveling waves are moving through a medium, the resultant
value of the wave function at any point where the waves both exist is the
algebraic sum of values of the wave functions of the individual waves at that
point.
Waves that obey this principle are called linear waves. Waves that violate the
superposition principle are called nonlinear waves. (These usually have large
amplitudes).

If we have two wave pulses given by and moving towards each other with the
same velocity we can describe the result when they overlap by the addition of
and .

The pulse shapes remain unchanged after and an interaction with another pulse.

The combination of separate waves in the same region of space to produce a

resultant wave is called interference. When the displacements caused by the two
pulses are in the same direction, we call this constructive interference.
If two pulses again move towards each other but one is inverted, we get the
resultant pulse but the inverted wave has negative y values.

Here the displacements caused by the two pulses are in opposite directions
which is called destructive interference.
Let us look at two sinusoidal waves traveling in the same direction in a linear
medium.

If two waves travel together in the same direction and have the same frequency,
wavelength and amplitude but differ in phases, we can write:
and

Where, , and is the phase constant.

The resultant wave function y is:

This can be modified using the identity:

Let a = kx - wt and b = kx – wt + . This gives:
)sin
This result has several important features. The resultant wave function y also is
sinusoidal and has the same frequency and wavelength as the individual waves.

This is because the sine function incorporates the same values of k and w that
appear in the original wave functions.

The amplitude of the resultant wave is and its phase constant is .

If the phase constant φ is zero, then and the amplitude of the resultant wave is
2A.
This occurs when the difference in the path lengths Δr = is either zero or some
integer multiple of the wavelength λ (that is Δr = nλ, where n = 0,1,2,3…)

In this case the crests of the two waves are at the same locations in space and the
waves are said to be everywhere in phase and interfere constructively.

In general, constructive interference occurs when 1.

This is true when φ = 0, 2π, 4π ….. This is when φ is an even multiple of π.
When φ is equal to π rads or to any odd multiple of π, then =0 and the crests of
one wave occur at the same positions as the troughs of the second wave.

This occurs when the path length is adjusted so that the path difference is:
Δr = , ….. for n odd. This leads to destructive interference the resultant wave
has zero amplitude everywhere.
When the phase constant has an arbitrary value other than zero or an integer
multiple of π rads the resultant wave has an amplitude whose value is
somewhere between 0 and 2A.

Standing Waves
Consider two transverse sinusoidal waves having the same amplitude, frequency
and wavelength but traveling in opposite direction in the same medium:
and

Where represents a wave traveling in the positive x-direction and represents

one traveling in the negative x-direction. Adding these two functions according to
the superposition principle gives the resultant wave function y:
Using we have:

This represents the wave function of a standing wave. A standing wave is an

oscillation pattern with a stationary outline that results from the superposition of
two identical waves traveling in opposite directions.

Notice that the equation does not contain kx-wt. Therefore, it is not an
expression for a traveling wave.

When you observe a standing wave, there is no sense of motion in the direction
of propagation of either original wave. Only up and down motion is observed in
the wave elements.
This is a special kind of simple harmonic motion where each element oscillates in
simple harmonic motion with the same angular frequency w according to the wt
term.

The amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of a given element (provided by

the factor 2Asinkx) depends on the location x of the element in the medium.

A standing wave is formed from the combination of waves moving away from a
point and reflected from a second point.

The amplitude of simple harmonic motion of an element of the medium has a

minimum value of zero when x satisfies the condition sinkx = 0, that is:
kx = 0, π, 2π, 3π ……
Because , these values for kx give:
x = 0, , λ , …….. n = 0,1,2……
These points of zero amplitude are called nodes. The element of the medium
with the greatest possible displacement from equilibrium has an amplitude of
2A, which we define as the amplitude of the standing wave.

The position in the medium at which this maximum displacement occurs are
called antinodes. The antinodes are located at positions for which the coordinate
x satisfies the condition sinkx = +/- 1, that is:
kx = , , ………
Therefore the positions of the antinodes are given by the odd values:
x = , , …… n = 1,3,5 ……..
The distance between adjacent antinodes equals
The distance between adjacent nodes equals
The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is
Example
The waves traveling in opposite directions produce a standing wave. The
individual wave functions are:
Where x and y are measured in centimeters and t is in seconds.
a) Find the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of the element of the
medium located at x = 2.3 cm.
b) Find the position of the nodes and antinodes if one end of the string is at x
=0.
Solution
c) From the equation for the waves we see A = 4.0 cm, k = 3.0 rad/cm and w
=2.0 rad/s . This gives:
This is the standing wave produced from the two waves coming together.
The amplitude of this wave at x = 2.3 cm is:

b) First we find the wavelength of the traveling waves:

k = implies λ =
For the nodes we have: x = n = 0,1,2,3 …….
For the antinodes we have: x = ( n = 1,3,5,7 …….
Reflection and Transmission
Consider a pulse traveling on a string that is rigidly attached to a support at one
end. When the pulse reaches the support, the string ends.

As a result, the pulse undergoes reflection. This is when a pulse moves back
along the string in the opposite direction. Note that the reflected pulse is
inverted.

Now consider a case where the pulse arrives at the end of a string free to move
vertically. Again the pulse is reflected but this time it is not inverted.

Consider a situation in which the boundary is intermediate between these two

extremes. In this case, the medium does not end, but rather it changes in some
way and continues.
When there is a change in the medium, part of the energy in the incident pulse is
reflected and part undergoes transmission. Transmission is when some of the
energy passes through the boundary.

An example of transmission can be seen when a pulse is traveling on a string that

has a lighter part and heavier part. When the pulse moves from the lighter part
to the heavier part, some of the energy is reflected and the other is transmitted.
Waves Under Boundary Conditions
Consider a string of length L fixed at both ends. Waves can travel in both
directions on the string due to reflection from both ends.

Therefore, standing waves can be set up in the string by a continuous

superposition of incident and reflected waves. The boundary condition is the
fixed ends.

Because the ends are fixed they must have zero displacement and are therefore
nodes by definition. The condition that both ends of the string must be nodes,
fixes the wavelength of the standing wave on the string.

At the right end of the string, where x = L we have:

Where the subscript on λ indicates that different values of n will result in
different values of the wavelength. The wavelength determines the frequency.

The boundary condition results in the string having a number of discrete natural
patterns of oscillation called normal modes. Each mode has a characteristic
frequency.

The normal modes of oscillation for a string can be described by imposing the
boundary condition that the ends be nodes and that the nodes be separated by
one-half of a wavelength with antinodes halfway between the nodes.
The first normal mode has nodes at its ends and one antinode in the middle. The
first normal mode occurs when the wavelength λ is equal to twice the length of
the string. (

In the second normal mode (n = 2), is equal to the length of the string = L.

The third normal corresponds to

In general, the wavelength of the normal modes for a string of length L fixed at
both ends is:
, n = 1,2,3 …….
Where n is the nth normal mode of oscillation.

The natural frequencies associated with the modes of oscillation are obtained
using

These frequencies are given as:

n = 1,2,3 …….
This can be written using as:
, n = 1,2,3 ……..
The lowest frequency corresponding to n = 1 is called the fundamental or
fundamental frequency and is given as:

The frequencies of the remaining normal modes are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequencies.

Frequencies of normal modes that exhibit such an integer multiple relationship

form a harmonic series and the normal modes are called harmonics. ( is the
fundamental frequency and is for the nth harmonic).
Example
The middle C string on a piano has a fundamental frequency of 262 Hz and the
string for the first A above middle C has a fundamental frequency of 440 Hz.
a) Calculate the frequencies of the next two harmonics of the C string.
b) If the A and C strings have the same linear mass density u and length L,
determine the ratio of tensions in the two strings.
Solution
c) The fundamental frequency is = 262 Hz so:

b) The ratio of the tensions are:

implies = 2.82