Unit 2 part C

1. Explain the maneuvering characteristics augmentation system (MCAS) and how this is
implemented in Boeing 737Max?

The Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS) is a flight control system

developed by Boeing to improve the handling characteristics of the 737 MAX aircraft. MCAS was
designed to automatically adjust the aircraft's horizontal stabilizer during high-angle-of-attack
(AOA) situations to prevent the aircraft from stalling.

The implementation of MCAS in the Boeing 737 MAX involves the use of data from the aircraft's
angle of attack sensors, which are designed to measure the angle between the aircraft's wing and
the relative wind. When the angle of attack exceeds a certain threshold, MCAS is activated to
automatically move the horizontal stabilizer to push the aircraft's nose down and reduce the angle
of attack.

The MCAS system is designed to provide an additional layer of protection against potential stalls
in the 737 MAX aircraft, but its implementation has been controversial due to several factors. In
particular, the reliance on a single sensor input to activate MCAS and the lack of redundancy in
the system have been identified as potential safety issues.

In October 2018, a Boeing 737 MAX operated by Lion Air crashed in Indonesia, killing all 189
people on board. Investigators later determined that a faulty angle-of-attack sensor had provided
incorrect data to the MCAS system, causing the system to activate and push the aircraft's nose
down repeatedly. The incident raised concerns about the safety of the MCAS system and led to
the grounding of all Boeing 737 MAX aircraft.

Boeing has since developed a software update for the MCAS system, which includes additional
sensor inputs and changes to the system's activation criteria. The updated system is designed to
prevent the activation of MCAS based on incorrect sensor data and to provide pilots with additional
information and controls to override the system if necessary.
 Overall, the MCAS system is an important component of the Boeing 737 MAX aircraft's flight
control system, but its implementation and safety features have been the subject of significant
scrutiny and controversy.

2. Describe flight control augmentation system with neat diagram and explain about servo
actuator and servo amplifier.

Flight Control Augmentation System (FCAS) is a type of aircraft control system that enhances the
performance and stability of an aircraft during flight. FCAS typically involves a combination of
hardware and software components that work together to provide precise control of the aircraft's
flight surfaces.

A typical FCAS consists of the following components:

1. Flight Control Computer (FCC): This is the primary computer that receives inputs from the pilot
and other sensors, and provides commands to the aircraft's control surfaces.
2. Actuators: These are devices that convert electrical signals from the FCC into mechanical motion
to move the aircraft's control surfaces. The two most common types of actuators used in FCAS are
servo actuators and hydraulic actuators.
3. Sensors: These are devices that provide feedback to the FCC on the position and movement of the
aircraft's control surfaces.
4. Servo Amplifiers: These are devices that amplify the electrical signals from the FCC to provide
sufficient power to the servo actuators.

The servo actuator is a critical component of the FCAS system. It is responsible for converting the
electrical signals from the FCC into the mechanical motion that moves the aircraft's control
surfaces. The servo actuator typically consists of an electric motor, a gearbox, and a control valve.
When the FCC sends a command to move a control surface, the servo actuator receives an
electrical signal that causes the electric motor to rotate. The gearbox then translates the rotation of
the motor into linear motion that moves the control surface. The control valve controls the flow of
hydraulic fluid to the actuator, which provides the force needed to move the control surface.
The servo amplifier is another important component of the FCAS system. It is responsible for
amplifying the electrical signals from the FCC to provide sufficient power to the servo actuators.
The servo amplifier typically consists of a power supply, an amplifier circuit, and a control circuit.
The power supply provides the necessary voltage and current to power the amplifier circuit. The
amplifier circuit amplifies the electrical signals from the FCC to provide the necessary power to
the servo actuators. The control circuit ensures that the amplifier operates within safe limits and
provides protection against overloads and other malfunctions.

Here is a simple diagram illustrating the components and operation of an FCAS:

┌───────────────────┐

│ Flight Control │

│ Computer │

└───────────────────┘

┌───────────────────┐

│ Servo │

│ Amplifier │

└───────────────────┘

┌───────────────────┐

│ Servo │

│ Actuator │

└───────────────────┘

│
 ┌───────────────────┐

│ Control │

│ Surface │

└───────────────────┘

Overall, FCAS is an important technology that helps enhance the safety and performance of
modern aircraft. By providing precise control over the aircraft's flight surfaces, FCAS helps ensure
that the aircraft remains stable and responsive during all phases of flight.

3. Define the control laws of the automatic flight control system of the modern high
performance aircraft.

The control laws of the automatic flight control system (AFCS) of modern high-performance
aircraft are designed to provide precise and stable control of the aircraft in a variety of flight
regimes, from cruising to landing. These control laws are typically implemented through a
combination of mechanical, hydraulic, and electronic systems, and they are continuously adjusted
in response to changing flight conditions.

There are several different types of control laws that are typically used in modern high-
performance aircraft. These include:

1. Proportional control law: This control law is used to provide basic stability and control of the
aircraft. It uses a proportional feedback loop to adjust the control surfaces in response to deviations
from the desired flight path.
2. Rate control law: This control law is used to provide more precise control of the aircraft's rate of
motion, such as its roll rate or pitch rate. It uses a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) feedback
loop to adjust the control surfaces in response to deviations from the desired rate.
3. Attitude hold control law: This control law is used to maintain a stable attitude, or orientation, of
the aircraft. It uses a feedback loop to adjust the control surfaces in response to deviations from
the desired attitude.
4. Flight path control law: This control law is used to maintain a desired flight path, such as a specific
altitude, heading, or speed. It uses a combination of proportional, rate, and attitude hold feedback
loops to adjust the control surfaces in response to deviations from the desired flight path.
 In addition to these basic control laws, modern high-performance aircraft may also incorporate
more advanced control features, such as fly-by-wire systems, envelope protection, and automatic
thrust control. These systems are designed to provide additional layers of safety and control to the
aircraft, and they are typically implemented using complex computer algorithms and advanced
sensors. Overall, the control laws of the AFCS are critical to the safe and efficient operation of
modern high-performance aircraft.

4.Discuss yaw stability in a vehicle’s lateral motion. Give four aircraft configurations that
affects the yaw control characteristics of the aircraft.

Yaw stability refers to the ability of a vehicle, such as an aircraft, to maintain its intended course
in the horizontal plane while experiencing lateral motion. In other words, it refers to the aircraft's
ability to maintain a straight flight path while undergoing sideways or rotational forces.

There are several factors that can affect the yaw control characteristics of an aircraft, including its
configuration, design, and flight conditions. Here are four aircraft configurations that can affect
yaw stability:

1. Wing sweep: The sweep angle of an aircraft's wings can affect its yaw stability. Aircraft with wings
that are swept back tend to have better yaw stability than those with wings that are swept forward
or not swept at all. This is because the swept-back wings tend to produce a stabilizing effect on
the aircraft's lateral motion.
2. Vertical stabilizer size and placement: The size and placement of an aircraft's vertical stabilizer
can also affect its yaw stability. A larger vertical stabilizer will generally provide better yaw
stability, while a smaller or less well-positioned stabilizer can lead to yaw instability or even loss
of control.
3. Engine placement: The placement of an aircraft's engines can also affect its yaw stability. Aircraft
with engines mounted on the wings tend to have better yaw stability than those with engines
mounted on the fuselage, as the wing-mounted engines can produce a stabilizing effect on the
aircraft's lateral motion.
4. Center of gravity: The location of an aircraft's center of gravity can also affect its yaw stability.
An aircraft with a forward center of gravity will tend to be more stable in yaw than one with a
 rearward center of gravity, as the forward CG produces a stabilizing effect on the aircraft's lateral
motion.

Overall, maintaining good yaw stability is critical to the safe operation of an aircraft, and designers
must carefully consider the configuration and design of the aircraft to ensure that it has adequate
yaw control characteristics.

5. Describe gain PID controllers and how the instability of these controllers are mitigated?

A gain PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller is a type of control system that is widely

used in many industrial and engineering applications to control the behavior of a system or process.
It is a feedback loop control system that uses three main components - Proportional (P), Integral
(I), and Derivative (D) - to adjust the output of the system based on the error between the desired
output and the actual output.

The Proportional term adjusts the output in proportion to the error, the Integral term accumulates
and corrects for any steady-state error, and the Derivative term adjusts the output based on the rate
of change of the error.

However, gain PID controllers are known to be susceptible to instability, which can cause the
system to oscillate uncontrollably, leading to damage or failure of the system. This instability is
caused by excessive gain in the system, which leads to large and rapid changes in the output in
response to small changes in the input or feedback signal.

There are several methods to mitigate the instability of gain PID controllers:

1. Tuning the gain parameters: One approach is to carefully tune the gain parameters of the PID
controller to balance the trade-off between performance and stability. This can be done through
trial and error or by using mathematical models and simulations.
2. Implementing anti-windup measures: Another approach is to implement anti-windup measures,
which prevent the integrator term from accumulating excessive error by limiting the output of the
controller during large disturbances or rapid changes in the system.
3. Adding filters: Adding filters to the feedback signal can help to smooth out rapid changes in the
input, which can help to reduce the gain of the controller and mitigate instability.
4. Using other control strategies: Other control strategies such as model predictive control or fuzzy
logic control may be used to mitigate the instability of gain PID controllers in some cases.

Overall, while gain PID controllers are widely used due to their simplicity and effectiveness, it is
important to carefully design and implement them to ensure that they are stable and do not cause
damage or failure to the system they are controlling.
6. Describe Overall Control System of the aircraft with necessary sketch and explain the
functions of each element.

The overall control system of an aircraft is a complex system that includes multiple components
and subsystems working together to control the aircraft's motion and ensure safe and efficient
flight. Here is a brief overview of the major components of the aircraft control system and their
functions:

 Flight Deck: The flight deck is the cockpit of the aircraft where the pilots sit and operate the
controls of the aircraft. It includes all the necessary instruments and displays for the pilots to
monitor and control the aircraft's systems and flight parameters.
 Primary Flight Controls: The primary flight controls are the mechanisms that control the aircraft's
attitude and movement in the three axes - pitch, roll, and yaw. The three primary flight controls
are the elevator, ailerons, and rudder, which are operated by the pilot through the control yoke or
stick.
 Secondary Flight Controls: Secondary flight controls are systems that assist the primary flight
controls in controlling the aircraft's movement, such as flaps, spoilers, slats, and trim systems.
These systems can be manually or automatically controlled by the pilot or the flight control
computer.
 Flight Control Computer: The flight control computer is the brain of the aircraft's control system,
which receives data from various sensors and controls the aircraft's flight surfaces and other
systems. It uses various control laws and algorithms to interpret and respond to the pilot's inputs
and external factors such as wind, turbulence, and other environmental factors.
 Actuators: Actuators are the devices that convert the electrical signals from the flight control
computer into mechanical movements of the aircraft's control surfaces. The most common type of
actuator used in aircraft control systems is the hydraulic or electric servo actuator.
 Sensors: Sensors are used to measure various parameters of the aircraft's motion, such as airspeed,
altitude, heading, and attitude. The data from these sensors is used by the flight control computer
to make decisions and adjust the aircraft's flight surfaces accordingly.
 Autopilot: The autopilot is a subsystem of the flight control system that can automatically control
the aircraft's flight path based on the pilot's input or pre-programmed flight plan. It can maintain
altitude, heading, airspeed, and other parameters of the aircraft's flight.

Overall, the control system of an aircraft is a complex and sophisticated system that requires
precise coordination and communication between various subsystems and components. By
working together, these elements ensure safe and efficient operation of the aircraft during all
phases of flight.
7. Discuss about gain schedule system and its concepts for control of non-linear systems for
the different operating points.

Gain scheduling is a technique used for controlling nonlinear systems by varying the controller
gains as a function of the system's operating conditions. It is a common technique used in industrial
control systems to improve the performance and stability of a process over a wide range of
operating conditions.

The concept of gain scheduling is based on the fact that many nonlinear systems behave differently
at different operating points. This means that the controller gains that are optimal at one operating
point may not be optimal at another operating point. By adjusting the controller gains according
to the operating conditions, the control system can maintain stable and optimal performance over
a wide range of conditions.

The gain scheduling system typically uses a lookup table or a mathematical model to relate the
system's operating conditions to the appropriate controller gains. The lookup table or model is
usually created using experimental data or simulation results.
For example, in a temperature control system, the controller gains may need to be adjusted based
on the temperature range. At low temperatures, the system may require higher gains to maintain
stability and accuracy, while at high temperatures, lower gains may be more suitable. Similarly, in
an aircraft control system, the gains may need to be adjusted based on the aircraft's speed, altitude,
and other operating conditions.

The gain scheduling technique can be applied to various types of control systems, including PID
controllers, adaptive controllers, and model-based controllers. In a PID controller, the gain
scheduling can be implemented by adjusting the proportional, integral, and derivative gains based
on the system's operating conditions.

The advantages of gain scheduling include improved system stability, better tracking of setpoints,
and reduced control effort. However, it also requires careful calibration and testing to ensure that
the gains are appropriate for all operating conditions. Moreover, it can be computationally
expensive, especially when dealing with complex nonlinear systems.

In summary, gain scheduling is a powerful technique for controlling nonlinear systems, which
allows the controller gains to be adjusted as a function of the system's operating conditions. By
doing so, the control system can maintain stable and optimal performance over a wide range of
conditions, leading to improved system performance and efficiency.
8. Illustrate gain scheduling control design approach by combining linear parameters-
varying control theory. Discuss Lyapunov functions and continuous global functions.

Gain scheduling control design approach combines linear parameter-varying (LPV) control theory
and gain scheduling to design a controller that can handle nonlinearities in the system by adjusting
the controller gains according to the system's operating conditions. This approach is useful for
systems that have operating conditions that vary over a wide range, such as aircraft or industrial
processes.

The LPV control theory is based on a mathematical model that describes the system's behavior as
a function of its operating conditions. This model can be represented as a set of linear time-
invariant (LTI) systems, each corresponding to a different operating condition. The LPV model
captures the nonlinearities in the system by allowing the controller gains to vary with the operating
conditions.

The gain scheduling control design approach involves selecting the appropriate controller gains
from a lookup table or a mathematical model based on the system's operating conditions. This is
achieved by using a Lyapunov function to ensure that the controller gains selected at each
operating point result in a stable system. A Lyapunov function is a continuous function that
provides a measure of the system's stability and convergence to the desired state.

Continuous global functions are used to ensure that the controller gains remain within safe limits
and do not cause the system to become unstable. These functions are continuous functions that
represent the system's operating conditions and provide a mapping between the operating
conditions and the controller gains.

The gain scheduling control design approach combines the LPV model, Lyapunov functions, and
continuous global functions to design a controller that can handle nonlinearities in the system and
provide stable control over a wide range of operating conditions.

In summary, gain scheduling control design approach is a powerful technique for controlling
nonlinear systems by adjusting the controller gains based on the system's operating conditions.
This approach combines LPV control theory, Lyapunov functions, and continuous global functions
to ensure stable control over a wide range of operating conditions.
9 Describe about Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) used by Satellite-Based
Augmentation System.
 An Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is a system used in aviation to improve
the accuracy and integrity of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) by correcting
errors caused by atmospheric disturbances, satellite clock drift, and other factors. ABAS is
typically used in conjunction with a Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) to
provide more accurate and reliable navigation information to aircraft.
 The SBAS is a network of ground-based reference stations that collect GNSS data and
transmit correction messages to aircraft via a geostationary satellite. The correction
 messages contain information about the current state of the GNSS system, such as the
location and time of the reference stations, satellite clock drift, and ionospheric delays.
 ABAS uses this correction information to improve the accuracy of the GNSS signal received
by the aircraft's receiver. The ABAS receiver onboard the aircraft processes the correction
data and applies it to the GNSS signal to correct any errors caused by atmospheric
disturbances, satellite clock drift, and other factors.
 The ABAS system also provides integrity monitoring to ensure that the corrected GNSS
signal meets the required accuracy and reliability standards. If the system detects any errors
or anomalies in the GNSS signal, it can provide warnings to the flight crew to take corrective
action.
 ABAS is designed to improve the accuracy and reliability of GNSS-based navigation for all
phases of flight, including takeoff, en route, and landing. It can also be used to support other
aircraft systems, such as flight management systems, autopilots, and terrain awareness and
warning systems.
 In summary, the Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is a system used in aviation
to improve the accuracy and reliability of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
by correcting errors caused by atmospheric disturbances, satellite clock drift, and other
factors. It is typically used in conjunction with a Satellite-Based Augmentation System
(SBAS) to provide more accurate and reliable navigation information to aircraft.
10. Find the uses of the ground based augmentation system and illustrate its implementation
procedure for the aircraft automated control.

The Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) is a satellite navigation system used to improve
the accuracy, integrity, and availability of the Global Positioning System (GPS) for aviation
applications. GBAS is primarily used to provide precision approach and landing guidance to
aircraft, which is especially important during low-visibility conditions.

GBAS works by using a network of ground-based reference stations that monitor the GPS signals
and transmit correction data to a nearby GBAS transmitter, which then broadcasts the corrected
GPS signals to aircraft within range. The aircraft can then use these corrected signals to determine
its precise position and navigate with greater accuracy.
 To implement GBAS for aircraft automated control, the following steps are typically followed:

1. Install GBAS ground infrastructure: This includes installing the necessary ground-based reference
stations, GBAS transmitter(s), and associated control equipment.
2. Calibrate the system: Once the ground infrastructure is installed, the system must be calibrated to
ensure that the GPS signals are accurately corrected and transmitted to the aircraft.
3. Aircraft installation: Aircraft that will use GBAS for automated control must be equipped with the
necessary avionics equipment, such as a GBAS receiver, to receive and process the corrected GPS
signals.
4. Ground testing: Before GBAS can be used in live aircraft operations, the system must undergo
extensive ground testing to ensure that it is functioning properly and providing accurate position
data to the aircraft.
5. Flight testing: Once ground testing is complete, flight testing is conducted to validate the system's
performance in a real-world environment. During flight testing, the system is used to guide aircraft
through precision approaches and landings.

Overall, GBAS provides a critical navigation aid for aircraft during critical phases of flight,
helping to improve safety and efficiency in the aviation industry.

Part B
1. Demonstrate the contribution of different aircraft flight controls to obtain control
augmentation with suitable diagram.

Flight controls on an aircraft are designed to provide pilots with the means to control the aircraft's
attitude, altitude, and airspeed. Control augmentation systems (CAS) can be used to enhance the
performance of the flight controls, providing additional stability and control to the aircraft. Here
is a diagram showing the different aircraft flight controls and their contributions to control
augmentation:

1. Ailerons: Ailerons are control surfaces located on the wings that allow pilots to control the
aircraft's roll or bank angle. They work by deflecting air flow over the wing, creating lift on one
wing and reducing lift on the other, causing the aircraft to roll. Ailerons can be augmented with a
roll control augmentation system to improve roll rate, response, and stability.
2. Elevator: The elevator is a control surface located on the tail of the aircraft that allows pilots to
control the aircraft's pitch or nose-up/nose-down attitude. It works by deflecting air flow over the
horizontal stabilizer, creating an upward or downward force that changes the aircraft's pitch.
Elevators can be augmented with a pitch control augmentation system to improve pitch response
and stability.
3. Rudder: The rudder is a control surface located on the tail of the aircraft that allows pilots to control
the aircraft's yaw or left/right movement. It works by deflecting air flow over the vertical stabilizer,
creating a force that turns the aircraft left or right. Rudders can be augmented with a yaw control
augmentation system to improve yaw response and stability.
4. Flaps: Flaps are high-lift devices located on the trailing edge of the wings that allow pilots to
increase the lift and drag of the aircraft. They work by increasing the wing's surface area and
changing its shape, allowing the aircraft to fly at slower speeds with a steeper descent angle. Flaps
can be augmented with a lift control augmentation system to improve lift characteristics, reducing
the stall speed and improving the aircraft's climb and descent performance.
5. Spoilers: Spoilers are control surfaces located on the wings that disrupt the airflow over the wings,
reducing lift and increasing drag. They are used to slow down the aircraft, reduce lift, or assist in
rolling. Spoilers can be augmented with a roll control augmentation system to improve roll rate
and stability.

In summary, control augmentation systems can improve the performance and stability of the
different aircraft flight controls, providing pilots with enhanced control and making flying safer
and more efficient. By combining different control augmentation systems, aircraft designers can
create highly advanced systems that can handle a wide range of operating conditions and provide
a more enjoyable flying experience.
2. Discuss about Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) for civil aviation navigation.
What types of navigation this system does?

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a navigation system designed for civil aviation
use in the United States. It is a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) that enhances the
accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals for navigation purposes. The system uses a
network of ground-based reference stations, geostationary satellites, and a master control station
to correct GPS signals and provide highly accurate positioning and navigation information.
 The WAAS system provides improved navigation for a variety of aircraft operations, including
approach, landing, and en route navigation. The system also provides improved safety and
efficiency for aircraft operations by reducing the risk of navigational errors and improving
situational awareness for pilots.

WAAS supports three types of navigation:

1. Required Navigation Performance (RNP): RNP is a navigation concept that requires aircraft to
navigate within a specific area or path with a high degree of accuracy. WAAS provides the
necessary accuracy for RNP operations, allowing pilots to fly precise routes and approaches.
2. Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach: WAAS provides vertical guidance for ILS-like
approaches, allowing pilots to make precision landings in low-visibility conditions.
3. Category I (CAT-I) approach: CAT-I approaches are non-precision approaches that require a
decision altitude of 200 feet above the runway. WAAS provides the necessary accuracy for CAT-
I approaches, allowing pilots to make safe landings in low-visibility conditions.

WAAS also provides the following benefits for civil aviation navigation:

1. Increased accuracy: WAAS provides accuracy to within three meters or less, compared to standard
GPS, which has an accuracy of 15 meters.
2. Increased availability: WAAS provides coverage over a wide area, including the continental
United States, Alaska, and parts of Canada and Mexico, providing reliable navigation for aircraft
in these regions.
3. Increased integrity: WAAS provides integrity monitoring of GPS signals, providing pilots with
alerts in case of signal anomalies or degradation.

In summary, the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a satellite-based augmentation

system designed to improve the accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals for civil
aviation navigation. It provides highly accurate positioning and navigation information for a
variety of aircraft operations, including approach, landing, and en route navigation. WAAS
supports Required Navigation Performance (RNP), Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach,
 and Category I (CAT-I) approach, and provides increased accuracy, availability, and integrity for
civil aviation navigation.
3.Discuss the Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) by ICAO. How this is
implemented?

The Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is a navigation system designed to enhance the
safety, efficiency, and accuracy of aircraft navigation. It is defined by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) as a system that provides navigation and guidance information to
the aircraft crew, using data derived from onboard sensors and navigation equipment.

ABAS is implemented through a combination of hardware and software components that are
installed on the aircraft. These components include:

1. Inertial Navigation System (INS): An INS is a navigation system that uses accelerometers and
gyroscopes to determine the aircraft's position, velocity, and attitude.
2. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS): GNSS is a satellite-based navigation system that
provides precise location and timing information to the aircraft.
3. Flight Management System (FMS): The FMS is a computerized system that integrates navigation,
flight planning, and performance data to optimize aircraft operations.
4. Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS): The AFCS is a computerized system that controls the
aircraft's flight path and maintains stability and control during flight.
5. Data Link: Data Link is a communication system that provides the ability to transfer data between
the aircraft and ground-based systems.

ABAS enhances the accuracy and reliability of these components by using algorithms and data
processing techniques to improve the navigation information provided to the aircraft crew. These
algorithms can include filtering techniques, Kalman filtering, and other advanced signal processing
techniques.

ICAO provides guidelines and standards for the implementation of ABAS, including requirements
for system performance, system integration, and certification. ABAS must comply with ICAO
standards and regulations to ensure safe and reliable operation.
 In summary, the Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is a navigation system that
enhances the accuracy and reliability of onboard navigation equipment. It is implemented through
a combination of hardware and software components, including INS, GNSS, FMS, AFCS, and
Data Link. ABAS uses algorithms and data processing techniques to improve the accuracy of
navigation information provided to the aircraft crew. ICAO provides guidelines and standards for
the implementation of ABAS to ensure safe and reliable operation.
4. Identify the ten components related to flight control system and explain three of them
with their functions and principles.

The ten components related to the flight control system of an aircraft are:

 Cockpit Controls
 Control Surfaces
 Primary Flight Control Computers
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Flight Control Laws
 Autopilot
 Flight Control Panel
 Electrical System
 Hydraulic System

Three of these components and their functions and principles are explained below:

1. Primary Flight Control Computers (PFCCs): The PFCCs are the primary brain of the flight control
system, and they receive input from sensors and determine how the control surfaces should move.
They use complex algorithms and flight control laws to ensure the aircraft remains stable and
responds appropriately to pilot input. The PFCCs also monitor the status of the control surfaces,
actuators, sensors, and other flight control system components, and can initiate fault detection and
recovery procedures if necessary.
2. Actuators: Actuators are devices that move the control surfaces, such as the ailerons, elevators,
and rudder, in response to commands from the PFCCs. There are various types of actuators,
 including hydraulic, pneumatic, and electric actuators. Hydraulic actuators use pressurized fluid
to move the control surfaces, pneumatic actuators use compressed air or gas, and electric actuators
use electric motors. The actuators must be powerful enough to move the control surfaces accurately
and quickly, while also being reliable and able to operate in a range of environmental conditions.
3. Sensors: Sensors are devices that measure various parameters, such as airspeed, altitude, angle of
attack, and orientation, and provide this information to the PFCCs. There are various types of
sensors, including pitot-static sensors, accelerometer sensors, and gyroscopic sensors. Pitot-static
sensors measure air pressure and provide information on airspeed and altitude, while accelerometer
sensors measure changes in velocity and provide information on aircraft acceleration and
orientation. Gyroscopic sensors measure angular velocity and provide information on aircraft
orientation and heading. The sensors must be accurate, reliable, and able to operate in a range of
environmental conditions.

In summary, the flight control system of an aircraft consists of ten components, including cockpit
controls, control surfaces, PFCCs, actuators, sensors, flight control laws, autopilot, flight control
panel, electrical system, and hydraulic system. Three of these components, namely PFCCs,
actuators, and sensors, are critical for the flight control system's proper functioning. The PFCCs
are responsible for receiving input from sensors and determining how the control surfaces should
move, the actuators move the control surfaces in response to commands from the PFCCs, and the
sensors measure various parameters and provide this information to the PFCCs.
5.Identify block diagram of Fuzzy control law for stability augmentation system.

The block diagram of a fuzzy control law for a stability augmentation system typically consists of
the following components:

1. Fuzzification: This block takes in the error signal, which is the difference between the desired and
actual states of the system, and converts it into a linguistic variable that can be processed by the
fuzzy logic controller.
2. Rule Base: The rule base is a set of IF-THEN rules that encode the control knowledge and expertise
of the system. Each rule specifies a condition in terms of the input variable(s) and the
corresponding output(s) to be generated.
3. Fuzzy Inference System: This block applies the rules in the rule base to the fuzzy input variables
to generate a fuzzy output variable. The fuzzy inference system typically consists of a membership
function, an inference engine, and a defuzzification process.
4. Defuzzification: This block converts the fuzzy output variable into a crisp value that can be used
to control the system. There are various defuzzification methods, including centroid, mean of
maximum, and weighted average.
5. Controller: This block applies the crisp output value to the system to generate a control action that
will minimize the error signal and stabilize the system.

Overall, the fuzzy control law for a stability augmentation system provides a way to incorporate
human knowledge and expertise into the control system, allowing for more robust and effective
control of the system under varying operating conditions.
6. llustrate Robust Hurwitz Stability criteria for a set of transfer functions.

The Robust Hurwitz stability criteria is a method to determine the stability of a set of transfer
functions in a robust manner, taking into account uncertainties and variations in the system
parameters. The method involves constructing a matrix of coefficients and applying a set of rules
to determine whether the matrix is Hurwitz or not.

Consider a set of transfer functions with polynomial coefficients represented as:

$$P(s) = \frac{p_ns^n + p_{n-1}s^{n-1} + ... + p_0}{q_ms^m + q_{m-1}s^{m-1} + ... + q_0}$$

where $n \geq m$ and $p_i$ and $q_i$ are the polynomial coefficients.

The Robust Hurwitz stability criteria involves constructing a matrix $H$ of size $(n+m) \times
(n+m)$ as follows:

$$H = \begin{bmatrix}q_m & 0 & 0 & ... & 0 & 0 \ p_{n-1} & q_m & 0 & ... & 0 & 0 \ p_{n-2}
& p_{n-1} & q_m & ... & 0 & 0 \ ... & ... & ... & ... & ... & ... \ p_1 & p_2 & p_3 & ... & q_m &
0 \ p_0 & p_1 & p_2 & ... & p_{m-1} & q_m\end{bmatrix}$$

The matrix $H$ is then subjected to the following rules:

1. All the principal minors of $H$ must be positive.
2. All the elements of the first row of $H$ must be non-negative.
3. All the leading principal minors of $H$ must be positive.

If all the above conditions are satisfied, then the set of transfer functions is said to be Hurwitz
stable. Otherwise, it is unstable.

The Robust Hurwitz stability criteria provides a way to determine the stability of a set of transfer
functions in a robust manner, taking into account uncertainties and variations in the system
parameters. By checking the conditions for stability, one can ensure that the system will remain
stable under different operating conditions and parameter variations.
7 Apply the different constraints on the controller with closed loop controller system.

In a closed loop controller system, constraints are often applied to the controller to ensure that the
system operates within safe and acceptable limits. Some of the different types of constraints that
can be applied to the controller include:

1. Input constraints: These are constraints on the inputs to the controller, such as limiting the
maximum or minimum values of the input signal. Input constraints are used to prevent the
controller from being overloaded or from generating control signals that are outside the range of
the actuator.
2. Output constraints: These are constraints on the output signals of the controller, such as limiting
the maximum or minimum values of the control signal. Output constraints are used to prevent the
actuator from being overloaded or from generating control signals that are outside the range of the
plant.
3. State constraints: These are constraints on the states of the system, such as limiting the maximum
or minimum values of the states. State constraints are used to prevent the system from operating
outside the safe and acceptable operating range.
4. Control rate constraints: These are constraints on the rate of change of the control signal, such as
limiting the maximum or minimum rate of change of the control signal. Control rate constraints
are used to prevent the actuator from being overloaded or from generating control signals that are
too rapid for the system to follow.
5. Control effort constraints: These are constraints on the amount of effort required to generate the
control signal, such as limiting the maximum or minimum amount of control effort. Control effort
constraints are used to ensure that the system operates efficiently and does not waste energy.

By applying these constraints to the controller, the closed loop controller system can operate within
safe and acceptable limits, while still achieving the desired control objectives. Constraints can be
implemented using a variety of techniques, including feedback control, optimization, and model
predictive control.
8. Identify the application of Hurwitz stability for the machinery or aircraft control
system.

Hurwitz stability criterion is a powerful tool for analyzing the stability of control systems,
including machinery and aircraft control systems. In these systems, the stability of the control
system is critical for ensuring safe and efficient operation.

For example, in aircraft control systems, the Hurwitz stability criterion can be used to analyze the
stability of the aircraft's flight control system. The flight control system includes various
components such as sensors, actuators, and control algorithms, which work together to stabilize
the aircraft during flight.

The stability of the flight control system is critical for ensuring that the aircraft responds
predictably and reliably to pilot inputs and external disturbances. By applying the Hurwitz stability
criterion to the transfer function of the flight control system, it is possible to determine whether
the system is stable or not. If the system is found to be unstable, then corrective action can be taken
to improve the stability of the system.

Similarly, in machinery control systems, the Hurwitz stability criterion can be used to analyze the
stability of the system and identify potential stability issues before they cause problems. This can
be particularly important in high-speed machinery, where instability can lead to mechanical failure
and damage.

Overall, the Hurwitz stability criterion is a powerful tool for ensuring the stability of control
systems in a wide range of applications, including machinery and aircraft control systems. By
analyzing the stability of these systems using this criterion, engineers can ensure that these systems
operate safely and reliably, even under challenging operating conditions.

9.Demonstrate the simplified stability augmentation system with suitable diagram.

A simplified stability augmentation system (SAS) typically consists of a feedback loop that
stabilizes the output of a system by adjusting the input signal. The SAS can be used to improve
the stability of a wide range of systems, including aircraft, machinery, and control systems.

Here is a simplified diagram of a stability augmentation system:

+-------+ +-------+

| Input |----+--->| System|----+

+-------+ | +-------+ |

| |

| +-------+ |

+--->| SAS |<---+

+-------+

In this diagram, the input signal is fed into the system, which produces an output signal. The output
signal is then fed into the SAS, which adjusts the input signal to stabilize the system. The stabilized
input signal is then fed back into the system, completing the feedback loop.

The SAS typically consists of a controller, which adjusts the input signal based on the output
signal, and a feedback sensor, which measures the output signal and feeds it back into the
controller. The controller can be a simple proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller or a
more complex algorithm that takes into account the dynamics of the system.
By adjusting the input signal based on the output signal, the SAS can improve the stability of the
system and reduce the effects of external disturbances. This can improve the performance and
reliability of a wide range of systems, making them safer and more efficient to operate.

10 Explain the limited authority of the actuator system of the augmentation system.

 The actuator system of an augmentation system, such as a stability augmentation system

(SAS) or a flight control augmentation system (FCAS), is responsible for translating the
control commands generated by the controller into physical movements of the control
surfaces of the aircraft. The actuator system typically consists of electric or hydraulic
actuators, which are controlled by a servo amplifier.
 However, the actuator system has a limited authority or range of motion that it can exert on
the control surfaces. This means that the actuator system can only move the control surfaces
within a certain range of angles or positions, and cannot exceed the physical limits of the
control surfaces or the aircraft structure.
 The limited authority of the actuator system is a critical consideration in the design of an
augmentation system. The controller must be designed to generate control commands that
can be executed within the limits of the actuator system, otherwise the system may become
unstable or unsafe. Additionally, the actuator system must be designed to provide sufficient
authority to achieve the desired level of performance and stability, while also maintaining
the structural integrity of the aircraft.
 In practice, the limited authority of the actuator system is typically addressed through
careful design and testing of the augmentation system, as well as the use of redundant or
backup systems to ensure safe operation in the event of a failure or malfunction.

11. How the control augmentation systems, gain scheduling concepts.

Control augmentation systems (CAS) are designed to improve the stability and performance of
aircraft through the use of feedback control techniques. These systems can be designed using a
variety of control strategies, such as proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, robust control,
and fuzzy logic control.
One approach to designing a control augmentation system is to use gain scheduling concepts. Gain
scheduling is a technique used to improve the performance of a control system by adjusting the
gain parameters of the controller based on the operating conditions of the system. This is necessary
because the dynamics of the aircraft may vary depending on factors such as altitude, speed, and
load, which can affect the stability and performance of the system.

The gain scheduling approach involves designing multiple controllers, each optimized for a
specific operating condition or range of conditions. The controllers are then switched based on the
current operating conditions of the aircraft, such as altitude or speed. This allows the system to
maintain stable and optimal performance across a range of operating conditions.

The gain scheduling concept can be applied to various types of control augmentation systems, such
as stability augmentation systems (SAS), flight control augmentation systems (FCAS), and engine
control systems. The main advantage of gain scheduling is that it can provide improved
performance and stability over a wider range of operating conditions than a single controller
approach.

However, the design and implementation of gain scheduling can be complex, as it requires the
design and tuning of multiple controllers, and the development of a switching mechanism to
determine when to switch between the controllers. Careful testing and validation are also necessary
to ensure that the system is safe and effective in all operating conditions.
12. How the pilots change the airplane altitude? Demonstrate with suitable sketch
mentioning all the controls needed with force and moment diagram of each control..

The pilot can change the airplane altitude by using the elevator control, which is part of the pitch
control system. The pitch control system controls the pitch motion of the airplane, which is the up
and down motion around the lateral axis.

To increase altitude, the pilot pulls back on the control column, which moves the elevator control
surface upwards. This creates a downward force on the tail of the airplane, which causes the nose
to pitch up, and the airplane to climb.
The elevator control surface is actuated by the elevator control system, which typically consists of
a combination of mechanical linkages and hydraulic or electric actuators. The elevator control
system translates the motion of the control column into a corresponding motion of the elevator
control surface.

Force and moment diagrams are useful tools to understand the aerodynamic forces and moments
involved in the pitch motion of the airplane. When the elevator control surface is moved, it creates
an aerodynamic force and moment on the airplane.

The force diagram shows the different forces acting on the airplane, such as lift, weight, thrust,
and drag. When the elevator control surface is moved upwards, it creates a downward aerodynamic
force on the tail of the airplane, which increases the pitch moment.

The moment diagram shows the different moments acting on the airplane, such as the pitch
moment and the control moment. The control moment is the moment created by the elevator
control surface, which opposes the pitch moment and stabilizes the airplane.

In addition to the elevator control, the pilot can also use other controls to change altitude, such as
the throttle control to adjust engine power and the flaps and slats control to adjust the lift
characteristics of the wings. However, these controls primarily affect the speed and lift of the
airplane, rather than the pitch motion.
13. Why the rudder is designed to suit one-engine inoperative condition? Demonstrate
with suitable sketch mentioning all required forces and moments.

The rudder on an aircraft is designed to help the aircraft maintain directional control in the event
of a one-engine inoperative (OEI) condition. An OEI condition occurs when one engine on a multi-
engine aircraft fails, which can create an asymmetric thrust situation where one side of the aircraft
has more thrust than the other. This asymmetric thrust can cause the aircraft to yaw or turn in the
direction of the failed engine, which can be dangerous if the pilot does not take corrective action.

To counteract this yawing motion and maintain directional control, the pilot can use the rudder
control, which is part of the yaw control system. The yaw control system controls the yaw motion
of the airplane, which is the turning motion around the vertical axis.
The rudder control surface is located on the vertical stabilizer of the aircraft and is actuated by the
rudder control system, which typically consists of a combination of mechanical linkages and
hydraulic or electric actuators. The rudder control system translates the motion of the rudder pedals
in the cockpit into a corresponding motion of the rudder control surface.

In an OEI condition, the rudder control surface creates a side force on the vertical stabilizer, which
helps to counteract the asymmetric thrust and maintain directional control. The force and moment
diagrams are useful tools to understand the aerodynamic forces and moments involved in the yaw
motion of the airplane.

When the rudder control surface is deflected, it creates a side force on the vertical stabilizer, which
creates a yawing moment. This yawing moment opposes the turning moment created by the
asymmetric thrust and helps to maintain directional control.

The rudder is designed to be large enough to provide adequate side force and yawing moment in
an OEI condition. This is because the rudder is the primary control surface for maintaining
directional control in this situation. The size and design of the rudder depend on the specific aircraft
type and OEI certification requirements.

In summary, the rudder is designed to suit one-engine inoperative conditions to provide adequate
side force and yawing moment to help the pilot maintain directional control in the event of an
engine failure.

14. How control augmentation system eliminates the problems in stability

augmentation system? Discuss with suitable examples.

The Control Augmentation System (CAS) is an advanced version of the Stability Augmentation
System (SAS). It provides additional benefits such as improved handling qualities and a higher
level of control authority. The main purpose of the CAS is to improve the performance of the
aircraft, particularly during high-stress maneuvers, by supplementing the pilot's control inputs.

The CAS typically employs a combination of sensors, computers, and actuators to improve aircraft
handling. The sensors detect deviations from the desired flight path, and the computer uses this
 information to calculate the appropriate corrective action. The actuators then move the control
surfaces to implement the corrective action.

CAS can eliminate the problems of the SAS, such as instability or oscillations, by using
sophisticated control algorithms. For example, the Boeing 777 aircraft employs a CAS called the
Flight Control System (FCS), which uses a combination of control laws and gains to improve
aircraft stability and performance. The FCS includes multiple control surfaces, including spoilers,
ailerons, elevators, and rudder, and can also adjust the engines to improve performance.

Another example is the Fly-by-Wire (FBW) system used in modern commercial aircraft such as
the Airbus A320 and Boeing 787. FBW is a type of CAS that replaces traditional mechanical
linkages between the cockpit controls and the control surfaces with electronic signals. The FBW
system uses advanced control algorithms to interpret pilot inputs and move the control surfaces
accordingly, resulting in smoother and more precise control.

In summary, the CAS improves upon the SAS by providing additional benefits such as improved
handling qualities and a higher level of control authority. It can eliminate problems such as
instability or oscillations by using sophisticated control algorithms, as seen in examples such as
the FCS and FBW systems.
15. Name five components of the inner loop system and explain two of them

The inner loop system of a flight control system typically includes the following components:

1. Sensors: These are devices that measure physical quantities such as acceleration, angular velocity,
and airspeed. They provide input to the flight control system for calculating the appropriate control
commands.
2. Actuators: These are devices that convert the electrical signals from the flight control system into
mechanical motion to control the aircraft's control surfaces, such as the ailerons, elevators, and
rudder.
3. Control electronics: These are the electronic components that process the sensor signals and
generate the appropriate control commands for the actuators.
4. Feedback loops: These are circuits that provide feedback from the output of the control system to
the input to improve the accuracy of the control.
5. Power supplies: These provide the necessary electrical power to the flight control system
components.

Two of these components are:

1. Sensors: Sensors are critical components of the inner loop system, as they provide the necessary
input for the control system to calculate the appropriate control commands. For example, an
accelerometer measures acceleration in three dimensions and provides input to the control system
for calculating the appropriate control commands for maintaining the aircraft's stability.
2. Feedback loops: Feedback loops play an important role in improving the accuracy of the control
system by providing feedback from the output to the input. For example, a closed-loop feedback
system can adjust the control commands based on the measured output, such as the aircraft's
attitude or airspeed, to maintain stability and ensure that the aircraft follows the desired flight path.
16. Explain the contribution components of outer loop system in the flight
augmentation system.

The outer loop system in flight augmentation system consists of the following components:

1. Flight Director: The flight director is responsible for providing guidance commands to the pilot on
how to fly the aircraft. The flight director uses the information from the aircraft sensors to compute
the necessary guidance commands that would help the pilot in flying the aircraft in a particular
manner. The flight director usually displays the guidance commands on the primary flight display
(PFD) or the head-up display (HUD).
2. Autothrottle System: The autothrottle system is responsible for controlling the aircraft's engines to
maintain a specific speed or power setting. The autothrottle system receives information from the
aircraft sensors, such as the airspeed indicator and the altitude indicator, and uses this information
to adjust the engine thrust accordingly. This helps in maintaining the desired speed or power
setting.
3. Autopilot System: The autopilot system is responsible for automatically controlling the aircraft's
flight path. The autopilot system receives information from the aircraft sensors, such as the attitude
indicator and the heading indicator, and uses this information to adjust the aircraft's control
 surfaces to maintain the desired flight path. The autopilot system can be programmed to fly the
aircraft along a specific flight plan or to maintain a specific altitude, heading, or airspeed.
4. Flight Management System (FMS): The flight management system is responsible for managing
the aircraft's flight plan. The FMS uses information from the aircraft sensors, such as the GPS
receiver, to compute the aircraft's position and the desired flight plan. The FMS can be
programmed to fly the aircraft along a specific flight plan, to perform automatic route changes,
and to manage the fuel consumption.
5. Navigation System: The navigation system is responsible for providing the pilot with accurate
information about the aircraft's position and the direction in which it is heading. The navigation
system consists of various sensors, such as the GPS receiver, the inertial navigation system (INS),
and the air data computer (ADC), that provide information about the aircraft's position, velocity,
and altitude. The navigation system also provides information about the desired flight path and the
location of nearby airports and navigational aids.

The contribution of the outer loop system in the flight augmentation system is to provide the pilot
with the necessary guidance and control inputs to fly the aircraft along a desired flight path. The
outer loop system helps in maintaining the desired altitude, airspeed, heading, and flight plan by
providing guidance commands to the pilot or by automatically controlling the aircraft's flight path.
This helps in reducing the workload of the pilot and in ensuring a safe and efficient flight.
17.Write the advantages and disadvantages of digital control system over analog
control system.

Advantages of digital control system over analog control system:

1. Accuracy: Digital control systems are more accurate and precise than analog systems. Digital
systems have the capability to store and process data with high precision and accuracy, while
analog systems are prone to noise and interference.
2. Flexibility: Digital control systems are more flexible in terms of control algorithms and can handle
complex control algorithms with ease. Analog systems require a dedicated hardware for each
control function, which limits their flexibility.
3. Reproducibility: Digital control systems provide consistent and reproducible results, even under
different operating conditions, whereas analog systems are more susceptible to drift and aging
effects.
4. Ease of implementation: Digital control systems are easier to implement and maintain than analog
systems. Digital systems use standard components and interfaces, which makes it easy to integrate
different components and update the system.
5. Signal processing: Digital control systems have the ability to process signals with higher accuracy
and speed. Digital systems can also filter signals and remove noise more effectively than analog
systems.

Disadvantages of digital control system over analog control system:

1. Complexity: Digital control systems are more complex than analog systems, requiring additional
hardware and software components to process and store data.
2. Sampling rate: Digital control systems require a sampling rate that is high enough to accurately
capture the dynamic behavior of the system. If the sampling rate is too low, the system may not
respond quickly enough to changes in the input.
3. Sensitivity to electromagnetic interference: Digital control systems are more sensitive to
electromagnetic interference than analog systems. The noise introduced by electromagnetic
interference can disrupt the digital signal and affect the performance of the system.
4. Latency: Digital control systems may introduce a delay in the control loop due to the time required
for processing and computation. This latency can affect the stability and performance of the
system.
5. Cost: Digital control systems are typically more expensive than analog systems, due to the
additional hardware and software required to implement the system.
18. State the concept of Digital control in the modern control theory with help of neat
sketch.

Digital control is the use of digital electronics and digital processing algorithms to control physical
systems. It involves the use of analog-to-digital (A/D) converters to sample analog signals, digital
signal processing (DSP) algorithms to manipulate these signals, and digital-to-analog (D/A)
 converters to convert the processed digital signals back to analog signals for control of the physical
system.

The basic block diagram of a digital control system is shown below:

+-------+ +--------+ +--------+

u(t) -->| A/D |-->| Digital|-->| D/A |--> y(t)
| | | | | |
+-------+ +--------+ +--------+

where u(t) is the input signal, y(t) is the output signal, and the A/D and D/A blocks represent the
analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion, respectively. The Digital block represents the
digital signal processing algorithms used for control.

Advantages of Digital Control:

 Precise and accurate control due to the ability to use high-resolution A/D and D/A converters.
 Easy to implement complex control algorithms using digital signal processing techniques.
 Flexible and reconfigurable control systems due to the use of software.

Disadvantages of Digital Control:

 Higher initial cost due to the need for specialized hardware and software.
 Limited bandwidth due to the sampling rate of the A/D converter.
 Possibility of quantization errors due to the finite resolution of the A/D and D/A converters.
19. Enumerate the differentiate between stability control system and control
augmentation system.

The main differences between a stability control system and a control augmentation system are:

1. Purpose: The main purpose of a stability control system is to ensure that the aircraft remains stable
during flight and prevent it from entering into unstable flight conditions. On the other hand, the
primary purpose of a control augmentation system is to enhance the aircraft's handling qualities
and performance by augmenting the pilot's control inputs.
2. Operation: Stability control system operates by automatically adjusting the control surfaces to
bring the aircraft back to stable flight. It is usually designed to operate in the background and
requires no input from the pilot. In contrast, the control augmentation system is designed to work
in tandem with the pilot's inputs, enhancing the aircraft's response and making it easier to control.
3. Type of Sensors: Stability control systems mainly rely on sensors that measure the aircraft's
attitude, speed, and other flight parameters. In contrast, control augmentation systems often use
additional sensors that measure the pilot's control inputs and aircraft response to those inputs.
4. Performance: Stability control systems generally provide limited augmentation and cannot
improve aircraft performance beyond its design limits. Control augmentation systems, however,
are designed to improve the aircraft's performance in various flight regimes, such as reducing the
landing distance or improving maneuverability during aerial combat.
5. Redundancy: Stability control systems are often designed to provide a level of redundancy in case
of system failures. In contrast, control augmentation systems may not have redundancy built-in
and rely on backup systems in case of failures.

In summary, stability control systems focus on maintaining the aircraft's stability, while control
augmentation systems focus on enhancing the aircraft's handling qualities and performance.
20. Demonstrate about the controls that control the Pitching moment and rolling
moment in aircraft stability.

The pitching moment and rolling moment in aircraft stability are controlled by different control
surfaces. Here are some of the common controls used for each:

1. Pitching moment control:

 Elevator: This control surface is hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and is used
to change the pitch angle of the aircraft. By deflecting the elevator upwards or downwards, the lift
generated by the horizontal tailplane can be altered, resulting in a pitching moment around the
aircraft's lateral axis.
2. Rolling moment control:
 Aileron: This control surface is located on the trailing edge of each wing and is used to control the
roll of the aircraft. By deflecting the aileron upwards on one wing and downwards on the other
 wing, the lift generated by each wing can be altered, resulting in a rolling moment around the
aircraft's longitudinal axis.
 Spoiler: Spoilers are panels that are located on the upper surface of the wing and can be raised to
disrupt the airflow over the wing. This reduces the lift generated by that portion of the wing and
can be used to control the roll of the aircraft.

Both pitching moment and rolling moment can also be controlled by the use of flaps, which are
located on the trailing edge of the wing. Flaps can be lowered to increase the lift generated by the
wing, which can result in a pitching or rolling moment, depending on their configuration.
However, flaps are primarily used to increase lift during takeoff and landing, rather than for control
purposes.