THEODORE R.

SCHATZKI

2. A PRIMER ON PRACTICES
Theory and Research

As the title indicates, this chapter is a primer on practices. It begins by discussing

practice theory generally but mostly presents my own ideas. The topics addressed
are practices, activities, and social phenomena, with special attention to temporality
and the unfolding of practices. The chapter concludes with comments about
conducting research on practices. My goal is to provide practice theoretical
stimulation to readers interested in practice-based education and research.

WHAT’S THE DEAL WITH PRACTICE THEORY?

The expression “practice theory” has gained currency in recent decades. I believe it
has its origins in anthropology, in connection with the work of Pierre Bourdieu
(1972, trans. 1976) as codified in a well-known article by Sherry Ortner (1984).
But the expression covers much more. Perhaps the two leading exponents of
practice theory are Bourdieu and Anthony Giddens (1979). In philosophy, both
Hubert Dreyfus (1991) and Charles Taylor (1985) have described key dimensions
of practices, and figures such as Jean-François Lyotard (1988) have defended
parallel ideas. Otherwise, the work of Andreas Reckwitz (2002), Elizabeth Shove
(Shove, Pantzar, & Watson, 2012), Stephen Kemmis (Kemmis & Grootenboer,
2008), and Schatzki (2002) should be mentioned. In the background of these
theorists’ ideas stand the prominent philosophies of Heidegger and Wittgenstein.
Because of this background, the work of many other theorists converges with ideas
associated with the more narrowly defined partisans of practice. The above
thinkers form a diverse group. As a result, only general commonalities exist among
them. Three commonalities are particularly significant.
The first is the idea that a practice is an organised constellation of different
people’s activities. A practice is a social phenomenon in the sense that it embraces
multiple people. The activities that compose it, moreover, are organised.
The second commonality is the idea that important features of human life must
be understood as forms of, or as rooted in, human activity – not the activity of
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individuals, but in practices, that is, in the organised activities of multiple people.
Some of the features in question are social phenomena such as science, power,
organisations, and social change. The idea that these phenomena are forms of, or
rooted in organised activities, opposes a wide variety of social system and
structuralist theories that make systems principles or abstract structures and
mechanisms central to social phenomena. Other features of human life thought to

J. Higgs et al. (Eds.), Practice-Based Education:

Perspectives and Strategies, 13-26.
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 SCHATZKI

be rooted in organised activities are psychological – or quasi-psychological –

matters such as reason, identity, learning, and communication. These features, too,
so goes the intuition, are features of practices, or perhaps more precisely, features
that come to characterise particular people by virtue of their participation in social
practices. Indeed, some philosophers have contended that the contents of most if
not all of a person’s mental states and actions presuppose the practices in which the
person participates. This contention helps differentiate practice theoretical accounts
of social phenomena from those social ontological individualisms that uphold the
thesis that social phenomena are aggregates or constellations of individuals’
actions. If what a person does, thinks, believes, etc. presupposes the practices that
s/he carries on, social phenomena cannot consist simply of people’s actions but
must comprise these actions together with, or in the context of, these practices.
The third common tenet is an account of human activity that, in emphasising
that human activity rests on something that cannot be put into words, counters the
subject-object split that has defined much philosophical thought in the modern era
(but has received substantial criticism from multiple directions in the past 80
years). Examples of the nonpropositional something are Ryle’s know-how,
Merleau-Ponty’s habits/schemas, Dreyfus’ skills, Bourdieu’s habitus, and Giddens’
practical consciousness. Standing behind these conceptions are Wittgenstein’s
ruminations on rule following and knowing how to go on. This nonpropositional
thing, moreover, is bodily. This emphasis on the body partly represents polemical
opposition to the historical domination of mind over body in the mind-body
dualism. A few theorists, however, notably Merleau-Ponty and Dreyfus, have
sought to conceptualise the bodily nature of abilities. Meanwhile, in the work of
theorists such as Bourdieu and Giddens, who are interested in sociality, these
bodily abilities help organise activities as practices. In sum, the domain of
“practice theory” is delimited by a conception of practices as organised activities,
the conviction that both social phenomena and key “psychological” features of
human life are tied to practices, and the idea that the basis of human activity is
nonpropositional bodily abilities.
Beyond practice theory, a wide variety of theorists today use the expressions
“practices” or “social practices” in the absence of an elaborated or even explicit
conception of practices. These expressions are also often used almost
unreflectively, in a way that suggests that the writer or speaker believes that his/her
subject matter is a form of, or rooted in, human activities. In this way, a vague,
unarticulated sense of the first two commonalities that delimit practice theory has
disseminated far beyond its imprecise shores and become commonplace in
contemporary social thought.
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PRACTICES AND PRACTICE-ARRANGEMENT BUNDLES

The central concept in practice theory is that of practices. A practice, on my

understanding, is an open-ended, spatially-temporally dispersed nexus of doings
and sayings. Practices are open-ended in the sense that they are not composed of
any particular number of activities. A practice that is so composed, is complete,

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

dead, no longer being carried on. The activities that compose a practice are
spatially-temporally dispersed, moreover, because each of them takes place
somewhere in objective space at some point in, or over some duration of, objective
time. Not all activities, it should be noted, are unambiguously locatable in objective
time. An example is winning a school math contest, which can be located at the
conclusion of the competition, during the entire time the competition takes place,
or when the results are certified. To say, finally, that activities form a nexus is to
say that they hang together: that they are organised and connect through such
relations as causality and intentional directedness.
A practice is a nexus of doings and sayings. Sayings are a subclass of doings,
namely, all doings that say something about something. At the base of a practice,
furthermore, lie those doings and sayings that are basic activities. Basic activities
take place without the actor having to do something else: they are actions a person
can perform without further ado. Examples are typing on a keyboard, moving one’s
hands hither and thither, uttering the words “Your exam begins now,” and thinking
that a sunset is beautiful. As these examples suggest, most basic doings and sayings
are bodily activities. Note that a paraplegic is capable of doings and sayings, too,
since he or she is able to perform a small set of bodily actions and, like abled
people, is capable of performing a large range of “mental” actions such as thinking,
imagining, and calculating, all in one’s head.
In almost all cases, people perform further actions in performing basic ones. A
person, for example, writes an essay or manipulates a PowerPoint presentation by
typing on a keyboard, sorts and files papers by moving her hands hither and thither,
and takes solace surrounded by noisy kids by thinking that the sunset is beautiful.
In turn, these “higher level” activities typically constitute even higher level ones.
For example, in writing an essay a student might be doing the work for a course,
and in giving an exam a teacher might be testing student learning and abilities.
Action hierarchies such as these are teleological. For example, the teacher’s
purpose in saying “Your exam begins now” is to begin the exam, and her purpose
in beginning the exam is to test students’ learning and abilities (or just to do her
job). Teleological hierarchies top off in some activity in which there is no further
involvement, some activity that does not help compose yet a further activity. Such
an activity is a person’s end: it is that for the sake of which she acts. A student
might take courses and do coursework, for example, for the sake of advancing
career prospects, living the good life, or surviving to the end of the semester, just
as a teacher might give exams for the sake of bettering people’s life chances,
improving society, or just doing her job. A practice embraces all the activities
contained in such teleological hierarchies: the activities and states of existence for
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the sake of which people act, the projects, i.e., actions they carry out for their ends,
and the basic doings and sayings through which they implement these projects.
As for organisation, a practice’s activities are organised by practical rules,
understandings, teleoaffective structures, and general understandings. An action
belongs to a practice if it expresses one of the understandings, rules or
teleoaffective elements that organise that practice. This general conception of
organisation is shared by Bourdieu and Giddens, though they diverge on what

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 SCHATZKI

organises practices: habitus, stakes, and capitals (Bourdieu), sets of rules and
resources (Giddens).
By “practical understanding” I mean knowing how to carry out desired actions
through basic doings and sayings. An example is understanding how to sort and
file papers – by moving one hands hither and thither. By a “rule,” I mean an
explicitly formulated directive, remonstration, instruction, or edict. Rules are
ubiquitous in human life: humans are always formulating or producing them. By a
“teleoaffective structure,” moreover, I primarily mean a set of teleological
hierarchies (end-project-activity combinations) that are enjoined or acceptable in a
given practice. To say that a hierarchy is enjoined is to say that, when carrying on a
practice, participants (or participants with certain identities) should realise them,
i.e., perform particular actions and projects for the sake of particular ends. The
affective component of a teleoaffective structure embraces the emotions and moods
that people carrying on a practice should or may acceptably express. Practices vary
on how robust their affective organisation is. Finally, general understandings are
abstract senses, for instance, of the beauty of an artisanal product or of the nobility
of educating students. They are not ends for which people strive but senses of the
worth, value, nature, or place of things, which infuse and are expressed in people’s
doings and sayings. Doings and sayings belong to a given practice when they
express some of the understandings, teleoaffective components, and rules that
make up the organisation of that practice.
The activities that compose practices are inevitably, and often essentially, bound
up with material entities. Basic doings and sayings, for example, are carried out by
embodied human beings. Just about every practice, moreover, deals with material
entities (including human bodies) that people manipulate or react to. And most
practices would not exist without materialities of the sorts they deal with, just as
most material arrangements that practices deal with would not exist in the absence
of these practices. Because the relationship between practices and material entities
is so intimate, I believe that the notion of a bundle of practices and material
arrangements is fundamental to analysing human life. The conviction that some
amalgam of activity and materiality is ontologically and dynamically fundamental
to human life is not shared by all practice theorists, for example, Giddens. It is
upheld, however, by other practice theorists such as Bourdieu and also by a range
of other contemporary theoretical approaches including actor network theory,
sociocultural theories of mediated action, object-centred socialities, and some
accounts of science.
To say that practices and arrangements bundle is to say (1) that practices effect,
use, give meaning to, and are inseparable from arrangements while (2)
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arrangements channel, prefigure, facilitate, and are essential to practices. More

specifically, practices and arrangements form bundles through five types of
relation: causality, prefiguration, constitution, intentionality, and intelligibility. I
will make brief comments about each. Causal relations between practices and
arrangements take two prominent forms: activities altering the world, plus entities
and the events befalling them and inducing activities. By prefiguration, meanwhile,
I mean the difference that the present makes to the nascent future. Contrary to the

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

widespread analysis of prefiguration as a matter or enablement and constraint, I

conceive of it as present states of affairs that qualify forthcoming activity on
indefinitely numerous registers such as easier/harder, more/less expensive,
nobler/baser, more/less time-consuming. Material arrangements ubiquitously
prefigure the perpetuation of practices, that is, the repetition or redirection of the
doings and sayings that compose particular practices. Arrangements also prefigure
changes in practices and arrangements. Existing arrangements in classrooms,
offices, and labs, for example, prefigure changes in college policies, making
possible changes easier or harder, more or less expensive, more or less time-
consuming, and so on. Similarly, existing material infrastructures such as
communications and computer systems prefigure changes in these infrastructures
or the introduction of new ones.
As for constitution, arrangements constitute practices when they are either
essential to these practices or pervasively involved with them over a swath of
space-time. Students are essential in this sense to teaching practices, just as
classrooms have helped constitute these practices for decades. Conversely,
practices constitute arrangements when given arrangements would not exist were it
not for particular practices. In this sense, teaching practices constitute the
classroom arrangements where they occur, but not the walkways that students and
instructors take to and from classrooms. Practices are intentionally related to
arrangements, furthermore, via both the thoughts and imaginings participants have
about them and the actions participants perform toward them (including using
them). Teachers, for instance, think various things about smart boards and
classroom chair arrangements and act toward them in various ways. A final sort of
relation between practices and arrangements is intelligibility: arrangements having
meaning for – being intelligible as such and such to – participants in a practice. I
will not argue the point here, but the intelligibility of the world is tied to the
practices people carry on: the meanings that windows, lecterns, smart boards, class
management software, chalk, students, and administrators have for teachers are tied
to the practices teachers carry on amid these entities.
Thickets of relations of all five types can be thinner or denser, more compact or
spread out, continuing or fleeting, and so on. Relations of these sorts are typically
very thick between the practices and arrangements that compose a bundle. In fact,
it is this concentration of relatedness, its density and continuity, that makes it the
case that a bundle exists. Teaching practices, for example, maintain particularly
thick causal relations with the students, markers, essays, computers, and blogs on
which the people carrying them out immediately act as thinner causal relations
with other university arrangements, for instance, those composing central
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administration or the athletics department. The students, markers, etc. with which
teaching practices maintain thick causal relations also tend to be the entities with
which they maintain constitutional relations and whose meanings the practices
subtend. It is with these entities that teaching forms a bundle. As indicated, bundles
of practices and arrangements are central to social analysis.

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 SCHATZKI

ACTIVITY AS TEMPORALSPATIAL EVENT

Practices are nexuses of activity. I have been using the word “activities” to denote
doings and sayings, both basic activities and the further activities they constitute in
the circumstances (e.g., typing on a keyboard, writing an essay). The current
section examines activities as a type of entity (see Schatzki, 2010, for more detail).
Activities are events. This means that they happen. Theorists who hold that
activity is an event standardly contrast activities as events to another type of event
often called “mere occurrences.” Examples of mere occurrences are hail falling,
neurons firing, and flags fluttering in a breeze. Activity events are distinguished
from mere occurrences by virtue of being intentional and voluntary. Mere
occurrences lack these properties: they just happen.
Even though activities and mere occurrences are different categories of event, I
believe that they share an important feature, namely, that of befalling entities: an
activity befalls the person whose performance it is. (This idea derives from later
Heidegger’s notion of the event.) To be sure, a person performs, or carries out, the
action that a performance is a performance of. But she does not perform, or carry
out, the performance – the activity – itself. Rather, the performance happens. It’s
happening to, or befalling her, is, at once, her carrying out the action. Otherwise
stated: although a performance is doing something, the doing itself is not a further
thing a person does – it just happens. Incidentally, because a person is responsible
for her actions, on my analysis responsibility, and also choice and thereby freedom,
befall a person (cf. Sartre, 1943, trans. 1956). They are conditions that hold of a
person by virtue of activities befalling her. They are not triggers or states of affairs
that pre-exist and determine activities.
Activity is an event that befalls people and other creatures. It is also a
temporalspatial event. It is temporalspatial, however, in an unusual sense.
Normally, an event is deemed temporalspatial if it occurs in time and in space, that
is, if it has a location in time and space. Activities do occur in space and time.
When I write that activities are temporalspatial, however, I mean that time and
space, or better, timespace, is an essential feature of activity and exists only when,
and in so far as, activity happens. Activity is temporalspatial because something
called timespace makes activity what it is, activity, as opposed to mere occurrence.
My specific understandings of the temporal and spatial components of activity
timespace are an interpretation of Heidegger’s analysis of existence in Being and
Time (1928, trans. 1978). Heidegger averred that temporality (Temporalität) is the
meaning of human existence. In the present context this can be taken as the claim
that human activity is essentially temporal. By “temporality,” moreover, Heidegger
meant the past-present-future dimensionality of activity. A key feature of these
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three dimensions is their simultaneity: each an essential dimension of activity, the

past, present, and future necessarily happen together. They do not form a
succession, the past preceding the present which precedes the future. The idea that
past, present, and future are simultaneous contrasts with the dominant
understanding of time in Western culture as succession, as the before and after
ordering of events, states of affairs, and instants, etc. On this understanding, the

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

past precedes the present, which precedes the future. By contrast, the past, present,
and future of human activity occur together, simultaneously, whenever activity
takes place. All three dimensions co-exist so long as a person acts.
Heidegger interpreted the past, present, and future of temporality, specifically,
as thrownness, being-amid, and projection, respectively. Thrownness is already
being-in-a-world. Whenever a person acts, she is always already immersed in
particular situations, in the context of which she acts. What she does is sensitive to,
responsive to, and reflective of those situations, or rather, of particular aspects of
them. These aspects are givens, from which she departs in acting: they are what
matters to her in the situation. Projection, meanwhile, is being ahead of oneself.
Projecting is putting ways of being before oneself and acting for their sake.
Whenever a person acts, she acts for the sake of some way of being (e.g., winning
a competition, getting home on time, being a good sister) – toward which she
comes in acting. Being-amid, finally, is having to do with entities encountered in
the world, that is, acting toward, with, and amid (bei) them. All told, a person,
when acting, proceeds amid entities stretched out between that toward which she is
coming and that from which she is departing. This proceeding-stretching out is the
opening up of the past, present, and future of activity.
This structure can be described teleologically. The future dimension of activity,
coming toward something projected, is acting for an end. The past dimension of
activity, departing from something that matters, is reacting to something or acting
in its light, that is, being motivated. The present of activity is acting-encountering
entities. The temporality of activity is, thus, acting amid entities toward an end
from what motivates. Because activity is essentially temporal, human activity is
inherently teleological and motivated.
So described, the future and past dimensions of activity determine what people
do. People act for the sake of something and because of such and such: what
determines their activity is “that for the sake of which they act” and “that given
which they do so.” It follows that understanding or explaining activity requires
grasping or citing the ways of being for the sake of which people act as well as the
events or states of affairs given which they proceed as they do.
Spatiality (Räumlichkeit), meanwhile, is the world through which a person
proceeds, housing activity, the involvements that entities in the world have in the
activity that happens amid them. More specifically, spatiality embraces arrays of
places and paths anchored in entities, where a place is a place to perform some
action and a path is a way among places. This room, for instance, embraces an
array of places and paths to sit, to speak, to gaze, to exit, and the like that are
anchored at chairs, desks, and doors. To say that a place or path is anchored at an
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entity is to say that this entity provides stability and a location in objective space to
that place or path. As a person passes through her day, she proceeds sensitive to the
places and paths that are anchored in the arrangements amid which she acts.
Human activity is a temporalspatial event. An important feature of activity that
follows from its temporal character is indeterminacy. Activity is indeterminate in
the sense that it is not fixed or laid down prior to a person acting either what she
does or what teleological and motivational factors determine her activity. It is only

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 SCHATZKI

with the performance itself that what she does, and that for the sake of which and
because of which she does it, become definite. Indeterminacy does not mean not
determined: what a person does is always determined by that for the sake of which,
and that because of which, she does it. What these are, however, remains open until
she acts. For the same reason, indeterminate activity is not random. Activity is
indeterminate because what determines it is fixed or settled only with its
happening.
As stated, the indeterminacy of activity follows from the temporal character of
activity. The past, present, and future dimensions of activity are simultaneous. The
past and future, moreover, determine the present – activity itself. So the
determination of activity does not precede (or succeed), but instead is simultaneous
with the activity determined. Until activity occurs, consequently, what determines
it cannot be fixed or settled. These facts do not imply that a past state of affairs
cannot determine present activity. What they entail is twofold: that a past state of
affairs cannot, prior to present activity, settle what someone presently does and
that a past state of affairs does determine present activity only if its doing so is a
(present) dimension of that activity. In other words, it is present activity, not the
past state of affairs, that makes it the case that the past state of affairs determines it.
Strictly speaking, timespace is a feature of each activity. It is, however, a social
feature of individual activities. It is social because the timespaces of different
people’s activities interweave under the aegis of social practices and the material
arrangements with which practices are bundled.
The interwovenness of the timespaces of different people’s activities consists in
the existence of common, shared, and orchestrated elements. Elements of
timespace – ends, purposes, motivations, places, paths – are common when
participants in a practice act for the same ends, purposes, or motivations, or at the
same places and paths anchored at the same or similar material entities, and do so
because this is enjoined in the normative organisation of the practice. For example,
a place for teachers to stand and speak is anchored for teachers and students alike
at desks at the front of classrooms because this is enjoined in educational practices.
Elements of timespace are shared, meanwhile, when people act for the same ends
or motivations or at the same places and paths, and this is not enjoined of them but
still acceptable in their practices. A classroom example is teacher and students
having a good laugh together after the conclusion of a compulsory exam, for the
shared purpose of reducing tension. Elements of timespace are orchestrated,
finally, when one element being part of one person’s timespace is not independent
of a different element being part of a different person’s timespace. An example is a
teacher acting for the sake of maintaining discipline not being independent of a
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student acting for the sake of undermining authority.

Via commonality, sharing, and orchestration, the timespaces of the activities of
participants in a practice that is carried on amid particular arrangements
interweave. This interwovenness is a joint product of the normative organisation of
the practice involved, the arrangements in which it is carried on, and the many
contingent events that inflect the progression of activity in that practice-
arrangement bundle. Interwoven timespaces are a feature of this bundle.

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

In sum, activities are indeterminate temporalspatial events, the interwovenness

of whose temporal and spatial dimensions is a feature of the practice-arrangement
bundles as part of which they occur.

SOCIETY AND ITS UNFOLDING

Social life, as I analyse it, is human coexistence. Human coexistence, in turn, is the
hanging-together of different people’s lives. In my (2002) view, the hanging-
together of human lives inherently transpires as part of practice-arrangement
bundles. Such bundles form “sites” where social existence transpires. Bundles,
moreover, connect, through links between their practices, connections between
their arrangements, and relations of the sort that join practices and arrangements
into bundles. Through such relations, bundles form constellations and
constellations larger constellations. The total plenum formed by this labyrinth of
linked practices and arrangements is the overall site where social life transpires.
A social phenomenon is, by definition, any form taken by or anything pertaining
to the hanging-together of human lives. Substantially, any social phenomenon is a
slice or set of aspects of the plenum of linked practices and arrangements. This
analysis holds of all social phenomena, small and large, micro and macro, local and
global. All social phenomena share the same basic ingredients – practices,
arrangements, and relations among them – and composition. The difference
between, for example, small social phenomena such as individual classes and large
social phenomena such as a national educational establishment is the difference
between less and more spatially (and temporally) expansive practice-arrangement
bundles or aspects thereof. The educational establishment embraces practices,
arrangements, and relations that are spatially further flung than are those making
up a class. It is variable, moreover, whether the sets of practices, arrangements, and
relations that make up larger phenomena are more complex than those making up
smaller phenomena.
This account of social phenomena sets parameters for an account of social
unfolding, or development. Perhaps the chief implication is that the unfolding of
social phenomena consists in the emergence, persistence, and dissolution of
bundles and constellations thereof. I believe, moreover, that human activity is the
chief dynamo in social affairs. Practices and bundles arise, persist, and dissolve
principally through human activity, though not only this: actions of nonhumans, as
well as events and processes that befall nonhumans, also contribute to the
development of practices and bundles. The main point at present, however, is that
social development ultimately rests on the emergence, persistence, and dissolution
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of bundles. I have described forms and components of these three processes in

another essay and will not repeat my discussion here. Instead, I will say a few
words about the dynamics and control of bundles.
An important feature of the evolution of bundles flows from the indeterminacy
of activity, namely, that the evolution of a bundle never simply follows from the
past: how a bundle evolves is never settled or fixed before participants or members
act. Whatever they do is determined teleologically and motivationally, but what

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 SCHATZKI

they do and what ends, purposes, and states of affairs determine this, are open until
they act. At the same time, activity occurs within contexts that it reflects. Humans,
for instance, are trained to be sensitive to normativity. Because of this, the
normative organisations of the practices that they have been carrying on, form a
context in light of which they usually proceed, by so acting as to extend the
practices and maintain their organisations. Past and present states of affairs
similarly form contexts that determine present activity if it reacts to them. There
can be no guarantee, however, that the present and future will resemble the past or
that any particular context – normative organisation, past or present states of affair,
desired states of being – will help determine what people do. Experience and
knowledge can ground better judgments about the likelihood of particular actions
and the reasons for them. But one never knows when these judgments will be
thwarted, and human life is full of examples – small and large – of new starts and
changes in direction.
These facts also imply that human activity cannot be controlled. The best that
designers of lives and institutions can do is to create contexts that, as experience
and thought show, make certain activities very or more likely. Since activities are
events that befall people, people themselves likewise cannot control them. People
do have intimate experience of themselves and might know better than others
which contexts increase the likelihood of their performing certain activities. But
people’s activity can be – and is from time to time – subject to new starts or
changes in direction that surprise them.
These observations ramify to social developments at all scales. Because human
activity and the unfolding of bundles are central to social change, indeterminacy
characterises social developments of all sorts. Novelty and new starts can burst
forth anytime and set social affairs in new directions. All alleged constraints or
barriers can be suddenly thwarted. Indeed, it is best to abandon the notions of
constraints on and barriers to change and instead to conceive of human activity as
taking place in contexts to which it is variably reactive. Of course, the fact that new
starts and directions are perpetually possible should not obscure the fact that, over
any period of time, much about social life does not change: activity is an event, but
not all events amount to changes of any significance. Indeed, many, if not most
activities perpetuate existing bundles, and activities can perpetuate the status quo
even when change seems immanent. This situation, however, can change – any
time. New starts also occur sufficiently often to render reliable predictions about
human life impossible.
These facts conspire to make the perpetuation and dissolution of bundles a more
straightforward affair than their establishment. As noted, humans are trained to be
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sensitive to normativity, to what is enjoined of and acceptable for them to do. This
training brings it about that they usually uphold what is enjoined and acceptable in
their practices: the maintenance of normativity is a fundamental fact about human
life. Because of this, the perpetuation of bundles is a sort of default situation in
human societies.
The flip side of the default perpetuation of bundles is that their dissolution is
overwhelmingly, though not exclusively, tied to external factors and contexts.

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

Sometimes physical events eradicate bundles by killing the humans that had been
carrying them out, destroying the arrangements amid which they acted, or inducing
the abandonment of extant ways. Examples are, respectively, epidemics,
earthquakes, and solar eclipses. Blunt force and its threat can have similar results.
Less violent examples highlight external challenges such as the launching of the
Sputnik satellite, which led to the rapid abandonment of the existing U.S. space
program (and the implementation of a new one), and the collapse of a market,
which induces a firm to abandon production of a particular good. Of course, the
dissolution of bundles can, pace these examples, take long periods of time. It took
much time, for example, for rote memorisation to depart language education.
Sometimes, moreover, bundles dissolve due to internal factors: an example is the
abandonment of certain agricultural bundles consequent on the depletion of soil
nutrients. Still, most dissolutions follow from external causes. And this fact
indicates that the likelihood of dissolution can be significantly increased through
the creation of particular external contexts, for example, the amassing of armies,
the intensification of governmental projects, and the erection of trade barriers. Of
course, these developments might simply induce the evolution – not dissolution –
of the target bundles. One can never be sure how people will respond. Even when
one succeeds in inducing dissolution, it is a further matter to shape what follows.
Establishing bundles is more work. The establishment of a bundle is the
institution of one or more practices that conjointly transpire amid a particular,
perhaps newly created or altered material arrangement or set of similar
arrangements. It is relatively easy to create or alter arrangements, though doing so
requires resources and materials. Practices are instituted, moreover, when activities
come to be organised by some set of understandings, rules, and teleoaffective
structure. To effect such an organisation, tasks must be distributed, ends and
purposes set or coalesced, and rules issued or disseminated. General
understandings must be exemplified and repeatedly formulated if they are not
appropriated from other bundles. People must also be trained if their repertoires of
basic activities need to expand and be aligned with to-be-performed activities.
Once practices and bundles are established, moreover, they assume lives of their
own and unfold in unforeseen ways. The emergence of bundles can also be a
gradual and indistinct process, unknown to the people to whom it is occurring. I
suspect that the emergence of Neolithic agricultural and artisanal practices
occurred much this way.

RESEARCHING PRACTICES
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The world according to practice theory offers much to investigate. There are
practices, arrangements, activities, bundles, and constellations. There are questions
about which of these exist when and where, their details, how they work and
unfold, how they can be designed or altered, and how to prepare people to enter
them. These questions point to different concerns and protocols of inquiry. In these
concluding remarks on research, I want to concentrate on the first set of questions,
which all concern what is. How does one uncover the world of practice, how it is?

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 SCHATZKI

Practices are more ethereal than are material entities. Whereas material entities
and activities can be directly perceived (this requires knowledge of the bundles to
which they belong and of teleology as well as motivation), practices must be
uncovered. Not only are the constituent activities of practices spread out over space
and time, but their organisations, as the organisation of spatially and temporally
dispersed entities, are abstract phenomena. Other means than direct experience
must be seized to uncover them.
Language is an important clue as to which activities and practices exist. This is
true regardless of how much or how little knowledge and experience an
investigator has of the bundles under investigation. Even an anthropologist with
little knowledge of the society she is entering, or an unprepared educational
sociologist investigating inner city schooling in his own country, can perceptually
grasp many basic bodily doings and – provided linguistic knowledge – many basic
bodily sayings of the people involved. What they might not so readily grasp are the
activities and practices these doings and sayings help compose. Lexicon is an
important clue here. The use of words for activities and practices is built into
practices. The common use of activity words can hardly get activities wrong on the
lower levels of action hierarchies, i.e., basic doings and sayings and the activities
they immediately constitute. It is only at higher levels of these hierarchies, for
instance, concerning names of that for the sake of which people act, that the use of
language might be wrong, hoodwinked, brainwashed, the victim of ideology, and
the like. Words for practices are likewise reliable guides to existing organised
activity nexuses. Understanding people’s words for activities and practices thus
provides access to the activities and practices that make up their practice-
arrangement bundles. Of course, issues might affix translating this language into
one spoken or understood by the investigator and his audience.
Anthropologists who head into the field and educational sociologists who head
to inner city schools do not do so unprepared. They take courses and read books,
attend conferences, talk to people who have been there, look at newspaper stories,
and watch documentaries. With the knowledge thereby gained, both about their
subjects and about types of people more broadly, they can, when encountering their
subjects, decently well identify the activities and practices these people carry on, as
well as the material entities and arrangements thereof amid which do so.
Nonetheless, much about the organisations and temporalspatial infrastructures of
these practices and bundles, about how the practices and arrangements hang
together and connect to others of their own ilk, about the contexts in which
activities take place, and about the histories of the bundles and how they might
develop in the future, in what contexts, will be unknown. This is detailed
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information that no one, including the subjects, possesses; at best, the knowledge
that is distributed among the subjects and those who have studied them might, if
pooled, cover much of these matters. Despite this, understanding these things is
essential to understanding the subjects’ lives and worlds and to anticipating and
attempting to shape their future.
To acquire this knowledge, the investigator has no choice but to do ethnography,
that is, to practice interaction-observation. Under “ethnography” writ large I

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 PRIMER ON PRACTICES

include focus groups and meetings of subjects, as well as videotaping practices.

There is no formal or mathematical or computer-based method that can get at these
matters. There is no alternative to hanging out with, joining in with, talking to and
watching, and getting together the people concerned. Comparative methods might
produce some understanding. Any accurate use of comparative methods, however,
presupposes ethnography – else, one cannot know what and how to compare, what
umbrella categories to use, and the significance of revealed commonalities and
differences. Of course, this truth does not stop people who are unwilling to do
ethnography from making either uninformed and ultimately unilluminating
comparisons or, more likely, comparisons at high levels of generality. High-level
comparisons can, moreover, be revealing. But one will never understand the
significance of what has been uncovered and its implications for change and design
absent ethnography. This is why it is far more important for, say, government
officials to read case histories, ethnographies, and histories than the comparative
work of political scientists.
A further important method, in a way a part of ethnography writ large, is the
interview or oral history. Whereas ethnography delves into the contemporaneous
condition of particular bundles and constellations, oral history documents reflective
participants’ temporal journeys through series of bundles and constellations,
thereby offering glimpses of the organisations and timespaces of these bundles at
different times, the links among them, the activities that compose them, evolutions
in these matters, and what is involved in individual people participating in multiple
bundles over time. Paired with ethnography and histories of the present such as
genealogy (in Foucault’s sense), oral histories offer as complete an accounting of
extant bundles and constellations as is available. The historical dimension is
important also because of the previously discussed fact that the persistence of
bundles is the default situation in human society. Persistence does not mean stasis,
and the past development of a bundle is a context in which the bundle presently
unfolds.
Underlying the grasp of others’ languages and the pursuit of both ethnography
and oral history is the general experience of and familiarity with humans and their
situations that attentive and reflective people acquire merely by living. I mention
this because this experience and familiarity are especially pertinent to
understanding the future and how it can be shaped. There is no substitute for
knowing something of the ranges and possibilities of human ways and
arrangements – both those of particular people and those of people in general – for
gauging the future and venturing policies designed to point incipient activities in
one direction rather than another. Such knowledge is also, incidentally, the
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empirical basis on which general social theories are constructed.

I conclude with a pitch for statistics (but not also, note, for mathematical
modelling and computer simulations). Statistics provide overviews of the
quantifiable features of large classes of phenomena and thereby contribute to the
attainment of overviews of social affairs. As such, statistical information can make
key contributions to, say, institutional choices and the conduct of life. They
identify and confirm the existence of social problems and enable judgments of

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 SCHATZKI

better and worse social arrangements. Comparative statistics, moreover, are

conceptually impeccable when the categories of things measured unambiguously
apply to the societies or peoples compared (e.g., unemployment rates). The
possession of statistical information, however, does not substitute for
understanding social affairs, and it can never by itself, in the absence of this
understanding, indicate how to resolve problems. Statistics are also regularly
misused. Statistics, accordingly, are ultimately useful only in conjunction with
some combination of ethnography, oral history, history, and theory.

REFERENCES

Bourdieu, P. (1972, trans. R. Nice, 1976). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Dreyfus, H. (1991). Being-in-the-world: A commentary on Heidegger’s Being and Time, Division I.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social
analysis. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Heidegger, M. (1928). Being and time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans. 1978). Oxford: Blackwell.
Kemmis, S., & Grootenboer, P. (2008). Situating praxis in practice: Practice architectures and the
cultural, social and material conditions for practice. In S. Kemmis & T. Smith (Eds.), Enabling
praxis: Challenges for education (pp. 37-62). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Lyotard, J.-F. (1988). The differend: Phrases in dispute (G. van den Abbeele, Trans.) Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Ortner, S. (1984). Theory in anthropology since the sixties. Comparative Study of Society and History,
16, 126-166.
Reckwitz, A. (2002). Toward a theory of social practices: A development in culturalist theorizing.
European Journal of Social Theory 5(2), 243-263.
Sartre, J.-P. (1943, trans. H. Barnes, 1956). Being and nothingness. New York: Pocket Books.
Schatzki. T. (2002). The site of the social: A philosophical exploration of the constitution of social life
and change. University Park, PA: Penn State Press.
Schatzki. T. (2010). The timespace of human activity: On performance, society, and history as
indeterminate teleological events. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Shove, E., Pantzar, M., & Watson, M. (2012). The dynamics of social practices: Everyday life and how
it changes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Taylor, C. (1985). Interpretation and the sciences of man. In Philosophy and the human sciences:
Philosophical papers 2 (pp. 15-58). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Theodore R. Schatzki BA. B.Phil., MA, PhD

College of Arts and Sciences
University of Kentucky
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