KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

TCE 6101- Research Methods

Methods & Tools of Data Collection

Charles Onyutha

[email protected]
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Most of the lecture slides were based on

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Contents
 Basic concepts

 Concepts of data collection

 Data sources, methods /techniques quantitative

and qualitative.

 Tools for data collection – types, characteristics

and their development

 Validity and reliability of tools

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 Basic concept
Variable:
This is some physical entity for which the value can vary e.g. with time or space.

Variables can be classified as:

 Qualitative (categorical)
 Quantitative (numerical)
Qualitative = if we cannot express (in a sensible way) the observation of the variable using a
real number (e.g. wind direction, the type and colour of soil, etc).

Quantitative = if the realization of the variable is a real number.

Quantitative variables

can be further classified as discrete or continuous.

 Discrete variables assume values that can be counted. (e.g. number of students in a
class, number of rainy days in a month, the number of patients in a hospital ward)

 Continuous variables can be measured on a continuous scale (e.g. temperature) i.e.

there is a value of the variable for any particular point in time irrespective of the
length of time.
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Basic concept
Variable:

A variable can also be described as:

 uni-variate = if it is one-dimensional
 multi-variate = if it is multi-dimensional

Multi-variates are also called vector valued variables;

e.g. wind comprises wind direction and wind speed

Random variable
Also called stochastic variable is a statistical quantity whose value fluctuates with chance.

Non-random variable
Also called deterministic variable is a statistical quantity which is fixed (and doesn’t vary
with chance i.e. it can be determined).

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Basic concept
Variable:

A variable is denoted by capital letters e.g.

 Flow (Q),
 water level (H),
 concentration of pollutant (C), etc.

However, commonly we use X or Y to indicate that it always varies while the specific (fixed)
values of the variable can be represented by small letters x or y respectively.

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 Basic concept
Population and sample

Sampling
Descriptive
Population Sample statistics
Inferential
statistics

A population is taken to mean an ensemble (or complete assemblage) of processes or

realisations of a random process.

A sample is subset of a population.

A group of values selected for studying population property.

Statistical Inference - using information from a sample to make inferences (or draw
conclusions) about the population from which the sample was taken.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Basic concept
Methods of sampling

Random Sampling – each experimental unit has an equal chance of being selected e.g.
Lottery

Systematic Sampling – an initial experimental unit is randomly selected, and then every kth
unit is being chosen for sampling e.g. A quality control engineer selects every 60th TV remote
control from an assembly line and conducts a test of qualities.

Stratified Sampling – the population is divided into subgroups (or strata) that share the same
characteristics, then a sample from each subgroup (or stratum) is selected e.g. A General
Motors researcher has partitioned all registered cars into categories of subcompact,
compact, mid-size, and full-size. He is surveying 200 car owners from each category.

Cluster Sampling – the population area is divided into sections (or clusters). Next, randomly
select some of those clusters, and finally choose a sample or all the members from those
selected clusters e.g. two of the three colleges in the a certain University are randomly
selected, then all the departments from the two selected college are interviewed.

Convenience Sampling – use results that are very easy to get e.g. A television news reporter
gets a reaction to corruption of top ministers in government by polling people as they pass
in front of his studio.
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Basic concept
Data

Are the actual values of the variable. They may be numbers or they may be words. They

may be qualitative or quantitative in nature.

Examples of statistical data for Water Resources Engineering:

• Meteorological data
precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration, wind speed, temperature of soil or water etc.

• Agricultural data – crop yield, productivity, crop evapotranspiration etc

• Soil data - soil moisture, field capacity, wilting point, liquid limits, retention capacity etc

• Hydrological data – catchment area, streamflows, surface water levels, groundwater levels

• Others - concentration of pollutants, rate of sediment transport and deposition, etc

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 Basic concept
Examples of statistical data for Construction Technology and Management:
 Site-related data: soil tests, weather conditions, etc.
 Building information modelling (BIM): e.g. information about buiding or
construction elements obtained from virtual 3D models
 Design data: architectural drawings, structural drawings, materials specifications,
load bearing calculations
 Environmental impact data
 Budget and financial data
 Schedule data: project milestones, duration of tasks, resource allocation, &
sequencing, etc
 Geospatial data: e.g. location of important sites
 Procurement data: e.g. information related to equipment
 Quality control data
 Safety data: number and nature of accidents, training needs
 Dispute resolution data

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 Basic concept

Examples of statistical data for Structural Engineering:

 Geospatial data
 Building information modelling (BIM): e.g. information about building or construction
elements obtained from virtual 3D models
 Structural failure monitoring data, e.g. vibration response, deflection of an element, etc.
 Strength of materials e.g. soil bearing capacity
 Design and materials specifications
 Materials properties e.g. fire resistance, density, weight
 Seismic data
 Meteorology e.g. wind
 Structural drawings
 Geological data

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 Basic concept
Methods of data collection

 Retrospective study:
uses a sample of the historical process data archived over some reasonable period of
time e.g. strength of an electrical signal at a measurement station from 1950 – 2012.

 Observational Study –
The experimenter records the outcomes of an experiment without control, normally
for a relatively short period of time.

 Experimental Study
The experimenter intervenes by administering treatment to the subjects in order to study its
effects on the subject. Designed experiments are a very powerful approach to studying complex
systems.

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 Basic concept
Experimental study

The following are important in understanding experimental study;

• An Independent Variable – the variable that is being manipulated by the researcher

• A Dependent Variable – the outcome variable

• A Treatment Group – the group that is being treated

• A Controlled Group – the group that is not being treated

• Confounding Factors – factors other than the treatment that can influence a study

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 Basic concept
Characteristics of engineering data

1) A lower bound of zero. No negative values are possible.

2) Presence of 'outliers', observations considerably higher or lower than most of the data,
which infrequently but regularly occur.
3) Positive skewness: Skewness can be expected when outlying values occur in only one
direction.

4. Non-normal distribution of data: Although many statistical tests assume normal

distribution, water resources data often tend to be skewed or non-normal. Furthermore,
symmetry of distribution cannot be taken as a guarantee of normality. Symmetric data
with more observations at both extremes (heavy tails) than occurs for a normal
distribution are also non-normal.

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 Basic concept
Characteristics of engineering data

5) Data reported only as below or above some threshold (censored data). Examples include
concentrations below one or more detection limits, annual flood stages known only to
be lower than a level which would have caused a public record of the flood, and
hydraulic heads known only to be above the land surface (artesian wells on old maps).

6) Seasonal patterns. Values tend to be higher or lower in certain seasons of the year.

7) Autocorrelation. Consecutive observations tend to be strongly correlated with each

other. For the most common kind of autocorrelation in water resources (positive
autocorrelation), high values tend to follow high values and low values tend to follow
low values.

8. Dependence on other uncontrolled variables. Values strongly co-vary with water

discharge, hydraulic conductivity, sediment grain size, or some other variable.

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 Basic concept
Series

A sequence of values arranged in the order of their occurrence in time or in space.

Time series : common for Water and Sanitation Engineering

Series can be:

• Discrete = observations are recorded at distinct time instants or at different points in space

• Continuous = observations are recorded continuously in time or space

Observations collected at a particular location over a period of time = Full series

Here, all the data points collected are considered, none is deleted.

Time between successive values can vary but we implicitly assume ‘equidistant’ data
points

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 Basic concept
Time series

Time series can be:

• stationary, time homogeneous or time invariant

if statistical descriptors of the sub-series from non-overlapping sub-periods do not change with time

• non-stationary, or time variant

if statistical descriptors of the sub-series from non-overlapping sub-periods do change with time

Departure from time homogeneity is common in water-related series due to:

• natural influences e.g. earthquakes, landslides, etc.
• anthropogenic factors
e.g. deforestation, bush burning, urbanization, shift in rating curve, etc.

Departure from time homogeneity can be classified as:

 trend = unidirectional and gradual increase or decrease in the average value.
 jump = a sudden and abrupt large increase or decrease in the mean value
 periodicity = an oscillatory or a regular form of movement which is repetitive
over fixed intervals of time such as a day, a season or a year.
 Persistence =successive members of a time series are linked in some dependent manner
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Basic concept
Time series

Trend
e.g. trend in potential evapotranspiration (PET)

1450 PET [mm] LTM [mm] Trend

1410
y = 0.4551x + 455.45
Annual PET [mm]

R² = 0.2022

1370

1330

1290
1925 1940 1955 1970 1985 2000 2015
Time [year]

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 Basic concept
Time series

Step jump in mean

e.g. streamflows in the Nile basin

Source: https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2020.111
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 Basic concept
Time series

Periodicity
Note: Amplitude (A), period (T), and frequency (f).

Source: https://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/teaching/teachingwdata/Graphsperiodic.html (sept, 2023)

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Data Collection
• Data - Piece of information about the phenomenon under study.

• Aim of gathering and summarizing the data - Transform data into

meaningful information in order to identify and measure variables.

• An ideal data collection procedure should be clear, unbiased,

reliable and valid.

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Data Collection
The 5 W’s of data collection are:

1. What data is to be collected?

2. From whom is the data to be collected?

3. Who will collect data?

4. From where the data will be collected?

5. When is the data collected?

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Data Collection Method
• Involves data collection directly from the
subjects by the researcher or trained data
Primary Data collector.
collection
• Data collected are specifically for the purpose
method
of research e.g. Surveys, Interview,
Observations etc

• It involves of use of the data that were

Secondary collected for various purposes other than
Data current research.
collection • Eg., diaries, engineer’s notes, statistical
abstracts, census reports neither published or
method unpublished data
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Primary Data
• Tailored according to research needs
• The researcher can determine exactly what data will be
collected and can identify the specific tools that will be
used.
Advantage • Completeness of data is ensured (missing data can be
avoided)
• The researcher can decide on the scale to use.

• Time consuming
• Observation errors (human errors, equipment issues)
• While getting information from people, primary data can
rely on subjects recall and communication abilities
Disadvantage • Bias may occur due to various factors.
• For perceptions, there is need to check reliability of raters

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Secondary Data
• It is easy and quick to obtain the data.
• Absence of researcher’s biases.
• Economical and time saving
Advantage
• Participant’s co-operation may not be necessary & it
eliminates the biases related to participant awareness.
• Accuracy, completeness and reliability depend upon original
individual collecting the data.
• May not be suitable for answering current research
question.
Disadvantage
• Missed data and inaccuracy are common.
• Biases are commonly expected

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Tools & Methods of Data Collection

• Tools

A device/ instrument used by the researcher to collect data

(to measure the concept of interest)

• Methods

Various steps or strategies used for gathering and analyzing

data in a research

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Types of Data Collection Methods
1. Self reports

2. Observational method

3. Other - projective technique

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Tools for Data Collection
• Self report
 Questionnaire,
 Attitude scale,
 Semantic differential scale,
 Visual analog scale.

• Observation
 Rating scale
 Check list,
 Anecdotal record,
 Process recording video tapes etc.

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 SELF-REPORTS

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Self - Reports
• It is a method in which information is gathered by questioning

people.

• By questioning, good amount of information can be gathered.

• Self - Reports

 Interview methods.

 Self administered questionnaire (SAQ) (or)

paper and pencil test

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Self-Reports
Qualitative Self-Reports
1. Unstructured Interviews
2. Semi-Structured Interviews
3. Focus Group Interviews
4. Joint Interviews
5. Life Histories
6. Oral Histories
7. Critical incidents
8. Diaries & Journals
9. The Think-Aloud Method
10. Photo Elicitation Interviews

Quantitative Self-Reports
1. Structured interview
2. Questioning
3. Scales
4. Q-Sorts
5. Vignettes
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Qualitative Self-Reports

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Interview
• Involves verbal communication between the researcher and the subject

during which information is provided to the researcher.

• Interview is a conversation carried art with the definite purpose of

obtaining certain information by means of spoken word.

• Most common method in qualitative and descriptive studies.

• Investigator collect data directly from the participants by having face to

face contact, to obtain factual data about opinion, attitude etc.

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Interview: Benefits
a) Provides in–depth and detailed information

b) Data from illiterate subjects

c) Higher Response

d) Clarify mis-understanding

e) Ask questions at several levels

f) Helps to gather supplementary information

g) Use of special devices

h) Accuracy can be checked

i) Flexible and adaptable

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Types of Interview

 Unstructured interview

(non directive or non standardized)

 Semi structured interview (or) focused interview

 Completely structured interview

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Unstructured Interview
 Characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.

 Interviewer freely asks the questions according to his own wish

when required or omit the certain questions.

 Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very few

questions asked to direct the trend of the interview.

 Researcher is having greater freedom to record or omit the

responses.

 It may be also called as ‘Grand Tour’ technique.

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Unstructured Interview
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Information obtained in such 1. Interviewer requires great deal
a casual manner enhances of knowledge and skill in
reliability and credibility of order to analyse the data.
data.
2. Information cannot be
2. Explorative and qualitative compared.
studies 3. Analysis will be difficult.
3. Less prone to interviewer
4. Data interpretation based on
biases.
researcher’s perception and
4. “Probs” questions can be subjective feelings.
assuring additional
5. Time wasting.
information to clarify.

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Semi- structured Interview
 Used when researcher have a list of topics or broad questions
that must be addressed in an interview

 Interviewer's make a topic guide/interview guide containing

broad list of topics to be covered in an interview.

 Topic guide- A set of questions or list of topics

 Participants are assured to talk freely about the topic mention

in topic guide.

 Researcher will ask questions to different ways to different

participants.

 Includes both closed ended and open ended questions.

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Semi- structured Interview
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Less prone to interviewer's 1. Some of the information may

bias. not be revealed.
2. More information can be 2. Need to prepare a topic
explored from the guide.
respondent’s.
3. Needed data is collected.
4. Guides the interview

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Structured Interview
 It involves asking the same questions, in the same order, and in
same manner of all respondents in a study.

 It commonly have fixed type, and closed ended questions.

 It also known as standardized interview.

 Interviewers are not permitted to change even specific wording

also.

 It increases the reliability and credibility of data.

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Structured Interview
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Data of two interviews 1. In-depth information

are easily comparable. may not be possible.

2. Recording, coding and 2. Exploration of data is

limited.
analysis of data is easy.
3. It may not cover all the
3. Avoids irrelevant
possible responses or
purposeless conversation.
respondent views.

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Focus – Group Interviews
 In this interviews, homogenous group of 5-10 people whose

opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously.

 The interviewer/ researcher guide the discussion according to

written set of questions or topics.

 It is a planned discussion.

 Duration of the interview ranges from 1.5-2 hours.

 All the verbal & non-verbal information is recorded.

 Ample opportunity is given to respondents to express their views.

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Focus – Group Interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Efficient and can generate a 1. Chances of client or
lot of information. researcher’s bias.
2. Stimulates new ideas and
2. May be difficult to moderate
creative concepts
by one person.
3. Involves many participants at
one time. 3. Data difficult to code, analyze
and interpret.
4. Participants may feel
comfortable to answer in a 4. Focus group may not be
group with similar interests. representative of entire
population.
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Joint Interviews
• They are conducted simultaneously to understand the phenomenon
involving two or more parties. People involved in the interview are
intimately related.

Example: Experiences of AIDS patients and their caretakers.

Merit
1. Helpful in observing dynamics between two key actors.
De-merits
1. Only supplements information.
2. May be un-comfortable to participants as some things can not be
discussed in front of other people.

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Life Histories
• They are narrative self-disclosures about individual life
experiences.

• Researchers ask respondents to provide, often in chronologic

sequence, a narration of their ideas and experiences, either
orally or writing.

• Life histories are usually done in the ethnographic studies.

• Example: A study involving experiences of women who had
simultaneously experienced abuse and physical disability.

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Critical Incidents
• It is a method of gathering information about people’s
behaviors by examining specific incidents relating to the
behavior under investigation.

• The word ‘critical’ means that the incident must have had a
positive or negative impact on some outcome.

• Example: A study involving the outcomes of stress management

program. The 5-week program taught ‘mind-body-spiritual’
technique of silently repeating a mantra with spiritual meaning.
3-months later, critical incident interviews with 55 participants
yielded 147 incidents involving application of the technique.

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Diaries and Journals
• Personal diaries and journals provide an intimate and detailed
description of person’s everyday life.

• They can be unstructured or semi-structured.

• They provide information about how people prevent illness,

maintain health, experience morbidity and treat health problems.

• They can be used for people with literacy skills and depend on
high level of participant cooperation.

• Example: Older Adults with chronic health problems can be asked

to maintain a diary over 2-week period for 15 mins per day to
explore various strategies used by them to manage health
problems.
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Photo- Elicitation Interviews
• It involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographic
images.
• Photographs of the participant’s world are taken up by the
researcher themselves or by the participants and become a
stimulus for discussion.

Example: In an attempt to explore meaning and experience of

hope among young people living in Australia, participants can be
given a disposable camera to take photos showing hope for them
and then questioned during interviews.

• Participants need to be continually reassured that their taken-for

granted explanations of the photos are providing new and
detailed information.
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Quantitative Self-Reports

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Questioning

• This method allows the researcher to gather information by

asking the questions orally (interview) or by means of a formal,

written document (questionnaire).

• Questionnaire - is a structured instrument consisting of a series

of questions prepared by researcher on a paper and that a

subject is asked to complete either through pencil or through a

computer and is used to gather data r/t phenomenon under

study.
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Questioning
o The instrument is called a SAQ when respondents complete the
instrument themselves, usually in a paper & pencil format.

o SAQ also known as ‘survey’.

Methods of Questionnaire Administration

1. Direct Administration-Researcher will distribute the

questionnaire and respondent answer items by writing or
checking against correct response.

2. Post or e-mail including all electronic means. (Mailed

questionnaire)

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Questionnaire: Types of Questions
Open-ended questions
• Provide opportunity to the respondents to express their

opinions and answers in their own way.

• No predetermined set of responses.

• Provide true, insightful and unexpected suggestions.

Example:

• What did you do when you discovered COVID-19

outbreak?

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Questionnaire: Types of Questions
Closed-ended questions
• Closed-ended questions

• Closed–ended questions or fixed-alternative questions-

Response alternatives are pre-specified by the

researcher.

• Facilitate easy statistical analysis.

• Can be asked to different groups at different intervals.

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Questionnaire: Types of Questions
Closed-ended questions
• Dichotomous Questions

• Multiple-choice Questions

• Cafeteria Questions

• Rank-order Questions

• Contingency Questions

• Rating Questions

• Likert Questions

• Bi-polar Questions

• Matrix Questions
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Questionnaire: Types of Questions
Closed-ended questions

1. Dichotomous Questions

Require respondent to make choices between two

responses such as
– yes/no
– male/female

2. Multiple-choice Questions

Require respondents to make choice between two- or more

than two response alternatives.

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Questionnaire: Types of Questions
Closed-ended questions

3. Cafeteria Question

Requires respondents to select a best response that most closely

corresponds to their views.

E.g. What do you think about 5G in Uganda?

a) It is dangerous, should be avoided.
b) One should be cautious while using it.
c) I am uncertain about my views.
d) It is beneficial, should be promoted.

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Closed-ended questions: Types
4. Rank-Order Questions
• Requires respondents to rank their responses from most
favorable to least favorable.
• E.g. What according to you is most important for your
life?
– Money ( )
– Education ( )
– Family ( )
– Health ( )
5. Contingency Questions
• A next question is asked if a respondent gives a
particular response to previous question only.
• E.g. Are you stressed?
– No
– Yes (If yes what are the reasons………… )

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Closed-ended questions: Types
6. Rating Questions
• Requires respondents to judge something along an
ordered dimension.
• Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale
that ranges from poor to good. They may provide a
number of choices.
• Example
Question 1 2 3 4
How do you rank a quality Good Fair Poor Very Poor
of education in Uganda?

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Closed-ended questions: Types
7. Likert Questions
• Helps to know how strongly the respondent agrees
with a particular statement thus helping to assess the
feelings of the respondents towards certain issue.
• Example

Question 1 2 3 4 5
This community is a Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
good place to raise Agree Disagree
children.

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Closed-ended questions: Types
8. Matrix Questions
• Include multiple questions and identical response
categories, placed one under the other, forming a matrix.
• Example: Please let me know your weekly schedule of
the following:

Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Gym √ √ √ √ √
Aerobics √
Eating √ √
Out
Drink √

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Scales
General
• Scale is a device designed to assign a numeric score to people to

place them on a continuum with respect to attributes being

measured.

• Used to measure subjective variables objectively.

• Measuring the score between two opposite concepts tells about

the attitude of a subject towards the direction of positive or

negative attitude in a scale.

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Scales
Types

Likert Scale

Semantic Differential Scale

Visual Analogue Scale

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Likert Scale
• A Likert scale consists of several declarative items that express a

view point on a topic.

• Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they

agree or disagree with the the statement.

• Usually contains five degrees (but 3 - 7 may used).

• Developed using item analysis approach.

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Likert Scale
Example

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Likert Scale
Uses
• Measure the attitudes, values, and feelings of the people about

specific concepts such as situations, people, places, objects,

programs, practices, policies and so on.

• Quantified measurement of qualitative attributes.

• Assess opinions of the respondents about particular abstract

concept.

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Likert Scale
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to construct 1. Respondents may feel forced to
2. More reliable and valid tool answer pre-planned items
to measure psychosocial
2. Feelings of the respondents may
variables not be fully assessed.
3. Easy to administer
3. Difficulty in justifying the
4. Less time consuming during
selection of number of
construction and
categories & numerical
administration assignment to these categories.

4. Casual approach on part of

respondent may mislead
66
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Semantic Differential Scale

• Semantic Differential Scale consists of two opposite adjectives

with a 7-point scale between them.

• Respondent is asked to rate a given concept by selecting one

point on the scale that best describes his or her point of view.

• The adjectives commonly used such as

• effective/ineffective,

• good/bad, or

• important/unimportant.

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Semantic Differential Scale
Example

ENGINEERING PRACTITIONERS

Competent 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent

Worthless 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Valuable

Pleasant 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant

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Semantic Differential Scale
Uses
1. Patient Satisfaction Survey
2. Customer Satisfaction Survey
3. Employee Survey
4. Marketing Survey
5. Operational Research
6. Personality Measurements
7. Clinical psychology

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Semantic Differential Scale

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to construct
1. Difficult to select relevant
2. Highly flexible.
concepts appropriate for a
3. Useful in evaluating several
given study.
concepts such as person,
2. Time consuming to find
place, situation, abstract idea,
bipolar adjectives.
controversial issue etc

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Visual Analogue Scale

• It is used to measure the intensity of certain sensations and

feelings such as pain, discomfort, anxiety, alertness, severity of
clinical symptoms, functional ability, and attitude towards
environmental conditions.

• It is a 100 mm horizontal or vertical line with a statement at

either end representing one extreme of the dimension being
measured.

• It requires subjects to respond for particular phenomenon

measured, which is later measured by using a ruler from left
end.

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Visual Analogue Scale
Example

No Worst
Pain Pain

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Visual Analogue Scale
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Reliable and Valid tool to 1. Cannot be used to compare
measure the intensity of
results across group of
certain sensations and
individuals at same time.
feelings.

2. Rating of highly subjective

phenomenon is possible by
this scale.

3. Most useful in studying

changes in the phenomenon.

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Vignettes
a short descriptive literary sketch

• It is a method that can elicit perceptions, opinions, beliefs and

attitudes from responses or comments to stories depicting

scenarios and situations.

• They can be hypothetical or factual.

• They can be written or oral.

• Provides face-to-face contact with the respondents and

explore the topics in-depth.

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Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6604002/ (accessed: 6th May 2022) 75
OBSERVATION

76
Observation
• It is a technique of collecting all the data or
acquiring information through occurrences
that can be observed through senses, with
or without mechanical devices.
• Use to :
1. understand an ongoing process or situation.
2. gather data on individual behaviors or
interactions between people.
3. know about physical setting.
4. where other methods are not possible.
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Observation
Advantages:
1. Collect data where and when an event or
activity is occurring.
2. Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability
to provide information.
3. Validity of data is more.

Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to observer’s biases.
2. Howthrone Effect
3. Expensive & Time consuming.
4. Do not provide data about the rationale of
people’s activities.
Howthrone effect: a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their
behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

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Observation
Qualitative Observation
 Log (Field Diary)
 Field notes
 Anecdotes
 Video Recording
Quantitative Observation
 Checklist
 Rating Scale

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Qualitative Observation

80
Log (Field Diary)

• It is a daily record of events and conversations in

the field.

• A log is a historical listing of how researchers

have spent their time and can be used for
planning purposes, for example
• for keeping track of responses, and

• for reviewing what work has already been completed.

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Anecdotes
An anecdote is a brief, revealing account of an individual person or an incident: "a story with
a point," such as to communicate an abstract idea about a person, place, or thing through the
concrete details of a short narrative or to characterize by delineating a specific quirk or trait.
Source: Wikipedia

• They focus on behavior of particular interest.

• Anecdotes typically selects specific kinds of

events or behaviors for observation before
hand.

• The observer objectively & accurately records

the information.

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Video Recording

• Video-tapes are mechanical devices used to

capture complex behaviors that might elude

notice by on-spot observers.

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Video Recording
Advantages:
1. Captures even the fine units of behavior such as
micro-momentary facial expressions.
2. Offers possibility of checking the accuracy of coders
or the recording skills of participant observers.
3. Useful as training guide.
4. Easier to conceal camera than human behavior.

Dis-advantages:
1. Technical problems with lightening, camera lens etc.
2. Camera angle adopted could present a lop-sided
view of an event or situation.
3. Participants may be more self-conscious in front of
camera.
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Quantitative Observation

85
Checklist
• Checklists includes several items on a topic
and require same response format of all
items.
• It consists of a list of items with a place to
check or to mark “Yes or No”.
• A checklist enables the observer to record
present or absence of trait.
• It consists of a listing of steps, activities, and
behaviours which the observer records when
an incident occurs.
• Useful for evaluating skills, behaviour,
conditions, personality, manifestations etc.

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Checklist: Example
To evaluate student’s performance during surgical dressing
Sr.No Behaviors Remarks

Yes No
1. Explains procedure
2. Arrange equipment for convenient use
3. Prepares patient
4. Washes hands
5. Maintains aseptic techniques
6. Removes dressing
7. Observes condition of wound
8. Cleans wound
9. Applies dressing
10. Makes patient comfortable
11. Complete charting
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Checklist

Advantages:
1. Allow inter-individual comparisons
2. Simple method to record observation
3. Useful in evaluating learning activities
4. Useful in containing the attention of the
observer
5. Decreases the chances of error in observation

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Checklist

Dis-advantages:
1. Does not indicate quality of performance, so
usefulness is limited.
2. Only a limited content of overall clinical
performance can be evaluated.
3. Only the presence or absence of an attribute,
behavior or performance parameter may be
assessed.
4. Degree of accuracy cannot be assessed
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Rating Scales
• Resemble check lists but used when finer
discriminations is required and indicate the
degree to which a trait is present.
• Rating scales provide systematic procedures
for obtaining, recording and reporting the
observer’s judgement.
• By a rating is meant the judgement of one
person by another.

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Rating Scales: Types

1. Graphic Rating Scale

2. Descriptive Rating Scale
3. Numerical Rating Scale

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Rating Scales: Types
Graphic Rating Scale
In this scale , performance is printed horizontally at
various points from lowest to highest. It includes
numerical points on the scale. It is anchored by two
extremes presented to respondents for evaluation of
a concept or object.

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Rating Scales: Types
Descriptive Rating Scale
This scale does not use numbers but divide the
assessment into series of verbal phrases to indicate
the level of performance.

E.g. Judge the level of performance of an engineer in a factory

Engineer Level of engineering performance

Very Active Active Moderately Passive

Active
A
B
C
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Rating Scales: Types
Numerical Rating Scale

It divides evaluation criteria in to a fixed

number of points, but defines numbers at
the extremes only.

Indicate the degree to which an engineer practices

universal precautions in the factory. The numbers
represent the following values:
5 – very good
4 – good
3 – fair
2 – poor
1 – very poor

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Rating Scale
Advantage Disadvantage
1. Easy to make and administer. 1. Difficult or dangerous to fix-
2. Easy to score. up rating about many aspects

3. Less time – consuming. of an individual.

4. Can be used for large 2. Chances of subjective

population. evaluation, thus scales may

5. Can be used to evaluate become unscientific and

performance, skills and unreliable.

product outcomes.

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Quality of Tools

96
Quality of tools
• An ideal data collection procedure is one that
captures a construct in such a way that is
relevant, credible, accurate, truthful and
sensitive.
• Criteria for assessing quantitative tools are
a) Reliability
b) Validity
c) Sensitivity and specificity
d) Efficiency

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Reliability
• Reliability: Consistency and accuracy of the
measuring instrument.
• Three aspect of reliability:
1. Stability
2. Internal consistency
3. Equivalence

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Reliability
1. Stability
• It is the extent to which the similar result
are obtained on two separate
administration.
• Test-retest reliability- Administration of
same tool on same sample on two
different occasion and then compare the
scores by computing reliability coefficient
(correlation coefficient between two
scores)

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Reliability
2. Internal consistency
• The extent that tool measure the
same trait.
• Split-half technique- Items are split in
two group, usually odd and even
items.
• Tool is administered and two set of
score (odd and even) is summed from
each subjects.
• Calculation of correlation coefficient
between two set of score.

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Reliability
3. Equivalence:
• Equal in value, amount between
observer.
• Inter-rater / inter-observer reliability:
Two or more trained observer watch
an event simultaneously and
independently, and record data.
• Ensure the delivery of the tool in
same manner again and again.

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Validity
• The degree to which an instrument measures
what is supposed to measure.
• Difficult to establish as compared to reliability
• Face validity- Refers to whether instrument
looks as though it is measuring the
appropriate construct.
• Content validity- Concern the degree to
which an instrument has an appropriate
sample of items of the construct being
measured. Done by panel of experts.

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Validity
• Criterion related validity- determining the
relationship between an instrument and
external criterion.
• Instrument is valid if the its score correlates
highly with the score on the criteria .
• Example: Engineering professionalism scale
and no. of research publications (criterion).
• Score was correlated with no. of research
publications. More research articles ----more
score on professionalism.

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Validity
• Sensitivity- Ability of the instrument to
identify the case correctly. (True positive)
• Specificity – Ability to identify non cases
correctly. (True negatives)
• Efficiency- Instruments which need less time
and energy/training to measure the construct
correctly.

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