1.

homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a relatively

constant internal environment
2. nervous system: system that allows the body to detect changes and
respond to them; made up of the brain and spinal cord, as well as the
nerves that emerge from them and connect them to the rest of the
body
3. central nervous system: network of nerves that includes the brain
and spinal cord; integrates and processes information sent by nerves
4. peripheral nervous system: network of nerves that carry sensory
messages to the central nervous system (CNS) and send information
from the CNS to the muscles and glands; consists of the autonomic
and somatic system
5. neuron: nerve cell; the structural and functional unit of the nervous
system, consisting of a nucleus, cell body, dendrites, axons, and a
myelin sheath; specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli,
to conduct electrochemical signals, and to release chemicals that
regulate various body processes
6. glial cell: support cell of the nervous system that nourishes neurons
(nerve-impulse conducting cells), removes their wastes, defends
against infection, and provides a supporting framework for all the
nervous system tissue
7. nerve: message pathway of the nervous system; made up of many
neurons grouped into bundles and surrounded by protective connective
tissue
8. reflex arc: simple connection of neurons that results in a reflex
action in response to a stimulus
9. dendrite: short, branching terminal on a nerve cell (neuron) that
receives signals from other neurons or sensory receptors and relays
the impulse to the cell body; numerous and highly branched
10. cell body: the main part of a neuron, containing the nucleus and
other organelles and serving as the site of the cells metabolic
reactions; processes input from the dendrites and, if the input received
is large enough, relays it to the axon, where an impulse is initiated
11. axon: long, cylindrical extension of a neuron's cell body that can
range from 1mm to 1m in length; transmits impulses away from the
cell body along its length to the next neuron
12. myelin sheath: the fatty, insulating layer around the axon of a nerve
cell, composed of Schwann cells; protects myelinated neurons and
speeds the rate of nerve impulse transmission
13. Schwann cells: a type of insulating glial cell that wraps around the
axon of a neuron, creating a myelin sheath
14. membrane potential: electrical charge separation across a cell
membrane; a form of potential energy

15. resting membrane potential: potential difference across the

membrane in a resting neuron
16. polarization: lowering the membrane potential of the below its
equilibrium value; in nerves, the process of generating a resting
membrane potential of -70mV
17. sodium-potassium exchange pump: system involving a carrier
protein in the plasma membrane that uses the energy of ATP to
transport sodium ions out of and potassium ions into animal cells;
important in nerve and muscle cells
18. node of Ranvier: gap in the myelin sheath insulating the axon of a
myelinated nerve cell; the membrane of the axon is exposed and action
potentials occur only at these nodes; nerve impulses jump one from
node of Ranvier to the next
19. depolarization: in a neuronal membrane, reducing a membrane
potential to less than the resting potential of -70mV
20. action potential: in an axon, the change in charge that occurs when
the gates of the K+ channels close and the gates of the Na+ channels
open after a wave of depolarization is triggered
21. threshold potential: in a neuronal membrane, the minimum change
in the membrane potential required to generate an action potential;
usually -55mV
22. repolarized: return of a nerve to it’s resting potential following
depolarization
23. refractory period: the brief time (a few milliseconds) between the
triggering of an impulse along an axon and the axon’s readiness for the
next impulse; during this time, the axon cannot transmit an impulse
24. synapse: junction between two neurons or between a neuron and
an effector (muscle or gland)
25. neuromuscular junction: synapse between a motor neuron and a
muscle cell
26. Neurotransmitters: chemical transmitter secreted by neurons to
carry a neural signal from one neuron to another, or from a neuron to
an effector, such as a gland or muscle fibre
27. acetylcholine: the primary neurotransmitter of both the somatic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
28. cholinesterase: enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine in a synapse
29. grey matter: part of the nervous system that contains mostly cell
bodies, dendrites, and short, unmyelinated nerve fibres; brownish-grey
in colour; forms the outer areas of the brain and the H-shaped core of
the spinal cord

30. white matter: part of the nervous system that's made up of tracts
of myelinated nerve fibres; whitish in colour; forms the inner region of
some areas of the brain, and the outer area of the spinal cord
31. meninges: three layers of tough, elastic tissue within the skull and
spinal column which directly enclose the brain and spinal cord
32. cerebellum: the part of the hindbrain involved in the unconscious
coordination of posture, reflexes, and body movements, as well as fine,
voluntary motor skills
33. medulla oblongata: part of the hindbrain attached to the spinal
cord at the base of the brainstem; controls automatic, involuntary
responses, such as heart rate, constriction or dilation of blood vessels
to control blood pressure, and the rate and depth of breathing,
swallowing, and coughing
34. pons: part of the hindbrain found above and in front of the medulla
oblongata in the brainstem; serves as a relay centre between the
neurons of the right and left halves of the cerebrum, the cerebellum,
and the rest of the brain
35. midbrain: part of the brain found above the pons in the brainstem;
relays visual and auditory information between areas of the hindbrain
and forebrain, and plays an important role in eye movement and control
of skeletal muscles
36. thalamus: sensory relay centre at the base of the forebrain that
governs the flow of information from all other parts of the nervous
system, mainly between the forebrain and hindbrain, and between
areas of the sensory system (except for the smell) and cerebellum
37. hypothalamus: region of the forebrain just below the cerebral
hemispheres, under the thalamus; a centre of the autonomic nervous
system responsible for the integration and correlation of many neural
and endocrine functions; helps to regulate the body’s internal
environment, as well as certain aspects of behaviour; coordinates the
actions of the pituitary gland by producing and regulating the release
of certain hormones
38. Cerebrum: the largest part of the brain, divided into right and left
cerebral hemispheres, which contains the centres for intellect,
memory, consciousness, and language; interprets
39. blood brain barrier: protective barrier formed by glial cells and
blood vessels that separates the blood from the central nervous
system; selectively controls the entrance of substances into the brain
from the blood
40. cerebrospinal fluid: dense, clear liquid derived from blood plasma,
found in the ventricles of the brain, in the central canal of the spinal
cord, and in association with the meninges; transports hormones,
white blood cells, and nutrients across the blood-brain barrier to the
cells of the brain and spinal cord; acts as a shock absorber to cushion
the brain

41. cerebral cortex: thin outer covering of grey matter that covers each
cerebral hemisphere of the brain; responsible for language, memory,
personality, conscious thought, and other activities that are
associated with thinking and feeling
42. corpus callosum: bundle of white matter that joins the two cerebral
hemispheres of the cerebrum of the brain; sends messages from one
cerebral hemisphere to the other, telling each half of the brain what
the other half is doing
43. occipital lobe: one of four lobes into which each hemisphere of the
cerebral cortex is divided; receives and analyzes visual information,
and is needed for recognition of what is being seen
44. temporal lobe: one of four lobes into which each hemisphere of the
cerebral cortex is divided; shares in the processing of visual
information but it’s main function is auditory reception; also linked to
understanding speech and retrieving visual and verbal memories
45. parietal lobes: one of four lobes into which each hemisphere of the
cerebral cortex is divided; receives and processes sensory information
from the skin, and helps to process information about the body’s
position and orientation
46. somatic system: in vertebrates, division of the peripheral nervous
system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscle; conducts
signals from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles and
signals from the sensory receptors in the body to the central nervous
system
47. sympathetic nervous system: division of the autonomic system that
regulates involuntary processes in the body; works in opposition to the
parasympathetic nervous system; typically activated in stress related
situations
48. norepinephrine: neurotransmitter released by sympathetic neurons
of the autonomic system to produce an excitatory effect on target
muscles; also, a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla along with
epinephrine to function in the short-term stress response; also known
as noradrenaline
49. parasympathetic nervous system: division of the autonomic system
that regulates involuntary processes in the body; works in opposition
to the sympathetic nervous system; typically activated when the body
is calm and at rest
50. sensory receptor: cell or group of cells scattered throughout the
body that works continually to receive information about the body’s
external conditions (through sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch)
and internal conditions (such as temperature, pH, glucose levels, and
blood pressure), and then initiates neural impulses in response
51. sensation: receiving and processing by the brain of neural impulses
from the sensory receptors; e.g., sensory receptors on the skin detect
heat, and when the brain processes the impulses, the sensation of
warmth is felt on that part of the skin
52. perception: interpretation of sensory information by the cerebral
cortex

53. sensory adaptation: the filtering by the brain of redundant,

insignificant sensory information
54. photoreceptor: sensory receptor that responds to light stimuli and
allows us to sense different levels of light and shades of color
55. chemoreceptor: sensory receptor that is sensitive to chemical
stimulation; e.g., taste, smell, and blood pH
56. mechanoreceptor: sensory receptor that responds to mechanical
stimuli, such as that from pressure, sound waves, and gravity; e.g.,
proprioceptor
57. thermoreceptor: sensory receptor that detects heat and cold
58. sclera: the white, tough, fibrous protective outer layer that gives
the eye it’s shape
59. cornea: the transparent part of the sclera at the front of the eye,
through which light enters
60. choroid: vascular membrane of the eye that lies between the retina
and the sclera; absorbs stray light rays that are not detected by the
photoreceptors in the retina
61. iris: the doughnut-shaped, colored muscled formed from the
choroid at the front of the eye; adjusts the central dark pupil to
regulate the amount of light that enters the eye
62. pupil: aperture in the middle of the iris of the eye, the size of which
can be adjusted to control the amount of light entering the eye
63. adaptation: (in vision) the process by which the iris adjusts the size
of the pupil based on the light conditions, thereby controlling the
amount of light that enters
64. retina: the innermost layer of the eye, containing the
photoreceptors (rods and cones)
65. rod: type of photoreceptor in the eye that is more sensitive to light
intensity (brightness) than is a cone, but is unable to distinguish color
66. cone: a type of photoreceptor in the eye that is sensitive to
different colours
67. optic nerve: a nerve that carries messages from the photoreceptors
in the retina to the brain
68. aqueous humour: clear, watery fluid in the anterior chamber of the
eye; maintains the shape of the cornea and provides oxygen and
nutrients for the surrounding cells, including those of the lens and
cornea
69. glaucoma: condition caused when ducts that drain the aqueous
humour in the eye are blocked; resulting pressure ruptures delicate
blood vessels in the eye and causes deterioration of the cells due to a
lack of oxygen and nutrients; can lead to blindness if untreated

70. vitreous humour: a clear, jelly-like fluid inside the posterior

chamber of the eye; helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball and
support the surrounding cells
71. lens: clear, flexible part of the eye that focusses image on the
retina
72. accommodation: (in the eye) adjustment that the ciliary muscles
make to the shape of the lens to focus on objects at varying distance
73. cataract: cloudy, or opaque, grey-white area on the lens of the eye
caused by the degeneration of the protein structure of the lens;
prevents the passing of light; increases in size over time and can lead
to blindness if not medically treated
74. astigmatism: uneven curvature of part of the cornea or lens that
results in uneven focus and therefore blurry vision
75. myopia: nearsightedness, or difficulty seeing things that are far
away; caused by ciliary muscles that are too strong or an eyeball that
is too long
76. hyperopia: farsightedness, or difficulty seeing thing that are
nearby; caused by weak ciliary muscles or an eyeball that is too short
77. fovea centralis: concentration of cones on the retina; located
directly behind the centre of the lens
78. colour blindness: inability to distinguish between or recognize
some colors, typically shades of red and green; an inherited condition
that occurs more frequently in males than in females; caused by a lack
of particular cones, usually red and green
79. blind spot: region of the retina lacking photoreceptors (rods or
cones) where the optic nerve leaves the eye; is incapable of detecting
light
80. sound waves: small fluctuation in air pressure resulting from
sound, which causes particles around the source to vibrate and move;
the auditory system (sense of hearing) detects these movements and
the brain perceives them as sound
81. outer ear: one of the three separate segments of the ear (outer ear,
middle ear, and inner ear); consists of the pinna and the auditory canal
82. pinna: the outside flap of the ear; made of skin and cartilage and
shaped in a way that enhances sound vibrations and focuses them into
the ear
83. auditory canal: tube that conducts sound waves from the outer ear
to the tympanum (eardrum) of the middle ear; amplifies sound waves,
effectively making sounds louder
84. middle ear: one of the three separate segments of the ear (outer
ear, middle ear, and inner ear); begins at the tympanum (eardrum) and
ends at two small openings in the wall of the inner ear called the round
window and the oval window

85. tympanum: round, elastic structure within the middle ear that
vibrates in response to sound waves; also known as eardrum or
tympanic membrane
86. ossicles: the group of three small bones (malleus, incus, and
stapes) between the tympanum (eardrum) and the oval window of the
middle ear; transmit sound waves from the eardrum to the inner ear
87. oval window: membrane-covered opening in the wall of the inner
ear; receives vibrations from the stapes (one of the ossicles)
88. Eustachian tube: bony passage extending from the middle ear to
the throat; plays a role in equalizing air pressure on both sides of the
eardrum
89. inner ear: one of the three separate segments of the ear (outer ear,
middle ear, inner ear); consists of three components; semicircular
canals, vestibule (utricle and saccule), and cochlea
90. cochlea: one of the three components of the inner ear (cochlea,
vestibule, and semicircular canals); involved in hearing; within the
cochlea, the mechanical energy of sound is converted into
electrochemical impulses that are transmitted to the brain
91. organ of Corti: organ of hearing found within the cochlea of the
inner ear; contains hair cells that detect vibrations in the inner ear and
transmit this information to auditory nerves
92. basilar membrane: one of two parallel membranes that comprise
the organ of Corti in the inner ear (the other is the tectorial
membrane); lies along the base of the organ of Corti; attached to it are
sensory mechanoreceptors known as hair cells
93. hair cells: sensory mechanoreceptors attached to the basilar
membrane in the organ of Corti within the inner ear
94. tectorial membrane: one of two parallel membranes that comprise
the organ of Corti in the inner ear (the other is the basilar membrane);
during the transmission of sound waves, the basilar membrane
vibrates, causing the sensory hairs to flex against the tectorial
membrane
95. semicircular canals: one of the three components of the inner ear
(cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals); consists of three fluid-
filled loops, arranged in three different planes; contains
mechanoreceptors that detects head and body rotation (rotational
equilibrium)
96. rotational equilibrium: balanced required while rotating the head
and body
97. gravitational equilibrium: balance required while moving the head
forward and backward
98. utricle: sac like cavity in the vestibule of the inner ear; contains
sensory receptors for gravitational equilibrium

99. saccule: sac like cavity in the vestibule of the inner ear; contains
sensory receptors for gravitational equilibrium
100. otoliths: calcium carbonate granule associated with sensory
receptors for detecting movement of the head; in vertebrates, located
in the utricle and saccule in the vestibule of the inner ear
101. proprioceptor: type of mechanoreceptor found in muscles,
tendons, and joints; senses the body’s position and movements to send
information about body position to the brain
102. taste buds: sensory receptor in the bumps (papillae) on the
tongue
103. olfactory cells: chemoreceptor for the sense of smell; lines the
upper nasal cavity
104. olfactory bulb: region of forebrain where ends of sensory nerve
fibres from nose
terminate and transmit olfactory information to other areas of the
brain
105. endocrine glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream
106. hormone: chemical messenger sent to many parts of the body to
produce a specific effect on a target cell or organ; examples are
epinephrine and norepinephrine released from the neurons of the
adrenal gland
107. endocrine system: in vertebrates, system that works in parallel
with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis by releasing
chemical hormones from various glands; composed of the hormone
producing glands and tissues of the body
108. negative feedback mechanism: mechanism of homeostatic
response by which the output of a system suppresses or inhibits
activity of the system; e.g., when a certain blood concentration of a
hormone is reached, the endocrine gland releasing the hormone is
inhibited by the presence of the hormone
109. antidiuretic hormone (ADH): hormone regulated by the
hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland that increases the
permeability of the distal tubule and the collecting duct in the
nephrons of the kidneys, allowing more water to be reabsorbed into the
blood from the filtrate
110. tropic hormone: hormone that targets endocrine glands and
stimulates them to release other hormones
111. pituitary gland: small gland that lies just inferior to the
hypothalamus; consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary, both of
which produce hormones that influence metabolism, growth,
development, reproduction, and other critical life functions
112. posterior pituitary: posterior lobe of the pituitary gland; an
endocrine gland that stores and releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus and transferred
to the posterior pituitary by neuronal axons

113. anterior pituitary: anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; an

endocrine gland that synthesizes and secretes six major hormones:
human growth hormone (hGH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)
114. human growth hormone (hGH): hormone that ultimately affects
almost every body tissue, by direct stimulation or via tropic effects;
stimulates the liver to secrete hormones called growth factors, which,
along with hGH, influence many physiological processes, such as
protein synthesis, cell division and growth, and metabolic breakdown
and release of fats
115. thyroid gland: butterfly-shaped gland located below the larynx in
the neck; produces the hormone thyroxine; helps regulate metabolism
and growth
116. thyroxine (T4): hormone produced by the thyroid and released into
the bloodstream; controls the rate at which the body metabolizes fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates for energy
117. hypothyroidism: condition resulting when the thyroid produces
extremely low levels of thyroxine
118. hyperthyroidism: condition resulting when the thyroid produces
extremely high levels of thyroxine
119. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): a hormone released by the
anterior pituitary which causes the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine;
controlled by a negative feedback mechanism: rising thyroxine levels
in the blood detected by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
suppress the secretion of TSH and, therefore, thyroxine
120. goitre: enlargement of the thyroid gland characterized by a large
swelling in the throat, often associated with a deficiency of iodine;
occurs when the thyroid gland is constantly stimulated by thyroxine-
stimulating hormone (TSH), but is unable to synthesize thyroxine to
create a negative feedback loop
121. adrenal gland: one of a pair of organs located on top of the
kidneys; composed of two layers: an outer cortex and an inner medulla;
each layer produces different hormones and functions as an
independent organ
122. adrenal cortex: the outer layer of the adrenal glands that
produces glucocorticoids and mineral corticoids, hormones that
regulate the long-term stress response; also secretes a small amount
of gonad corticoids, female and male sex hormones that supplement
the hormones produced by the gonads (testes and ovaries)
123. adrenal medulla: the inner layer of the adrenal glands that
produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, hormones that regulate the
short-term stress response
124. epinephrine: hormone produced by the adrenal cortex hormones
that helps regulate the short-term stress response; also known as
adrenalin

125. norepinephrine: neurotransmitter released by sympathetic

neurons of the autonomic system to produce an excitatory effect on
target muscles; also, a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla
along with epinephrine to function in the short-term stress response;
also known as noradrenaline
126. short-term stress response: the body’s acute reaction to stress in
which the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated; also known as
fight-or-flight response
127. long-term stress response: sustained physiological response to
stressors, characterized by increases in blood glucose and blood
pressure, and decrease in inflammatory response; regulated by
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
128. cortisol: a type of glucocorticoid hormone released by the adrenal
cortex of the adrenal gland in a long-term stress response; triggers an
increase in blood glucose levels and reduces inflammation
129. aldosterone: a type of mineralocorticoid hormone secreted by the
adrenal cortex; stimulates the distal tubule and collecting duct of the
kidneys to increase the absorption of sodium into the bloodstream,
which is followed by the passive absorption of water and chloride
130. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): hormone synthesized by the
anterior pituitary gland to target the adrenal cortex and regulate the
production of glucocorticoids
131. pancreas: small gland in the abdomen that secretes digestive
enzymes into the small intestine, as well as bicarbonate to neutralize
hydrochloric acid from the stomach; also secretes the hormone insulin
132. islets of Langerhans: cluster of endocrine cells found throughout
the pancreas, consisting of glucagon producing alpha cells and insulin-
producing beta cells
133. beta cell: cell of the pancreas which secretes insulin to decrease
the level of blood glucose
134. alpha cell: cell of the pancreas which secretes glucagon to
increase the level of blood glucose
135. insulin: a hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas to make target cells more permeable to
glucose; enables the body to use sugar and other carbohydrates
136. glucagon: hormone produced by the alpha cells of the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas to stimulate the liver to convert glycogen
back into glucose, which is released into the blood
137. diabetes mellitus: a serious chronic condition that results when
the pancreas does not make enough insulin or the body does not
respond properly to insulin; levels of blood glucose tend to rise sharply
after meals (hyperglycemia) and remain at significantly elevated levels

138. hyperglycemia: condition resulting from high levels of blood

glucose; occurs in individuals with diabetes mellitus
139. type 1 diabetes: a condition in which the immune system
produces antibodies that attack and destroy the beta cells of the
pancreas so they are unable to produce insulin; is usually diagnosed in
childhood, and patients require daily insulin injections; also known as
juvenile diabetes and insulin-dependent diabetes
140. type 2 diabetes: a condition that develops slowly over time either
because the insulin receptors on the body’s cells stop responding to
insulin or because the beta cells of the pancreas produce less and less
insulin over time; condition often appears in overweight adults; also
known as adult-onset diabetes and non-insulin-dependent diabetes
141. gonad: organ that produces reproductive cells (gametes); the
ovary produces eggs (ova), and the testis produces sperm
142. sex hormone: one of several chemical compounds that control the
development and function of the reproductive system or secondary sex
characteristics
143. primary sex characteristics: any structure (organ, duct, or gland)
that plays a direct role in reproduction
144. secondary sex characteristics: any of the physical manifestations
that distinguish male from female but are not required for
reproduction, such as distribution of body fat, female breasts, change
of voice pitch in adolescent males, differences in muscularity, etc.
145. scrotum: pouch that contains the testes in most mammals
146. testis (testes): in mammals, one of a pair of male reproductive
organs (gonads)
that produces sperm
147. seminiferous tubule: long, coiled tube inside the testes in which
sperm are produced
148. Sertoli cells: cells within the seminiferous tubules that support
and nourish developing sperm
149. epididymis: in human males, a narrow, tightly coiled tube
connecting the seminiferous tubules to the ductus deferens; within,
the sperm mature and become motile
150. ductus deferens: the storage duct from the epididymis leading to
the penis via the ejaculatory duct; also known as vas deferens
151. ejaculatory duct: tube connecting the ductus deferens to the
penis

152. penis: male copulatory organ; in humans, the male organ of sexual
intercourse; its primary reproductive function is to transfer sperm from
the male to the female reproductive tract
153. seminal vesicle: in human males, gland behind the bladder that is
connected to the ductus deferens; produces a mucus-like fluid
containing the sugar fructose, which provides energy for the sperm
154. prostate gland: in male mammals, a mass of glandular tissue at
the base of the urethra that secretes mucus like, alkaline fluid that
neutralizes the acids from urine in the urethra
155. Cowper’s gland: gland in human males that secretes mucus-like
fluids into the urethra
156. semen: fluid released from the penis during ejaculation;
combination of sperm and glandular secretions
157. urethra: the tube through which urine exits the bladder and the
body
158. ejaculation: release of semen from the penis
159. ovary: in mammals, one of a pair of female reproductive organs
(gonads); is
suspended in the abdominal cavity and produces eggs (ova)
160. follicle: in the female reproductive system, specialized cell
structure within the ovaries; each one contains an ovum (egg) that will
be released
161. ovulation: in females, the process by which a single follicle in an
ovary matures and then ruptures, releasing the ovum (egg) into the
oviduct; usually occurs at the midpoint (day 14) of a 28-day menstrual
cycle
162. fimbria (fimbriae): thread-like projections that sweep the released
ovum from the ovary into the cilia-lined oviduct
163. uterus: in mammals, expanded muscular organ in the female
reproductive tract through which eggs pass to the environment or in
which an embryo develops and is nourished before birth
164. endometrium: the mucous membrane that lines the uterus and
increases in thickness in the latter part of the menstrual cycle; is
richly supplied with blood vessels to provide nutrients for the fetus
165. cervix: in females, the narrow opening of the uterus that connects
to the vagina
166. vagina: a muscular tube that leads from outside the female’s body
to the uterus;
serves as an entrance for the erect penis to deposit sperm during
sexual intercourse and as an exit for the fetus during childbirth

167. menstruation: initial phase in the menstrual cycle, in which the

endometrium disintegrates and is expelled from the uterus of females
who are not pregnant
168. vulva: the external parts of the genital organs of female mammals;
includes the labia majora and labia minora, as well as the glans clitoris
169. sexually transmitted infection (STI): infection such as AIDS,
chlamydia, or genital herpes that is normally passed from one person
to another through sexual activity; also known as sexually transmitted
disease (STD)
170. AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome; a disease that
compromises the body’s capacity for immunity; caused by a group of
related viruses collectively called human immunodeficiency virus, or
HIV, which are transmitted through body fluids; results in susceptibility
to other diseases, often resulting in death
171. HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; a group of related viruses
that destroy the body’s capacity for immunity, and so cause AIDS
172. hepatitis: inflammation of the liver tissue; the three types are
hepatitis A, B, and C
173. genital herpes: a sexually transmitted infection caused by one of
two herpes
viruses: herpes simplex 1 (HSV 1) or herpes simplex 2 (HSV 2);
symptoms include painful, fluid-filled blisters on the genitalia that may
be accompanied by fl u-like symptoms
174. human papilloma virus (HPV): virus responsible for a condition
known as genital warts; transmitted by skin-to-skin contact
175. pelvic inflammatory disease (PID): infection of the female uterus,
oviducts, and/or ovaries; can result in a buildup of scar tissue causing
infertility; may occur as a result of undetected chlamydia or gonorrhea
infection
176. gonorrhea: a sexually transmitted infection caused by the
bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae; can result in infection of the
urethra, cervix, rectum, and throat; left untreated, the disease can
lead to PID and may spread through the bloodstream to the joints,
heart, or brain
177. syphilis: a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium
Treponema pallidum; if untreated, can cause bones, muscles, and
nerve tissue to degenerate
178. chromosomal sex: genetic sex of an individual, as determined by
the type of sex chromosomes within the gametes at fertilization
179. puberty: period in which the reproductive system completes its
development and becomes fully functional, and reproductive hormones
begin to be formed
180. gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH): hormone produced by
the hypothalamus; acts on the anterior pituitary gland to cause it to
release two different sex hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

181. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): reproductive hormone

produced by the anterior pituitary gland; stimulates the development
of the sex organs and gamete production in males and females
182. luteinizing hormone (LH): reproductive hormone produced by the
anterior pituitary; in the ovaries, triggers ovulation, stimulates the
formation of the corpus luteum, and (with follicle-stimulating hormone)
stimulates estrogen production; in the testes, stimulates the release of
testosterone
183. testosterone: reproductive hormone produced in the testes;
stimulates the development of the male reproductive tract and
secondary sex characteristics; only minor effects in females
184. inhibin: hormone released from the seminiferous tubules; acts on
the anterior pituitary to inhibit the production of follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH); produces a negative feedback loop that controls the
rate of sperm formation
185. andropause: in men, a gradual decline in their testosterone level
beginning around age 40; symptoms include fatigue, depression, loss
of muscle and bone mass, and a drop in sperm production
186. estrogen: female sex hormone produced in the ovary; helps
maintain sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics
187. progesterone: female sex hormone produced first by the corpus
luteum of the ovary to prepare the uterus for the fertilized egg (ovum),
and later by the placenta to maintain pregnancy
188. menstrual cycle: in a human female, period of 20–45 days during
which hormones stimulate the development of the uterine lining, and
an egg (ovum) is developed and released from an ovary; if the egg is
not fertilized, the uterine lining is shed as the cycle begins again; can
be divided into the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle
189. corpus luteum: yellowish, gland-like structure that develops from
a follicle that has matured and released its egg (ovum); it produces
progesterone and some estrogen; if pregnancy doesn’t occur, it
degenerates
190. follicular stage: the first stage of the ovarian cycle (part of the
menstrual cycle), during which increased levels of FSH stimulate the
follicles to release increased quantities of estrogen and some
progesterone into the bloodstream, leading to the release of an egg
(ovum) from the follicle
191. luteal stage: the second stage of the ovarian cycle (part of the
menstrual cycle), beginning with ovulation; during this stage,
luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the formation of the corpus
luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen, which
stimulate in the thickening of the endometrium for implantation of the
embryo

192. menopause: period in a woman’s life during which a decrease in

estrogen and progesterone results in an end of menstrual cycles,
usually occurring around age 50
193. Hormone Replacement Therapy: administration of low levels of
estrogen and/or progesterone to alleviate symptoms of menopause in
females
194. fertilization: in humans, the joining of male and female gametes
(sperm and egg) to form a single cell that contains 23 chromosomes
from each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes
195. zygote: cell formed by the union of two gametes; the product of
fertilization; has 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46
chromosomes (diploid)
196. cleavage: the process of cell division without cell growth; after
fertilization, the zygote undergoes repeated cleavage without
increasing in overall size
197. blastocyst: mammalian embryo at the stage in which it is
implanted in the wall of the uterus and consists of a nearly hollow ball
of cells; is made up of two groups of cells: the trophoblast and the
inner cell mass; this stage follows the morula
198. implantation: the process of attachment of the embryo to the
endometrium; occurs within the first week after fertilization in humans
199. inner cell mass: the inner cells of the blastocyst; will develop into
the embryo; also known as embryoblast
200. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): hormone secreted by the
trophoblast at the time of implantation of the embryo; prevents
degeneration of the corpus luteum
201. gastrulation: the formation of the three primary germ layers in
embryogenesis
202. primary germ layers: first layers of cells formed during animal
embryogenesis,
mainly in the vertebrates; consist of ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm
(middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer)
203. differentiation: cellular process that enables a cell to develop a
particular shape and to perform specific functions that are different
from the functions of other cells
204. neurulation: in embryogenesis, process of forming the neural
tube, which develops into the brain and spinal cord
205. allantois: extra-embryonic membrane that forms the foundation
for the umbilical cord
206. amnion: extra-embryonic membrane that forms a transparent sac
that encloses and protects the embryo and fetus

207. chorion: in humans, membrane developed from the trophoblast

layer of the blastocyst; develops into the fetal part of the placenta; is
the outermost of the extra- embryonic membranes which encloses all
the other membranes, as well as the embryo
208. yolk sac: one of the extra-embryonic membranes suspended from
the abdominal area of the embryo; in humans, serves no nutritive
function, but contributes to the formation of the digestive tract and
produces the first blood cells and the future egg (ova) or sperm cells
209. placenta: in most pregnant mammals, a disk-shaped organ within
the uterus that is rich in blood vessels; attaches the embryo or fetus to
the uterine wall and facilitates metabolic exchange
210. umbilical cord: flexible, often spirally twisted, tube that connects
the abdomen of a fetus to the mother’s placenta in the uterus, and
through which nutrients are delivered and waste is expelled
211. teratogen: any agent that causes a structural abnormality of the
developing fetus due to exposure during pregnancy; e.g., smoking
212. fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): term used to describe all
the disorders related to alcohol consumption during pregnancy;
includes the more commonly known clinical disorder called fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS)
213. artificial insemination: process by which sperm is collected,
concentrated, and placed in the female’s vagina
214. surrogate mother: woman who becomes impregnated and carries
a baby for another; baby may be conceived through artificial
insemination or in vitro fertilization
215. superovulation: production of multiple eggs as a result of hormone
treatment
216. tubal ligation: a surgical sterilization procedure in women that
involves cutting the
oviducts and tying off the cut ends to ensure that the ovum does not
encounter sperm or reach the uterus
217. vasectomy: a sterilization procedure in men; involves cutting and
tying the ductus deferens
218. cell cycle: a continuous sequence of cell growth and division; the
life cycle of a cell
219. somatic cell: any of the cells of a multicellular organism except
those that form gametes
220. parent cell: original cell that divides to produce two new daughter
cells during cell division
221. daughter cell: any one of two cells produced from the division of a
parent cell

222. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a double-stranded nucleic acid

molecule that governs the processes of heredity in the cells of
organisms; composed of nucleotides containing a phosphate group, a
nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine), and
deoxyribose
223. chromosome: a length of DNA and its associated proteins
224. histone: protein found in chromosomes; acts as scaffold around
which DNA
winds, enabling it to fi t within the small space of the nucleus
225. chromatin: long fibres that form chromosomes and contain DNA, a
small amount of RNA, and various proteins; non-condensed form of
genetic material that predominates for most of the cell cycle
226. centromere: the point at which two sister chromatids of a
chromosome are joined and to which the spindle fibres are attached
during mitosis
227. homologous chromosome: chromosome that contains the same
gene sequence as another, but that may not be made up of the same
alleles; human somatic cells have 22 pairs of these, known as
autosomes, and females also have a homologous pair of X sex
chromosomes; males have an X and a Y sex chromosome which are
not homologous
228. autosome: chromosome other than a sex chromosome; human
somatic cells have 22 pairs of these
229. sex chromosome: X or Y chromosome that carries the genes
involved in determining the genetic sex of an individual
230. gene: the basic unit of heredity; a specific sequence of DNA that
encodes a protein, tRNA, rRNA molecule, or regulates the transcription
of such a sequence; governs the expression of a particular trait and
can be passed to an offspring
231. locus: specific location on a chromosome
232. allele: different form of the same gene occurring on homologous
chromosomes
233. diploid: describing a cell that contains two pairs of every
chromosome,
designated as 2n; e.g., somatic cells
234. haploid: describing a cell containing half the number of
chromosomes (n) that the diploid (2n) parent cell contains; condition
occurring in gametes, either egg (ovum) or sperm
235. gamete: male or female haploid reproductive cell; e.g., egg (ovum)
and sperm
236. polyploid: describing a cell which contains sets of more than two
homologous
chromosomes

237. karyotype: the particular set of chromosomes that an individual

possesses
238. interphase: growth stage of a somatic cell; there are 3 phases:
G1, S, and G2;
ends when the cell begins the process of nuclear division (mitosis)
239. G1 phase: the first part of interphase, a somatic cell’s growth
stage, during which cells carry out rapid growth and metabolic
activity; also known as Growth 1 or Gap 1
240. S phase: the middle part of interphase, a somatic cell’s growth
stage, during which the cell’s DNA is replicated
241. sister chromatids: two chromatids in a chromosome that are
genetically identical and are held together by a centromere
242. G2 phase: the last part of interphase, a somatic cell’s growth
stage, during which the cell rebuilds its reserves of energy and
manufactures proteins and other molecules to prepare for division;
also known as Growth 2 or Gap 2
243. mitosis: one of the two main processes in cell division: division of
the genetic material and the contents of the cell’s nucleus into two
complete and separate sets; results in a daughter cell receiving the
exact number of chromosomes and genetic make-up as the parent cell
244. cytokinesis: one of the two main processes in cell division;
consists of separation of cytoplasm and organelles and the formation
of two daughter cells
245. selective breeding: process of choosing and breeding specific
organisms for particular physical features or behaviours
246. true breeding: organisms that are homozygous for a particular
trait or set of traits and produce offspring that exhibit the same
characteristics generation after generation
247. monohybrid cross: cross of two individuals that differ in one trait
248. dominant: describes a trait which always appears (is expressed)
in an individual
that is either heterozygous (Aa) or homozygous (AA) for that trait
249. recessive: refers to a type of trait which does not appear (is not
expressed) in an individual that is heterozygous (Aa) for that trait
250. complete dominance: a condition in which the dominant allele of
a gene completely conceals the presence of the recessive allele of a
gene; an individual with one recessive and one dominant allele has the
same observable physical characteristic as an individual with two
dominant alleles
251. law of segregation: Mendel’s first law of inheritance, stating that
all individuals have two copies of each factor (gene); these copies
segregate (separate) randomly during gamete formation, and each
gamete receives one copy of every factor (gene)

252. genotype: the combination of alleles for any given trait

253. phenotype: the visible physical and physiological traits of an
organism
254. homozygous: describes an individual with two identical alleles for
a trait (AA or
aa)
255. heterozygous: describes an individual with two different alleles
for a trait (Aa)
256. Punnett square: simple grid used to illustrate all possible
combinations of simple
genetic crosses
257. test cross: cross of an individual of unknown genotype with a
homozygous recessive individual; used as a method to determine the
unknown genotype
258. dihybrid cross: cross of two individuals that differ in two traits
259. law of independent assortment: Mendel’s second law of
inheritance, stating that
the two alleles for one gene segregate (assort) independently of the
alleles for other genes during gamete formation
260. incomplete dominance: a condition in which neither of two alleles
for the same gene can completely conceal the presence of the other
261. co-dominance: describes a situation in which two alleles may be
expressed equally; occurs when two different alleles for a trait are
both dominant
262. chromosome theory of inheritance: theory proposed by Walter
Sutton that genes are carried on chromosomes
263. linked genes: genes found on the same chromosome
264. crossing over: the process by which non-sister chromatids
exchange genes
during prophase I of meiosis, allowing for the recombination of genes
265. chromosome mapping: process for determining the relative
position of genes on a chromosome
266. map unit: distance between points on a chromosome where a
crossover is likely to occur in 1% of all meiotic events
267. recombinant type: describes offspring that have a different
combination of alleles than the chromosomes of their parents; also
known as recombinants
268. parental type: describes offspring that have chromosomes that
are identical to those of their parents

269. recombination frequency: percentage of times that a crossover

occurs as gametes are formed
270. sex-linked trait: trait controlled by genes on either the X or Y
chromosome
271. Barr body: structure formed when the inactive X chromosome
condenses tightly
272. multiple alleles: pattern of inheritance in which a gene has more
than two alleles
for any given trait
273. order of dominance: sequence indicating which alleles are
dominant to other alleles
274. continuous trait: a trait for which the phenotypes vary smoothly
from one extreme to another
275. polygenic trait: trait that is controlled by many genes
276. pedigree: diagram that uses symbols to illustrate the patterns of
relationships and
traits among a family over many generations
277. genetic screening: any of several methods of identifying people
who are at risk of developing particular genetic conditions or of
passing these conditions on to their children
278. genetic counselor: person who uses an understanding of genetics
to predict and explain traits in children
279. ribonucleic acid (RNA): a nucleic acid molecule that plays a role
in gene expression and protein synthesis, composed of a phosphate
group, a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil), and
the five carbon sugar ribose; structure is similar to DNA
280. transforming principle: ability of dead pathogenic bacteria to pass
on their disease-causing properties to live, non-pathogenic bacteria;
phenomenon described by Frederick Griffith in 1928
281. nucleotide: units making up nucleic acids (e.g., DNA, RNA),
composed of a five- carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and one of fi ve
nitrogen-containing bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and either
thymine or uracil)
282. Chargaff’s rule: in any sample of DNA, a constant relationship in
which the amount of adenine is always approximately equal to the
amount of thymine, and the amount of cytosine is always
approximately equal to the amount of guanine
283. complementary base pairs: refers to the hydrogen bonded,
nitrogenous base pairs of adenosine and thymine, and of cytosine and
guanine in the DNA double helix, or to the base pairs of adenosine and
uracil, and of cytosine and guanine in hybrid molecules that link
complementary strands of RNA and DNA

284. genome: the sum of all the DNA carried in an organism’s cells
285. replication: in genetics, process of creating an exact copy of a
molecule of DNA
286. semi-conservative: term used to describe replication: each new
molecule of DNA
contains one strand of the original complementary DNA and one new
strand, thus conserving half of the original molecule
287. replication origin: specific nucleotide sequence where replication
begins; ranges from a single replication origin in prokaryotes to
thousands in eukaryotes
288. helicase: set of enzymes that cleave and unravel short segments
of DNA just ahead of the replicating fork during DNA replication
289. replication bubble: oval-shaped unwound area within a DNA
molecule that is being replicated
290. replication fork: during DNA replication, Y-shaped points at which
the DNA helix is unwound and new strands develop
291. DNA polymerase: during DNA replication, an enzyme that slips
into the space between two strands, uses the parent strands as a
template, and adds nucleotides to make complementary strands
292. elongation: the process of joining nucleotides to extend a new
strand of DNA; relies on the action of DNA polymerase
293. primer: in DNA replication, short strand of RNA that is
complementary to a DNA template and serves as a starting point for
the attachment of new nucleotides
294. leading strand: in DNA replication, the strand that is replicated
continuously; compare lagging strand (18.1) lens clear, flexible part of
the eye that focuses images on the retina
295. lagging strand: in DNA replication, the strand that is replicated in
short segments rather than continuously; compare leading strand
296. DNA Ligase: enzyme that splices together Okazaki fragments
during DNA replication on the lagging strand or sticky ends that have
been cut by a restriction endonuclease; catalyzes the formation of
phosphate bonds between nucleotides
297. primase: in DNA replication, enzyme that forms a primer used as a
starting point for the attachment of new nucleotides
298. replication machine: complex involving dozens of different
enzymes and other proteins that work closely together in the process
of DNA replication and interact at the replication fork

299. termination: in DNA replication, the completion of the new DNA

strands and the dismantling of the replication machine
300. DNA sequencing: the process of identifying the precise nucleotide
sequence of a DNA fragment
301. Human Genome Project: joint effort of thousands of researchers
from laboratories worldwide that determined the sequence of the three
billion base pairs making up the human genome
302. amino acids: an organic compound consisting of a carboxylic acid
group (COOH), an amino group (NH2), and any of various side groups,
linked together by peptide bonds to form proteins
303. genetic code: the order of base pairs in a DNA molecule
304. gene expression: the transfer of genetic information from DNA to
RNA to protein
305. transcription: the first stage of gene expression, in which a strand
of messenger
RNA (mRNA) is produced that is complementary to a segment of DNA
306. messenger RNA (mRNA): strand of RNA that carries genetic
information from DNA to the protein synthesis machinery of the cell
during transcription
307. transfer RNA (tRNA): type of RNA that works with messenger RNA
(mRNA) to direct the synthesis of a polypeptide in a process known as
translation
308. translocation: a chromosomal segment is moved from one
position to another, either within the same chromosome or to another
chromosome
309. codon: in a gene, each set of three bases (for example, ACC or
GAA) that code for an amino acid or a termination signal
310. RNA polymerase: main enzyme that catalyzes the formation of
RNA from the DNA template
311. promoter: during transcription, a sequence of nucleotides on the
DNA molecule that tells the RNA polymerase complex where to bind
312. anticodon: specialized base triplet located on one lobe of a
transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that recognizes its complementary
codon on a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule
313. ribosomal RNA (rRNA): linear strand of RNA that remains
associated with the ribosomes
314. genomics: the study of genomes as opposed to individual genes
315. proteomics: the study of all proteins that are produced by a given
genome

316. mutation: a permanent change in a cell’s DNA; includes changes

in nucleotide sequence, alteration of gene position, gene loss, or
duplication and insertion of foreign sequences; an inheritable mutation
has the potential to affect an entire gene pool
317. somatic cell mutation: permanent change in the genetic material
of a body cell, not including germ cells, during the lifetime of an
organism; is copied during DNA replication and passed on to daughter
cells, but not passed on to future generations
318. germ line mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of a
reproductive cell during the lifetime of an organism that is passed on
to future generations
319. point mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of a cell
that affects one or just a few nucleotides; may involve the substitution
of one nucleotide for another, or the insertion or deletion of one or
more nucleotides
320. silent mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of a
cell that has no effect on the function of the cell
321. mis-sense mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of
a cell that results in a slightly altered but still functional protein
322. nonsense mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of
a cell that renders a gene unable to code for a functional protein
323. frameshift mutation: permanent change in the genetic material of
a cell caused by the insertion or deletion of one or two nucleotides so
that the entire reading frame of the gene is altered; usually results in a
nonsense mutation
324. mutagen: substance or event that increases the rate of mutation
in an organism; may be physical or chemical
325. physical mutagens: agent that can forcibly break a nucleotide
sequence, causing random changes in one or both strands of a DNA
molecule; (e.g., X rays)
326. chemical mutagen: molecule that can enter the cell nucleus and
induce a permanent change in the genetic material of the cell by
reacting chemically with DNA; e.g., nitrites
327. carcinogenic: cancer-causing; describes a factor, such as a
chemical mutagen, that is associated with one or more forms of
cancer
328. mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): DNA within the mitochondria; is
genetically identical to that of the female parent because the
cytoplasm of offspring is derived from the egg (ovum)
329. genetic engineering: manipulation of genetic material to alter
genes and blend plant, animal, and bacterial DNA

330. recombinant DNA: a molecule of DNA that includes genetic

material from different sources
331. restriction enzyme: enzyme in prokaryotes that catalyzes the
cleavage of DNA at specific nucleotide sequences
332. restriction endonuclease: type of restriction enzyme that
recognizes a specific short sequence of nucleotides within, rather than
at the ends of, a strand of DNA and cuts the strand at that particular
point within the sequence
333. restriction fragments: small segments of DNA cut from a DNA
molecule by a restriction endonuclease
334. gel electrophoresis: tool used to separate molecules according to
their mass and charge; can be used to separate fragments of DNA
335. DNA fingerprint: the pattern of bands into which DNA fragments
sort during gel electrophoresis
336. biotechnology: the use of natural biological systems to create
useful new technologies and products
337. DNA microarray: a chip (usually a glass microscope slide or
polymer membrane) that contains a grid of thousands of microscopic
cells; each cell contains a nucleic acid sequence that can bind with
one of the mRNA molecules transcribed during gene expression; allows
scientists to analyze the activity of thousands of genes at once
338. transgenic: genetically engineered; a transgenic organism is
produced by incorporating the DNA from one organism into another to
create a new genetic combination
339. bioremediation: use of living cells to perform environmental
clean-up tasks, such as using bacteria to degrade PCBs into harmless
compounds
340. clone: one of a pair of organisms (or more) that are genetically
identical
341. ultrasound: sound with a frequency greater than the upper limit of
human
hearing; used in a procedure by which sound waves sent through the
body provide information about internal structures, such as a
developing fetus
342. amniocentesis: procedure by which a needle is used to withdraw
a small sample of amniotic fluid from the uterus in order to perform a
genetic analysis; for safety, cannot be performed before the 14th week
of pregnancy
343. chorionic villi sampling: procedure where fetal cells are removed
from the chorion (a tissue that surrounds the amniotic sac and makes
up the fetal placenta) to perform a genetic analysis; can be performed
around the 9th week of pregnancy

344. genetic marker: a characteristic that provides information about

the genotype of an individual
345. DNA probe: molecule of DNA with a nucleic acid sequence that is
labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent chemical tag; binds to a
complementary DNA sequence and can be used to locate a specific
genetic marker
346. gene therapy: the process of changing the function of genes to
treat or prevent genetic disorders
347. DNA vector: in gene therapy, something (commonly, a modified
form of virus) that carries recombinant DNA containing a desired gene
into a host cell in order to incorporate the gene into a patient’s
genome
348. somatic gene therapy: therapy that is aimed at correcting genetic
disorders in somatic (body) cells
349. germ-line therapy: gene therapy used to modify the genetic
information carried in egg and sperm cells
350. population: any group of individuals of the same species living in
the same geographical area at the same time
351. gene pool: total of all the alleles for all the genes of all the
individuals in a population
352. genotype frequency: proportion of members of a population with a
particular genotype; usually expressed as a decimal
353. phenotype frequency: proportion of members of a population with
a particular phenotype; usually expressed as a decimal
354. allele frequency: rate of occurrence of a particular allele in a
population, with respect to a particular gene; usually expressed as a
decimal
355. Hardy – Weinberg principle: principle that states that allele and
genotype frequencies remain constant from one generation to the
next, as long as five conditions are met: (1) the population is large
enough that chance events will not alter allele frequencies, (2) mates
are chosen on a random basis, (3) there are no net mutations, (4) there
is no migration, and (5) there is no natural selection against any of the
phenotypes
356. Hardy – Weinberg equation: mathematical description of the
Hardy-Weinberg principle; used to predict allele and genotype
frequencies in a population; usually stated: if the frequency of allele A
is p and the frequency of allele a is q, then the genotype frequencies
after one generation of random mating will always be p^2+ 2pq + q^2 =
1.00
357. genetic equilibrium: condition of a gene pool in which allele
frequencies remain constant over time; a population at genetic
equilibrium is not changing or evolving; also known as Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium

358. microevolution: gradual change in allele frequencies in a

population over time
359. genetic diversity: degree of genetic variation within a species or
population
360. gene flow: net movement of alleles from one population to another
due to the
migration of individuals and subsequent interbreeding
361. non-random mating: mating among individuals on the basis of
mate selection for a particular phenotype or due to inbreeding, rather
than mating on a random basis
362. genetic drift: change in allele frequencies due to chance events in
a small breeding population
363. founder effect: gene pool change that occurs when a few
individuals start a new, isolated population; for example, on islands
364. bottleneck effect: gene pool change that results from a rapid
decrease in population size
365. natural selection: process whereby the characteristics of a
population of organisms change over time because individuals with
certain heritable traits survive specific local environmental conditions
and, through reproduction, pass on their traits to their offspring
366. heterozygote advantage: a survival benefit for those individuals
who inherit two different alleles for the same trait (Aa), compared to
those who are homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive; for
example, the allele for cystic fibrosis may help carriers better resist
diarrheal diseases such as cholera
367. population density (DP): the number of individual organisms (N) in
a given area (A) or volume (V); expressed as Dp = N/A or Dp = N/V
368. growth rate (gr): change in population size (N) over a specific time
frame (t); N is equivalent to the number of births plus immigration
minus the number of deaths plus emigration; expressed as gr = N/t
369. per capita growth rate (cgr): change in population size per
individual over a given time frame; expressed as cgr = N/N or cgr =
(Nfinal - N)/N
370. biotic potential (r): highest possible per capita growth rate for a
population, given unlimited resources and ideal living conditions
371. exponential growth pattern: pattern exhibited by a population
which is increasing exponentially (i.e., doubles repeatedly); results in a
J-shaped curve showing a brief lag phase, followed by a steep increase
in the growth curve

372. logistic growth pattern: population increase that results in an S-

shaped curve; growth is slow at first, steepens in an exponential
pattern, and then levels off due to environmental resistance such as
competition
373. carrying capacity (K): theoretical maximum population size that
the environment can sustain over an extended period of time; may
change over time as the habitat changes
374. density dependent factor: biotic factor that limits a habitat’s
carrying capacity (e.g., parasites, disease); the impact increases with
the density of the population
375. environmental resistance: combined effects of various interacting
factors that limit population growth; prevents a population from
growing at its biotic potential and determines the carrying capacity of
the habitat
376. density independent factors: abiotic factor that limits a habitat’s
carrying capacity (e.g., fi re, flood); the impact is not affected by the
density of the population
377. R-selected strategy: a life strategy designed to take advantage of
favourable conditions; characterized by a high reproductive rate with
little or no attention given to offspring survival; organisms that exhibit
this strategy include bacteria and species that reproduce close to
their biotic potential (r); also known as r-selection
378. K-selected strategy: a life strategy designed to take advantage of
stable environmental conditions; characterized by the production of a
few offspring with much attention given to offspring survival;
organisms that exhibit this strategy include mammals and species that
live close to the carrying capacity (K) of their habitats, also known as
K-selection
379. intraspecific competition: competition for limited resources
among members of the same species
380. interspecific competition: competition for limited resources
among members of different species
381. predator: organism that kills and consumes other organisms
382. prey: organism that is killed and consumed by another organism
383. protective coloration: adaptation that helps individuals avoid
predation; includes
camouflage, mimicry, and using body colours as a warning signal
384. symbiosis: direct or close relationship between individuals of
different species that live together; usually involves an organism that
lives or feeds in or on another organism (host); three forms are
mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism
385. mutualism: a type of symbiotic relationship in which both partners
benefit from the relationship, or depend on it in order to survive

386. commensalism: a type of symbiotic relationship in which one

individual lives close to or on another and benefits, and the host
neither benefits, nor is harmed
387. parasitism: a type of symbiotic relationship in which an organism
benefits by living on or in an organism of a different species that is
harmed by the association
388. succession: sequence of invasion and replacement of species in
an ecosystem over time
389. primary succession: the development of a new community in a
previously barren area where there is no soil present, such as on a
hardened lava bed, or on a bare rock mountaintop
390. pioneer community: first species to colonize a barren or disturbed
habitat and initiate primary succession
391. climax community: the last or final stage of succession in an
area; may remain relatively stable if there are no major environmental
changes
392. ecological disturbance: event that changes the structure of a
community, sometimes destroying all actively growing organisms
393. secondary succession: the regrowth of a previously existing
community after an ecological disturbance, such as a forest fire, flood,
or agricultural activity; differs from primary succession in the
presence of soil, which is not usually destroyed in an ecological
disturbance