The Aviation Standard

Aviation
Mechanic
Handbook
Sixth Edition
by Dale Crane

ASA-MHB-6
 Aviation
Mechanic
Handbook
Sixth Edition
by Dale Crane

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

Newcastle, Washington
Aviation Mechanic Handbook, Sixth Edition
Dale Crane

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, Washington 98059-3153
Website: www.asa2fly.com
Email: [email protected]

©1992 – 2011 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

All rights reserved. Sixth Edition 2011. Ebook edition 2012.

Acknowledgments: Greg Mellema/Abaris, Section 17; Champion Aviation

Products, Appendix 2; Concorde Battery, Appendix 3; Michelin Aircraft Tire,
Appendix 4.

ASA-MHB-6-PD
pdf eBook ISBN 978-1-56027-933-4
print book ISBN 978-1-56027-898-6
LC# 92-34331
Introduction

Your time as an aviation mechanic is too valuable to be spent looking

through stacks of reference books to find a particular chart, formula or
diagram you need on a particular job. The editorial staff at ASA has done
this job for you and compiled this Aviation Mechanic Handbook to be a
handy toolbox source of useful information.

For your convenience, this handbook is arranged in 17 sections with a

table of contents at the beginning of each section, as well as a complete
table of contents at the front of the book and index at the back.

This information has been compiled from a large number of industry and
government publications, and every effort has been made to ensure its
applicability and accuracy.

The ASA Aviation Mechanic Handbook is a companion volume to the

ASA Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms. The two books are the core of
ASA’s training materials for aircraft mechanics.

ASA is dedicated to providing quality training materials for the aviation

industry. Your feedback regarding our books will help us to continue
to produce the materials you need. Visit the ASA website often
(www.asa2fly.com) to find updates to operations and procedures due
to FAA changes that may affect this publication, downloadable from
ASA’s Product Update pages.

ASA and the author wish to thank Greg Mellema of Abaris Training for
his contribution of the material for Section 17, “Composites” for the Third
Edition of the Aviation Mechanic Handbook.

Dale Crane, Editor

Contents

Introduction ..............................................................................................iii
Section 1: General Information ...........................................................1
1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents ......................................... 3
1.2 Conversions........................................................................................ 4
1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature ....................................................................... 13
Axes of an Airplane ...................................................................... 13
Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight............................................ 13
Types of Aircraft Structure ............................................................ 14
Truss ......................................................................................... 14
Monocoque............................................................................... 14
Semimonocoque ...................................................................... 15
1.4 Joint Aircraft System/Component (JASC) Code ............................... 16
1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification ....................................................... 28
1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations ..................................... 31
1.7 Standard Taxi Signals ....................................................................... 34

Section 2: Physical and Chemical .................................................. 35

Periodic Table of Elements ............................................................... 36
2.1 Temperature Conversion .................................................................. 37
Absolute Temperature .................................................................. 42
2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere ............................................................. 43
2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the Chemical Elements .......................... 44
2.4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids .............................................. 47
Density of Various Gases ............................................................. 47
2.5 Hydraulic Relationships .................................................................... 48
2.6 Quantity of Liquid in a Drum ............................................................. 50
Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon Drum ....... 50

v
Section 3: Mathematics ..................................................................... 51
3.1 Measurement Systems..................................................................... 53
The International System of Units (SI) ......................................... 53
The Metric System ....................................................................... 54
U.S. – Metric Conversion .............................................................. 54
Length ...................................................................................... 54
Weight ...................................................................................... 55
Volume ..................................................................................... 55
3.2 Mathematical Constants ................................................................... 56
3.3 Mathematical Symbols ..................................................................... 57
3.4 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers ............... 58
3.5 Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle ................................. 61
3.6 Geometric Formulas ......................................................................... 64
Triangle ......................................................................................... 64
Square .......................................................................................... 64
Rectangle ..................................................................................... 64
Parallelogram ............................................................................... 64
Trapezoid ...................................................................................... 64
Regular Pentagon......................................................................... 65
Regular Hexagon ......................................................................... 65
Regular Octagon .......................................................................... 65
Circle ............................................................................................ 65
Ellipse ........................................................................................... 65
Sphere .......................................................................................... 66
Cube ............................................................................................. 66
Rectangular Solid ......................................................................... 66
Cone ............................................................................................. 66
Cylinder ........................................................................................ 66
3.7 Trigonometric Functions ................................................................... 67
3.8 Powers of Ten ................................................................................... 71
3.9 Number Systems .............................................................................. 74
Binary Equivalent of Decimal ....................................................... 74
Octal Equivalent of Decimal ......................................................... 74
Binary Equivalent of Octal ............................................................ 74
Hexadecimal Number System ...................................................... 74
Binary Coded Decimal Equivalent of Decimal .............................. 75
The Gray Code ............................................................................. 75
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) .... 75
Special Control Functions Used in ASCII ..................................... 77

vi
Section 4: Aircraft Drawings ............................................................ 79
4.1 Types of Aircraft Drawings ................................................................ 81
Sketches....................................................................................... 81
Detail Drawings ............................................................................ 81
Assembly Drawings ...................................................................... 81
Installation Drawings .................................................................... 81
Sectional Drawings ....................................................................... 81
Cutaway Drawing.......................................................................... 81
Exploded-View Drawing ............................................................... 81
Schematic Diagram ...................................................................... 82
Block Diagram .............................................................................. 82
Repair Drawings ........................................................................... 82
Wiring Diagrams ........................................................................... 82
Pictorial Diagrams ........................................................................ 82
Orthographic Projections .............................................................. 82
4.2 Meaning of Lines .............................................................................. 83
4.3 Material Symbols .............................................................................. 84
4.4 Location Identification....................................................................... 85
Fuselage Stations......................................................................... 85
Water Lines .................................................................................. 85
Butt Lines ..................................................................................... 85
Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations ....................................... 85

Section 5: Aircraft Electrical Systems .......................................... 87

5.1 Electrical Symbols ............................................................................ 89
5.2 Alternating Current Terms and Values .............................................. 97
5.3 Ohm’s Law Relationships ................................................................. 98
5.4 Electrical Formulas ......................................................................... 100
Formulas Involving Resistance................................................... 100
Formulas Involving Capacitance ................................................ 101
Formulas Involving Inductance ................................................... 103
Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance .............. 106
Resonant Frequency .............................................................. 106
Total Reactance...................................................................... 106
Impedance.............................................................................. 106

vii
5.5 Electrical System Installation.......................................................... 107
Selection of Wire Size ................................................................ 107
Notes on Wire Installation........................................................... 112
Switch Derating Factors ............................................................. 114
Wire and Circuit Protectors ........................................................ 115
MS Electrical Connectors ........................................................... 116
Resistor Color Code ................................................................... 120
Aircraft Storage Batteries ........................................................... 122
Lead-Acid Batteries ................................................................ 122
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ...................................................... 123

Section 6: Aircraft Materials ..........................................................125

6.1 Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys...................................... 127
6.2 Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought Aluminum Alloys ........ 128
6.3 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys .................................... 129
6.4 Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys ..................................... 130
Heat-Treatable Alloys ................................................................. 130
Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys.......................................................... 130
6.5 Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys.................... 131
6.6 Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet ................. 132
6.7 Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets ....................................... 133
Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets .... 133
Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets ... 133
6.8 SAE Classification of Steel ............................................................. 134
6.9 Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness ...................................... 135
6.10 Color of Steel for Various Temperatures ......................................... 136
6.11 Color of Oxides on Steel at Various Tempering Temperatures ....... 137

Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance .................................139

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools ........................................................... 141
Steel Rule ................................................................................... 141
Hook Rule................................................................................... 141
Combination Set ......................................................................... 141
Dividers ...................................................................................... 142
Outside Calipers ......................................................................... 142
Inside Calipers............................................................................ 142
Hermaphrodite Calipers ............................................................. 142
Scriber ........................................................................................ 142
Vernier Calipers .......................................................................... 142

viii
 How to Read the Vernier Scale .................................................. 143
Micrometer Caliper ..................................................................... 144
How to Read the Vernier Micrometer Scale ............................... 145
Dial Indicator .............................................................................. 146
Feeler Gages .............................................................................. 146
Small-Hole Gages ...................................................................... 146
Telescoping Gages ..................................................................... 146
7.2 Holding Tools .................................................................................. 147
Vises........................................................................................... 147
Bench Vise ............................................................................. 147
Drill Press Vise ....................................................................... 147
Pliers .......................................................................................... 147
Combination / Slip Joint Pliers ................................................. 147
Water Pump Pliers ................................................................. 148
Vise-Grip® Pliers ..................................................................... 148
Needle-Nose Pliers ................................................................ 148
7.3 Safety Wiring Tools ......................................................................... 149
Diagonal Cutting Pliers ............................................................... 149
Duckbill Pliers ............................................................................. 149
Safety Wire Twisting Tool ............................................................ 149
7.4 Bending and Forming Tools ............................................................ 150
Tools for Making Straight Bends and Curves ............................. 150
Cornice Brake......................................................................... 150
Box Brake ............................................................................... 150
Press Brake............................................................................ 150
Slip Roll Former...................................................................... 151
Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal ............................... 151
English Wheel ........................................................................ 151
7.5 Cutting Tools ................................................................................... 151
Shears ........................................................................................ 151
Throatless Shears .................................................................. 151
Squaring Shears .................................................................... 152
Scroll Shears .......................................................................... 152
Hand Shears .............................................................................. 152
Tin Snips ................................................................................ 152
Compound Shears ................................................................. 153
Saws........................................................................................... 153
Band Saw ............................................................................... 153
Hacksaw ................................................................................. 154

ix
7.5 Cutting Tools (continued )
Wood Saws ................................................................................ 154
Crosscut Saw ......................................................................... 154
Ripsaw.................................................................................... 154
Compass, or Keyhole Saw ..................................................... 154
Backsaw ................................................................................. 155
Chisels........................................................................................ 155
Flat Chisel .............................................................................. 155
Cape Chisel ............................................................................ 155
Diamond Point Chisel ............................................................. 155
Round Nose Chisel ................................................................ 155
Files ........................................................................................... 156
7.6 Hole Cutting Tools .......................................................................... 157
Twist Drills .................................................................................. 157
Twist Drill Sizes .......................................................................... 157
Drill Gage ................................................................................... 160
Twist Drill Sharpening................................................................. 160
Drill Point Gage ...................................................................... 161
Large Hole Cutters ..................................................................... 162
Hole Saws .............................................................................. 162
Fly Cutter ................................................................................ 162
Countersink ................................................................................ 162
Reamers ..................................................................................... 163
Drills for Wood and Composite Materials ................................... 163
Auger Bits ............................................................................... 163
Forstner Bits ........................................................................... 164
Flat Wood-Boring Bits............................................................. 164
Brad-Point Drills ..................................................................... 164
Spade Drill .............................................................................. 164
7.7 Threads and Threading Tools ......................................................... 165
Unified and American Standard Thread Form ............................ 165
Thread-Cutting Tools .................................................................. 165
Taps ........................................................................................... 166
Body and Tap Drill Sizes............................................................. 166
Screw Pitch Gage....................................................................... 167
7.8 Torque and Torque Wrenches......................................................... 168
Click-Type Torque Wrench .......................................................... 168
Deflecting-Beam Torque Wrench ................................................ 168
Torque Conversions.................................................................... 170
Recommended Torque Values.................................................... 170
7.9 Pounding Tools ............................................................................... 172
Carpenter’s Claw Hammer ......................................................... 172
Ball Peen Hammer ..................................................................... 172
Metalworking Hammers.............................................................. 172

x
 Straight Peen and Cross Peen Hammers............................... 172
Body, or Planishing Hammer .................................................. 172
Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers ............................................ 173
Sledge Hammers.................................................................... 173
7.10 Punches ......................................................................................... 173
Prick Punch ................................................................................ 173
Center Punch ............................................................................. 173
Drift, or Starting Punch ............................................................... 173
Pin Punch ................................................................................... 174
Transfer Punch ........................................................................... 174
Automatic Center Punch ............................................................ 174
7.11 Wrenches ....................................................................................... 175
Open End Wrench ...................................................................... 175
Adjustable Open End Wrench ................................................ 175
Ratcheting Open End Wrench ................................................ 175
Box End Wrench......................................................................... 176
Ratcheting Box Wrench .......................................................... 176
Combination Wrench .................................................................. 176
Flare Nut Wrench ....................................................................... 176
Socket Wrenches ....................................................................... 177
Socket Wrench Handles ......................................................... 177
Hand Impact Tool.................................................................... 177
Typical Socket Wrenches ....................................................... 178
Extension and Adapters ......................................................... 178
Allen Wrenches .......................................................................... 178
7.12 Screwdrivers ................................................................................... 179
Slot Screwdrivers ....................................................................... 179
Offset Screwdriver ...................................................................... 179
Recessed-Head Screwdrivers .................................................... 179
Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws ............................... 180

Section 8: Aircraft Hardware .........................................................181

8.1 Standards ....................................................................................... 183
8.2 Threaded Fasteners ....................................................................... 183
Bolts ........................................................................................... 183
Hex-Head Bolts ...................................................................... 184
Flush-Head Bolts .................................................................... 185
Drilled-Head Bolts .................................................................. 185
Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts .......................................... 185
Internal Wrenching Bolts ........................................................ 185
Clevis Bolts............................................................................. 186
Eye Bolts ................................................................................ 186
Bolt Installation ........................................................................... 186

xi
8.2 Threaded Fasteners (continued )
Bolt Fits ...................................................................................... 187
Screws........................................................................................ 187
Aircraft Screw Heads.............................................................. 188
Set Screws ............................................................................. 189
Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal Screws .......................................... 189
Nuts ........................................................................................... 190
Nonlocking Nuts ..................................................................... 190
Self-Locking Nuts ................................................................... 191
Low-temperature locking nuts ............................................ 191
High-temperature locking nuts ........................................... 192
Wing Nuts ............................................................................... 192
Anchor Nuts............................................................................ 192
Channel Nuts.......................................................................... 193
Pressed-Steel Nuts ................................................................ 193
Instrument Nuts ...................................................................... 194
Rivnuts ................................................................................... 194
Threaded Fastener Safetying ..................................................... 195
Locking Washers .................................................................... 195
Cotter Pins.............................................................................. 195
Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting ..................................... 196
8.3 Washers ......................................................................................... 199
8.4 Special Rivets ................................................................................. 201
Blind Rivets ................................................................................ 201
Friction-Lock Rivets ................................................................ 202
Mechanical-Lock Rivets ......................................................... 203
CherryMax Rivets, Olympic-Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets ............. 204
High-Strength Pin Rivets ............................................................ 204
Hi-Shear Rivet ........................................................................ 204
Hi-Lok Fasteners .................................................................... 206
Hi-Tigue Fasteners ................................................................. 207
8.5 Cowling Fasteners .......................................................................... 208
8.6 Thread Repair Hardware ................................................................ 209
Helicoil Insert.............................................................................. 209
Acres Sleeves............................................................................. 210

Section 9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication ..........................................211

9.1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming ................................................... 213
Definitions................................................................................... 213
Layout Procedure ....................................................................... 214
Example ................................................................................. 214
Forming .................................................................................. 216

xii
9.2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in Aluminum Alloys ................ 217
9.3 Setback .......................................................................................... 218
Setback (K) Chart ....................................................................... 218
9.4 Bend Allowance Chart .................................................................... 221
9.5 Rivets and Riveting......................................................................... 224
Alternatives to Riveting ............................................................... 224
Aircraft Solid Rivets .................................................................... 224
Rivet Head Shapes ................................................................ 224
Rivet Material ......................................................................... 225
Rivet Diameter........................................................................ 225
Examples of Rivet Selection................................................... 229
Rivet Length ........................................................................... 229
Riveting Tools ............................................................................ 230
Rivet Sets ............................................................................... 230
Bucking Bars .......................................................................... 230
Installing Flush Rivets ................................................................ 231
Blind Rivet Code ......................................................................... 231
Removal of Damaged Rivets ...................................................... 231
Minimum Rivet Spacing and Edge Distance .............................. 232

Section 10: Aircraft Fabric Covering ...........................................233

10.1 Rib Stitch Spacing .......................................................................... 235
10.2 Rib Stitch Knots .............................................................................. 236

Section 11: Corrosion Detection and Control ...........................239

11.1 Types of Corrosion ......................................................................... 241
11.2 Oxidation ........................................................................................ 243
11.3 Surface and Pitting Corrosion......................................................... 244
11.4 Intergranular Corrosion................................................................... 245
Exfoliation Corrosion .................................................................. 245
11.5 Stress Corrosion............................................................................. 246
11.6 Galvanic Corrosion ......................................................................... 246
11.7 Concentration Cell Corrosion ......................................................... 247
11.8 Fretting Corrosion ........................................................................... 248
11.9 Filiform Corrosion ........................................................................... 248
11.10 Corrosion Control ........................................................................... 249

xiii
Section 12: Nondestructive Inspection ......................................251
12.1 Visual Inspection ............................................................................ 253
NDI ........................................................................................... 253
Visual Inspection ....................................................................... 253
Surface Visual Inspection ....................................................... 253
Internal Visual Inspection ....................................................... 253
12.2 Tap Test .......................................................................................... 254
12.3 Penetrant Inspection....................................................................... 255
12.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection .......................................................... 256
12.5 Eddy Current Inspection ................................................................. 257
How it works ............................................................................... 257
What it is suited for ..................................................................... 258
Method ....................................................................................... 258
Detection of corrosion ................................................................ 258
12.6 Ultrasonic Inspection ...................................................................... 259
12.7 Radiography ................................................................................... 259
X-Rays ........................................................................................ 259
Gamma Rays ............................................................................. 260
Inspection— Steps ..................................................................... 260
Considerations ........................................................................... 261
Safety ......................................................................................... 261

Section 13: Aircraft Control Systems ..........................................263

13.1 Types of Control Systems ............................................................... 265
Torque Tubes .............................................................................. 265
Push-Pull Rods........................................................................... 265
13.2 Control Cables ................................................................................ 266
13.3 Control Cable Terminals ................................................................. 267
13.4 Turnbuckles .................................................................................... 268
Turnbuckle Safetying .................................................................. 268
Clip-Locking Turnbuckles ............................................................ 269
13.5 Control Cable Tension .................................................................... 270

Section 14: Aircraft Fluid Lines .....................................................273

14.1 Rigid Fluid Lines ............................................................................. 275
Materials Recommended for Rigid Fluid Lines........................... 275
14.2 Flexible Fluid Lines ......................................................................... 277
Types of Flexible Fluid Lines ...................................................... 277

xiv
14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose............................................................ 279
14.4 Fluid Line Identification................................................................... 280

Section 15: Oxygen System Servicing ........................................283

15.1 Oxygen System Servicing .............................................................. 285
Filling Pressure for 1,850 PSI Oxygen Cylinders ....................... 285

Section 16: Aircraft Weight and Balance ...................................287

16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity ........................................................ 289
16.2 Datum Forward of the Airplane — Nose Wheel Landing Gear ........ 290
16.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Nose Wheel Landing Gear ......... 291
16.4 Datum Forward of the Main Wheels — Tail Wheel Landing Gear .... 292
16.5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels —Tail Wheel Landing Gear ............ 293
16.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord ..... 294

Section 17: Composites ...................................................................297

17.1 Resin Systems — Typical Properties ............................................. 299
17.2 Resin Mix Ratios ........................................................................... 300
17.3 Fiber/ Resin Ratio Formulas .......................................................... 301
17.4 Reinforcing Fibers .......................................................................... 302
17.5 Textile and Fiber Terminology ......................................................... 303
17.6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems ....................................................... 304
17.7 Fabric Weave Styles ...................................................................... 305
17.8 Common Weave Style Numbers and Features .............................. 307
17.9 Ply Orientation Conventions ........................................................... 308
17.10 Damage Removal — Scarfing and Stepping ................................... 308
17.11 Core Materials ............................................................................... 310
17.12 Bleeder Schedules ......................................................................... 311

xv
Appendices ..........................................................................................313
Appendix 1 Hydraulic Fittings ................................................................ 315
Appendix 2 Engines .............................................................................. 319
Appendix 3 Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries ................................................ 321
Appendix 4 Aircraft Tires ....................................................................... 349

Index ......................................................................................................361

xvi
Section 1: General Information

1
1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents 3

1.2 Conversions 4

1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature 13

1.4 Joint Aircraft System / Component (JASC) Code 16

1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification 28

1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations 31

1.7 Standard Taxi Signals 34

1: General Information 1
1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents

1.1
Fraction Decimal MM Fraction Decimal MM
1/64 0.0156 0.397 33/64 0.5156 13.097
1/32 0.0313 0.794 17/32 0.5313 13.494
3/64 0.0469 1.191 35/64 0.5469 13.891
1/16 0.0625 1.588 9/16 0.5625 14.287
5/64 0.0781 1.984 37/64 0.5781 14.684
3/32 0.0938 2.381 19/32 0.5938 15.081
7/64 0.1094 2.778 39/64 0.6094 15.478
1/8 0.1250 3.175 5/8 0.6250 15.875
9/64 0.1406 3.572 41/64 0.6406 16.272
5/32 0.1563 3.969 21/32 0.6563 16.669
11/64 0.1719 4.366 43/64 0.6719 17.066
3/16 0.1875 4.762 11/16 0.6875 17.463
13/64 0.2031 5.159 45/64 0.7031 17.860
7/32 0.2188 5.556 23/32 0.7188 18.256
15/64 0.2344 5.953 47/64 0.7344 18.653
1/4 0.2500 6.350 3/4 0.7500 19.049
17/64 0.2656 6.747 49/64 0.7656 19.447
9/32 0.2813 7.144 25/32 0.7813 19.844
19/64 0.2969 7.541 51/64 0.7968 20.239
5/16 0.3125 7.937 13/16 0.8125 20.638
21/64 0.3281 8.334 53/64 0.8281 21.034
11/32 0.3438 8.731 27/32 0.8438 21.431
23/64 0.3594 9.128 55/64 0.8594 21.828
3/8 0.3750 9.525 7/8 0.8750 22.225
25/64 0.3906 9.922 57/64 0.8906 22.622
13/32 0.4063 10.319 29/32 0.9063 23.018
27/64 0.4219 10.716 59/64 0.9219 23.416
7/16 0.4375 11.112 15/16 0.9375 23.812
29/64 0.4531 11.509 61/64 0.9531 24.209
15/32 0.4688 11.906 31/32 0.9688 24.606
31/64 0.4844 12.303 63/64 0.9844 25.003
1/2 0.5000 12.700 1 1.0000 25.400

1: General Information 3
1.2 Conversions

Multiply By To Get
acres ................................. 43,560 .......................... square feet
acres ................................. 4,047 ............................. square meters
acre feet ............................ 3.259 x 105 .................... gallons
amperes / sq. cm. ............. 6.452 ............................. amperes / sq. inch
amperes / sq. inch ............ 0.1550 ........................... amperes / sq. cm.
ampere hours ................... 3,600 ............................. coulombs
ampere hours ................... 0.03731 ......................... faradays
ampere turns .................... 1.257 ............................. gilberts
ampere turns / cm............. 2.540 ............................. ampere turns / inch
ampere turns / cm............. 1.257 ............................. gilberts / cm.
ampere turns / inch ........... 0.4950 ........................... gilberts / centimeter
ampere turns / meter ........ 0.01257 ......................... gilberts / centimeter
atmospheres ..................... 76.0 ............................... centimeters of mercury
atmospheres ..................... 33.9 ............................... feet of water
atmospheres ..................... 29.92 ............................. inches of mercury
atmospheres ..................... 10,332 ........................... kilograms / sq. meter
atmospheres ..................... 14.69 ............................. pounds / sq. inch

barrels of oil ...................... 42 .................................. gallons

bars................................... 0.9869 ........................... atmospheres
bars................................... 106 ................................ dynes / sq. centimeter
bars................................... 14.50 ............................. pounds / sq. inch
Btu .................................... 1.0550 x 1010 ................ ergs
Btu .................................... 778.3 ............................. foot-pounds
Btu .................................... 252.0 ............................. gram-calories
Btu .................................... 1,054.8 .......................... joules
Btu .................................... 107.5 ............................. kilogram-meters
Btu .................................... 2.928 x 10 –4 .................. kilowatt-hours
Btu / hour .......................... 0.2162 ........................... foot-pounds / second
Btu / hour .......................... 3.929 x 10 –4 .................. horsepower-hours
Btu / hour .......................... 0.2931 ........................... watts
Btu / minute ...................... 12.96 ............................. foot-pounds / second
Btu / minute ...................... 0.02356 ......................... horsepower
Btu / minute ...................... 17.57 ............................. watts
bushels ............................. 1.2445 ........................... cubic feet
bushels ............................. 2,150.4 .......................... cubic inches
bushels ............................. 35.24 ............................. liters
bushels ............................. 4 .................................... pecks
bushels ............................. 64 .................................. pints (dry)

4 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Multiply By To Get

1.2
centimeters ....................... 3.281 x 10 –2 .................. feet
centimeters ....................... 0.3937 ........................... inches
centimeter-dynes .............. 1.020 x 10 –3 .................. centimeter-grams
centimeter-dynes .............. 7.376 x 10 –8 .................. pound-feet
centimeter-grams.............. 980.7 ............................. centimeter-dynes
centimeter-grams.............. 7.233 x 10 –5 .................. pound-feet
cm of mercury ................... 0.01316 ......................... atmospheres
cm of mercury ................... 0.4461 ........................... feet of water
cm of mercury ................... 136.0 ............................. kilograms / sq. meter
cm of mercury ................... 27.85 ............................. pounds / sq. foot
cm of mercury ................... 0.1934 ........................... pounds / sq. inch
cm / second ...................... 1.9685 ........................... feet / minute
cm / second ...................... 0.03281 ......................... feet / second
cm / second ...................... 0.036 ............................. kilometers / hour
cm / second ...................... 0.0194 ........................... knots
cm / second / second........ 0.03281 ......................... feet / second / second
cm / second / second........ 0.02237 ......................... miles / hour / second
circular mils....................... 5.067 x 10 –6 .................. square centimeters
circular mils....................... 0.7854 ........................... square mils
circular mils....................... 7.854 x 10 –7 .................. square inches
coulombs .......................... 1.036 x 10 –5 .................. faradays
cubic centimeters.............. 3.531 x 10 –5 .................. cubic feet
cubic centimeters.............. 0.06102 ......................... cubic inches
cubic centimeters.............. 10 –6 ............................... cubic meters
cubic centimeters.............. 1.308 x 10 –6 .................. cubic yards
cubic centimeters.............. 2.642 x 10 –4 .................. gallons (U.S.)
cubic centimeters.............. 0.001 ............................. liters
cubic centimeters.............. 2.113 x 10 –3 .................. pints (U.S.)
cubic feet .......................... 0.8036 ........................... bushels
cubic feet .......................... 28,320 ........................... cubic centimeters
cubic feet .......................... 1,728 ............................. cubic inches
cubic feet .......................... 0.02832 ......................... cubic meters
cubic feet .......................... 7.48052 ......................... gallons (U.S.)
cubic feet .......................... 28.32 ............................. liters
cubic feet / minute ............ 0.1247 ........................... gallons / second
cubic feet / minute ............ 0.4720 ........................... liters / second
cubic feet / second ............ 448.831 ......................... gallons / minute
cubic inches ...................... 16.39 ............................. cubic centimeters
cubic inches ...................... 5.787 x 10 –4 .................. cubic feet
cubic inches ...................... 1.639 x 10 –5 .................. cubic meters
cubic inches ...................... 2.143 x 10 –5 .................. cubic yards
cubic inches ...................... 4.329 x 10 –3 .................. gallons (U.S.)

1: General Information 5
Multiply By To Get
cubic inches ...................... 0.01639 ......................... liters
cubic meters ..................... 28.38 ............................. bushels
cubic meters ..................... 35.31 ............................. cubic feet
cubic meters ..................... 61,023 ........................... cubic inches
cubic meters ..................... 1.308 ............................. cubic yards
cubic meters ..................... 264.2 ............................. gallons (U.S.)
cubic yards ....................... 27 .................................. cubic feet
cubic yards ....................... 46,656 ........................... cubic inches
cubic yards ....................... 0.7646 ........................... cubic meters
cubic yards ....................... 202 ................................ gallons (U.S.)
cubic yards ....................... 764.6 ............................. liters
cubic yards / minute .......... 3.367 ............................. gallons / second
cubic yards / minute .......... 12.74 ............................. liters / second

days .................................. 24 .................................. hours

days .................................. 1,440 ............................. minutes
days .................................. 86,400 ........................... seconds
degrees (angular) ............. 60 .................................. minutes
degrees (angular) ............. 0.01111 ......................... quadrants
degrees (angular) ............. 0.01745 ......................... radians
degrees (angular) ............. 3,600 ............................. seconds
degrees / second .............. 0.01745 ......................... radians / second
degrees / second .............. 0.1667 ........................... revolutions / minute
degrees / second .............. 2.778 x 10 –3 .................. revolutions / second
drams................................ 1.7718 ........................... grams
drams................................ 0.0625 ........................... ounces
dynes ................................ 1.020 x 10 –3 .................. grams
dynes ................................ 10 –7 ............................... joules / centimeter
dynes ................................ 10 –5 ............................... joules / meter (newtons)
dynes ................................ 7.233 x 10 –5 .................. poundals
dynes ................................ 2.248 x 10 –6 .................. pounds
dynes / sq. centimeter....... 10 –6 ............................... bars

ergs................................... 9.480 x 10 –11 ................. Btu

ergs................................... 1.0 ................................. dyne-centimeters
ergs................................... 7.367 x 10 –8 .................. foot-pounds
ergs................................... 0.2389 x 10 –7 ................ gram-calories
ergs................................... 3.7250 x 10 –14............... horsepower-hours
ergs................................... 10 –7 ............................... joules
ergs................................... 0.2778 x 10 –13............... kilowatt-hours
ergs / second .................... 5.688 x 10 –9 .................. Btu / minute

6 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Multiply By To Get

1.2
ergs / second .................... 1.341 x 10 –10................. horsepower
ergs / second .................... 10 –10 ............................. kilowatts

faradays ............................ 26.8 ............................... ampere-hours

faradays ............................ 9.649 x 10 4.................... coulombs
fathoms ............................. 6 .................................... feet
feet .................................... 30.48 ............................. centimeters
feet .................................... 0.3048 ........................... meters
feet .................................... 1.645 x 10 –4 .................. miles (nautical)
feet .................................... 1.894 x 10 –4 .................. miles (statute)
feet of water ...................... 0.02950 ......................... atmospheres
feet of water ...................... 0.8826 ........................... inches of mercury
feet of water ...................... 62.43 ............................. pounds / square foot
feet / minute ...................... 0.5080 ........................... centimeters / second
feet / minute ...................... 0.01667 ......................... feet / second
feet / second ..................... 1.097 ............................. kilometers / hour
feet / second ..................... 0.5921 ........................... knots
feet / second ..................... 0.6818 ........................... miles / hour
feet / second / second ...... 0.6818 ........................... miles / hour / second
foot-pounds ....................... 1.286 x 10 –3 .................. Btu
foot-pounds ....................... 1.356 ............................. joules
foot-pounds ....................... 3.24 x 10 –4 .................... kilogram-calories
foot-pounds ....................... 0.1383 ........................... kilogram-meters
foot-pounds / minute ......... 3.030 x 10 –5 .................. horsepower
foot-pounds / minute ......... 2.260 x 10 –5 .................. kilowatts
furlongs ............................. 660 ................................ feet

gallons .............................. 3,785 ............................. cubic centimeters

gallons .............................. 0.1337 ........................... cubic feet
gallons .............................. 231 ................................ cubic inches
gallons .............................. 3.785 ............................. liters
gallons (Imperial) .............. 1.20095 ......................... gallons (U.S.)
gallons (U.S.) .................... 0.83267 ......................... gallons (Imperial)
gallons / minute ................ 2.228 x 10 –3 .................. cubic feet / second
gausses ............................ 6.452 ............................. lines of flux / sq. inch
gausses ............................ 10 –8 ............................... webers / sq. centimeter
gilberts .............................. 0.7958 ........................... ampere-turns
gilberts / centimeter .......... 2.021 ............................. ampere-turns / inch
gills ................................... 0.1183 ........................... liters
grains (troy)....................... 0.06480 ......................... grams
grains (troy)....................... 2.0833 x 10 –3 ................ ounces (avoir.)
grams................................ 980.7 ............................. dynes

1: General Information 7
Multiply By To Get
grams................................ 9.807 x 10 –5 .................. joules / centimeter
grams................................ 0.03527 ......................... ounces (avoir.)
grams................................ 0.07093 ......................... poundals
grams................................ 2.205 x 10 –3 .................. pounds
grams / cubic cm............... 62.43 ............................. pounds / cubic foot
grams / square cm. ........... 2.0481 ........................... pounds / square foot
gram-calories .................... 3.9683 x 10 –3 ................ Btu
gram-calories .................... 4.1868 x 107 .................. ergs
gram-calories .................... 3.0880 ........................... foot-pounds
gram-calories .................... 1.1630 x 10 –6 ................ kilowatt-hours
gram-centimeters.............. 9.297 x 10 –8 .................. Btu
gram-centimeters.............. 980.7 ............................. ergs
gram-centimeters.............. 9.807 x 10 –5 .................. joules

hectares ............................ 2.471 ............................. acres

horsepower ....................... 42.44 ............................. Btu / minute
horsepower ....................... 33,000 ........................... foot-pounds / minute
horsepower ....................... 550 ................................ foot-pounds / second
horsepower (metric).......... 542.5 ............................. foot-pounds / second
horsepower (metric).......... 0.9863 ........................... horsepower
horsepower ....................... 10.68 ............................. kilogram-calories / min.
horsepower ....................... 745.7 ............................. watts
hours................................. 3,600 ............................. seconds

inches ............................... 2.540 ............................. centimeters

inches ............................... 8.333 x 10 –2 .................. feet
inches ............................... 2.540 x 10 –2 .................. meters
inches ............................... 25.40 ............................. millimeters
inches ............................... 1,000 ............................. mils
inches of mercury ............. 3.342 x 10 –2 .................. atmospheres
inches of mercury ............. 1.133 ............................. feet of water
inches of mercury ............. 345.3 ............................. kilograms / sq. meter
inches of mercury ............. 0.4912 ........................... pounds / sq. inch
inches of mercury ............. 33.864 ........................... millibars
inches of water ................. 7.355 x 10 –2 .................. inches of mercury
inches of water ................. 3.613 x 10 –2 .................. pounds / sq. inch

joules ................................ 9.480 x 10 –4 .................. Btu

joules ................................ 107................................. ergs
joules ................................ 0.7376 ........................... foot-pounds
joules ................................ 2.389 x 10 –4 .................. kilogram-calories
joules ................................ 0.1020 ........................... kilogram-meters

8 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Multiply By To Get

1.2
joules ................................ 2.778 x 10 –4 .................. watt-hours
joules / centimeter ............ 107................................. dynes
joules / centimeter ............ 723.3 ............................. poundals
joules / centimeter ............ 22.48 ............................. pounds

kilograms .......................... 980,665 ......................... dynes

kilograms .......................... 9.807 ............................. joules / meter (newtons)
kilograms .......................... 70.93 ............................. poundals
kilograms .......................... 2.205 ............................. pounds
kilograms .......................... 9.842 x 10 –4 .................. tons (long)
kilograms .......................... 1.102 x 10 –3 .................. tons (short)
kilograms / cubic meter..... 0.06243 ......................... pounds / cubic foot
kilograms / sq. meter ........ 9.687 x 10 –5 .................. atmospheres
kilograms / sq. meter ........ 0.2048 ........................... pounds / square foot
kilogram-calories .............. 3.968 ............................. Btu
kilogram-calories .............. 3,088 ............................. foot-pounds
kilogram-calories .............. 4,186 ............................. joules
kilogram-meters ................ 9.294 x 10 –3 .................. Btu
kilogram-meters ................ 7.233 ............................. foot-pounds
kilometers ......................... 3,281 ............................. feet
kilometers ......................... 0.6214 ........................... miles
kilometers / hour ............... 0.9113 ........................... feet / second
kilometers / hour ............... 0.5396 ........................... knots
kilometers / hour ............... 0.6214 ........................... miles / hour
kilowatts ............................ 56.92 ............................. Btu / minute
kilowatts ............................ 4.426 x 10 4.................... foot-pounds / minute
kilowatts ............................ 1.341 ............................. horsepower
kilowatt-hours ................... 3,413 ............................. Btu
kilowatt-hours ................... 2.655 x 10 6.................... foot-pounds
kilowatt-hours ................... 3.6 x 10 6........................ joules
knots ................................. 6,080 ............................. feet / hour
knots ................................. 1.8532 ........................... kilometers / hour
knots ................................. 1.151 ............................. miles (statute) / hour
knots ................................. 1.689 ............................. feet / second

leagues ............................. 3.0 ................................. miles

lines of flux / sq. cm. ......... 1.0 ................................. gausses
lines of flux / sq. inch ........ 0.1550 ........................... gausses
lines of flux / sq. inch ........ 1.550 x 10 –9 .................. webers / sq. centimeter
liters .................................. 1,000 ............................. cubic centimeters
liters .................................. 61.02 ............................. cubic inches
liters .................................. 0.2642 ........................... gallons (U.S.)
liters / minute .................... 5.886 x 10 –4 .................. cubic feet / second

1: General Information 9
Multiply By To Get
lumens / sq. foot ............... 1.0 ................................. foot-candles
lux ..................................... 0.0929 ........................... foot-candles

maxwells ........................... 10 –8 ............................... webers

meters............................... 3.281 ............................. feet
meters............................... 39.37 ............................. inches
meters............................... 5.396 x 10 –4 .................. miles (nautical)
meters............................... 6.214 x 10 –4 .................. miles (statute)
meters............................... 1.094 ............................. yards
meters / second ................ 3.6 ................................. kilometers / hour
meters / second ................ 2.237 ............................. miles / hour
meter-kilograms ................ 9.807 x 107 .................... centimeter-dynes
meter-kilograms ................ 7.233 ............................. pound-feet
miles (nautical) ................. 6,076.103 ...................... feet
miles (nautical) ................. 1.852 ............................. kilometers
miles (nautical) ................. 1.1508 ........................... miles (statute)
miles (statute) ................... 5,280 ............................. feet
miles (statute) ................... 1.609 ............................. kilometers
miles (statute) ................... 0.8689 ........................... miles (nautical)
miles (statute) ................... 1,760 ............................. yards
miles / hour ....................... 1.467 ............................. feet / second
miles / hour ....................... 1.609 ............................. kilometers / hour
miles / hour ....................... 0.8684 ........................... knots
millimeters ........................ 3.281 x 10 –3 .................. feet
millimeters ........................ 0.03937 ......................... inches
mils ................................... 2.54 x 10 –3 .................... centimeters
mils ................................... 0.001 ............................. inches
minutes (angular).............. 0.01667 ......................... degrees
minutes (angular).............. 1.852 x 10 –4 .................. quadrants
minutes (angular).............. 2.909 x 10 –4 .................. radians

ounces .............................. 16.0 ............................... drams

ounces .............................. 437.5 ............................. grains
ounces .............................. 28.3495 ......................... grams
ounces .............................. 0.0625 ........................... pounds
ounces (fluid) .................... 1.805 ............................. cubic inches
ounces (fluid) .................... 0.02957 ......................... liters
ounces (troy) ..................... 1.09714 ......................... ounces (avoir.)

pint (dry) ........................... 33.60 ............................. cubic inches

pint (liquid) ........................ 0.4732 ........................... liters
poundals ........................... 13,826 ........................... dynes
poundals ........................... 14.10 ............................. grams

10 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Multiply By To Get

1.2
poundals ........................... 0.1383 ........................... joules / meter (newtons)
poundals ........................... 0.01410 ......................... kilograms
poundals ........................... 0.03108 ......................... pounds
pounds .............................. 453.5924 ....................... grams
pounds .............................. 4.448 ............................. joules / meter (newtons)
pounds .............................. 0.4536 ........................... kilograms
pounds .............................. 16 .................................. ounces
pounds .............................. 32.17 ............................. poundals
pounds .............................. 0.0005 ........................... tons (short)
pounds of water ................ 0.1198 ........................... gallons
pounds / cubic foot ........... 16.02 ............................. kilograms / cubic meter
pounds / cubic inch ........... 27.68 ............................. grams / cubic centimeter
pounds / square inch ........ 0.06804 ......................... atmospheres
pounds / square inch ........ 2.307 ............................. feet of water
pounds / square inch ........ 2.036 ............................. inches of mercury

quadrants (angular) .......... 90 .................................. degrees

quadrants (angular) .......... 5,400 ............................. minutes
quadrants (angular) .......... 1.571 ............................. radians
quarts (liquid).................... 57.75 ............................. cubic inches
quarts (liquid).................... 0.9463 ........................... liters

radians .............................. 57.30 ............................. degrees

radians .............................. 3,438 ............................. minutes
radians .............................. 0.6366 ........................... quadrants
radians / second ............... 9.549 ............................. revolutions / minute
revolutions / minute........... 6.0 ................................. degrees / second
revolutions / minute........... 0.1047 ........................... radians / second
rods................................... 16.5 ............................... feet

square centimeters ........... 1.973 x 10 5.................... circular mils

square centimeters ........... 0.1550 ........................... square inches
square inches ................... 1.273 x 10 6.................... circular mils
square inches ................... 6.452 ............................. square centimeters
square meters................... 10.76 ............................. square feet
square meters................... 1.196 ............................. square yards
square miles ..................... 640 ................................ acres
square millimeters ............ 1,973 ............................. circular mils
square mils ....................... 1.273 ............................. circular mils

tons (long)......................... 1,016 ............................. kilograms

tons (long)......................... 2,240 ............................. pounds
tons (metric)...................... 1,000 ............................. kilograms
tons (metric)...................... 2,205 ............................. pounds

1: General Information 11
Multiply By To Get
tons (short) ....................... 907.185 ......................... kilograms
tons (short) ....................... 2,000 ............................. pounds

watts ................................. 3.413 ............................. Btu / hour

watts ................................. 107................................. ergs / second
watts ................................. 44.27 ............................. foot-pounds / minute
watts ................................. 1.341 x 10 –3 .................. horsepower
watt-hours ......................... 3.413 ............................. Btu
watt-hours ......................... 2,656 ............................. foot-pounds
watt-hours ......................... 367.2 ............................. kilogram-meters
webers .............................. 10 8 ................................ maxwells
webers / sq. inch ............... 1.55 x 107 ...................... gausses

yards ................................. 36 .................................. inches

yards ................................. 0.9144 ........................... meters

Notes

12 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature

1. 3
Axes of an Airplane
An airplane in flight is free to rotate about three axes: horizontal, longitudinal
and vertical. Each axis is perpendicular to the others and each passes
through the center of gravity.

Positive
pitching
Y moments

Lateral
axis

X
Longitudinal
axis Positive Positive
rolling yawing
moments moments

Vertical
Z axis

The three axes of an aircraft are mutually perpendicular, and all pass through
the center of gravity of the aircraft.

Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight

In straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight the forces about the aircraft center
of gravity are balanced. Lift acts upward and is opposed by weight and the
aerodynamic tail load which act downward. Thrust acting forward is opposed
by drag which acts rearward.
In straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight the forces about the center of
gravity are balanced.

1: General Information 13
 Lift

Thrust Drag

Weight Tail load

In straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight, the forces about the center of

gravity are balanced.

Types of Aircraft Structure

Truss
A type of structure made up of longitudinal beams and cross braces.
Compression loads between the main beams are carried by rigid cross
braces called compression struts. Tension loads are carried by stays, or
wires, that go from one main beam to the other and cross between the
compression struts.
Most fabric-covered wings are constructed with a Pratt truss. The spars
are the main beams and the cross braces are the compression struts or
compression ribs. The stays are the drag and antidrag wires. The drag wires
run from the front spar inboard to the rear spar outboard, and oppose the
drag forces that try to move the wing tips backward. The antidrag wires
run from the rear spar inboard to the front spar outboard. They oppose the
aerodynamic forces that try to move the wing tips forward.
The Warren truss is used for the fuselage of most steel tube and fabric
aircraft. The main beams are the longerons and the cross braces are steel
tube diagonals which carry both compression and tension loads.

Monocoque
A single-shell that carries all of the flight loads in its outer surface. A chicken
egg is a perfect example of a natural monocoque structure.
Metal monocoque aircraft fuselages have a minimum of internal
structure, usually with just formers to provide the shape. Thin sheets of metal
(called skins) riveted to the formers provide a rigid, strong, streamlined
structure. Dents in the skins destroy the integrity of a monocoque structure.
Wooden monocoque aircraft structures are similar to those of metal.
Thin sheets of aircraft plywood are glued to the formers to provide a strong,
lightweight structure.
Modern composite structures are made of resins reinforced with
special fabrics and formed in molds or over patterns; these provide a shell
sufficiently strong to carry all the flight loads.

14 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Semimonocoque

1.3
Most larger metal aircraft have a semimonocoque structure. This differs from
the monocoque by having a series of longerons and stringers between the
formers to support the skins and provide additional strength.

1: General Information 15
1.4 Joint Aircraft System/Component (JASC) Code
Based on ATA-100 and ATA-2200 Systems of Identification

The Joint Aircraft System/Component (JASC) Code table is a modified

version of the Air Transport Association of America (ATA) Specification
100 code, developed by the FAA’s Regulatory Support Division (AFS-600).
Over the years, the JASC Code format of the ATA-100 Specifications has
gained widespread industry acceptance. In a harmonized effort, the FAA’s
counterparts in Australia and Canada have adopted the JASC Code with only
a few exceptions. Some Canadian aircraft manufacturers have also adopted
this new standard.
This table can be used as a quick reference chart, to assist in the coding
and review of aircraft structures or systems data. It uses the new JASC code
four (4) digit format, in which the first two digits represent the code “chapter”
title. The titles have been modified in some cases to clarify the intended use
of the accompanying code.
Note: The JASC Code divides the engine-related codes into two groups
to separate turbine and reciprocating engines. The codes for the turbine
engines are in JASC Code Chapter 72, Turbine/Turboprop Engine. The codes
for the reciprocating engines are now exclusively found in Chapter 85,
Reciprocating Engine.

11 Placards And Markings 18 Helicopter Vibration

1100 Placards And Markings 1800 Helicopter Vib/Noise
Analysis
12 Servicing 1810 Helicopter Vibration
Analysis
1210 Fuel Servicing
1820 Helicopter Noise Analysis
1220 Oil Servicing
1897 Helicopter Vibration System
1230 Hydraulic Fluid Servicing Wiring
1240 Coolant Servicing
21 Air Conditioning
14 Hardware 2100 Air Conditioning System
1400 Miscellaneous Hardware 2110 Cabin Compressor System
1410 Hoses And Tubes 2120 Air Distribution System
1420 Electrical Connectors 2121 Air Distribution Fan
1430 Fasteners 2130 Cabin Pressure Control
1497 Miscellaneous Wiring System
2131 Cabin Pressure Controller

16 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

2132 Cabin Pressure Indicator 2320 Data Transmission Auto Call

1. 4
2133 Pressure Regul/Outflow 2330 Entertainment System
Valve 2340 Interphone/Passenger Pa
2134 Cabin Pressure Sensor System
2140 Heating System 2350 Audio Integrating System
2150 Cabin Cooling System 2360 Static Discharge System
2160 Cabin Temperature Control 2370 Audio/Video Monitoring
System 2397 Communication System
2161 Cabin Temperature Wiring
Controller
2162 Cabin Temperature Indicator 24 Electrical Power
2163 Cabin Temperature Sensor
2400 Electrical Power System
2170 Humidity Control System
2410 Alternator-Generator Drive
2197 Air Conditioning System
2420 AC Generation System
Wiring
2421 AC Generator-Alternator
2422 AC Inverter
22 Auto Flight
2423 Phase Adapter
2200 Auto Flight System 2424 AC Regulator
2210 Autopilot System 2425 AC Indicating System
2211 Autopilot Computer 2430 DC Generating System
2212 Altitude Controller 2431 Battery Overheat Warning
2213 Flight Controller System
2214 Autopilot Trim Indicator 2432 Battery/Charger System
2215 Autopilot Main Servo 2433 DC Rectifier/Converter
2216 Autopilot Trim Servo 2434 DC Generator-Alternator
2220 Speed-Attitude Correction 2435 Starter-Generator
System 2436 DC Regulator
2230 Auto Throttle System 2437 DC Indicating System
2250 Aerodynamic Load 2440 External Power System
Alleviating
2450 AC Power Distribution
2297 Autoflight System Wiring System
2460 DC Power/Distribution
23 Communications System
2300 Communications System 2497 Electrical Power System
2310 HF Communication System Wiring
2311 UHF Communication
System 25 Equipment/Furnishings
2312 VHF Communication 2500 Cabin Equipment/
System Furnishings

1: General Information 17
2510 Flight Compartment 2721 Rudder Tab Control System
Equipment 2722 Rudder Actuator
2520 Passenger Compartment 2730 Elevator Control System
Equipment 2731 Elevator Tab Control System
2530 Buffet/Galleys 2740 Stabilizer Control System
2540 Lavatories 2741 Stabilizer Position Indicating
2550 Cargo Compartments 2742 Stabilizer Actuator
2551 Agricultural Spray System 2750 TE Flap Control System
2560 Emergency Equipment 2751 TE Flap Position Ind.
2561 Life Jacket System
2562 Emergency Locator Beacon 2752 TE Flap Actuator
2563 Parachute 2760 Drag Control System
2564 Life Raft 2761 Drag Control Actuator
2565 Escape Slide 2770 Gust Lock/Damper System
2570 Accessory Compartment 2780 LE Slat Control System
2571 Battery Box Structure 2781 LE Slat Position Ind. System
2572 Electronic Shelf Section 2782 LE Slat Actuator
2597 Equip/Furnishing System 2797 Flight Control System
Wiring Wiring

26 Fire Protection 28 Fuel

2600 Fire Protection System 2800 Aircraft Fuel System
2610 Detection System 2810 Fuel Storage
2611 Smoke Detection 2820 Aircraft Fuel Distrib. System
2612 Fire Detection 2821 Aircraft Fuel Filter/Strainer
2613 Overheat Detection 2822 Fuel Boost Pump
2620 Extinguishing System 2823 Fuel Selector/Shut-Off Valve
2621 Fire Bottle, Fixed 2824 Fuel Transfer Valve
2622 Fire Bottle, Portable 2830 Fuel Dump System
2697 Fire Protection System 2840 Aircraft Fuel Indicating
Wiring System
2841 Fuel Quantity Indicator
27 Flight Controls 2842 Fuel Quantity Sensor
2700 Flight Control System 2843 Fuel Temperature Indicator
2701 Control Column Section 2844 Fuel Pressure Indicator
2710 Aileron Control System 2897 Fuel System Wiring
2711 Aileron Tab Control System
2720 Rudder Control System

18 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

29 Hydraulic Power 3040 Windshield/Door Rain/Ice
Removal

1. 4
2900 Hydraulic Power System
3050 Antenna/Radome Anti-Ice/
2910 Hydraulic System, Main
De-Ice System
2911 Hydraulic Power
3060 Prop/Rotor Anti-Ice/De-Ice
Accumulator, Main
System
2912 Hydraulic Filter, Main
3070 Water Line Anti-Ice System
2913 Hydraulic Pump, (Electric/
3080 Ice Detection
Engine, Main
3097 Ice/Rain Protection System
2914 Hydraulic Handpump, Main
Wiring
2915 Hydraulic Pressure Relief
Valve, Main
31 Instruments
2916 Hydraulic Reservoir, Main
2917 Hydraulic Pressure 3100 Indicating/Recording
Regulator, Main System
2920 Hydraulic System, Auxiliary 3110 Instrument Panel
2921 Hydraulic Accumulator, 3120 Independent Instruments
Auxiliary (Clock, etc.)
2922 Hydraulic Filter, Auxiliary 3130 Data Recorders (Flt/Maint)
2923 Hydraulic Pump, Auxiliary 3140 Central Computers (EICAS)
2925 Hydraulic Pressure Relief, 3150 Central Warning
Auxiliary 3160 Central Display
2926 Hydraulic Reservoir, 3170 Automatic Data
Auxiliary 3197 Instrument System Wiring
2927 Hydraulic Pressure
Regulator, Auxillary
32 Landing Gear
2930 Hydraulic Indicating System
3200 Landing Gear System
2931 Hydraulic Pressure Indicator
3201 Landing Gear/Wheel Fairing
2932 Hydraulic Pressure Sensor
3210 Main Landing Gear
2933 Hydraulic Quantity Indicator
3211 Main Landing Gear Attach
2934 Hydraulic Quantity Sensor
Section
2997 Hydraulic Power System
3212 Emergency Flotation
Wiring
Section
3213 Main Landing Gear Strut/
30 Ice And Rain Protection Axle/Truck
3000 Ice/Rain Protection System 3220 Nose/Tail Landing Gear
3010 Airfoil Anti/De-Ice System 3221 Nose/Tail Landing Gear
3020 Air Intake Anti/De-Ice AttachSection
System 3222 Nose/Tail Landing Gear
3030 Pitot/Static Anti-Ice System Strut/Axle

1: General Information 19
3230 Landing Gear Retract/ 3411 Pitot/Static System
Extend System 3412 Outside Air Temperature
3231 Landing Gear Door Retract Indicator Sensor
Section 3413 Rate of Climb Indicator
3232 Landing Gear Door Actuator 3414 Airspeed/Mach Indicator
3233 Landing Gear Actuator 3415 High Speed Warning
3234 Landing Gear Selector 3416 Altimeter, Barometric/
3240 Landing Gear Brake System Encoder
3241 Brake Anti-Skid Section 3417 Air Data Computer
3242 Brake 3418 Stall Warning System
3243 Master Cylinder/Brake Valve 3420 Attitude and Direction Data
3244 Tire System
3245 Tire Tube 3421 Attitude Gyro and Indicator
System
3246 Wheel/Ski/Float
3422 Directional Gyro and
3250 Landing Gear Steering
Indicator System
System
3423 Magnetic Compass
3251 Steering Unit
3424 Turn and Bank/Rate of Turn
3252 Shimmy Damper
Indicator
3260 Landing Gear Position And
3425 Integrated Flight Director
Warning
System
3270 Auxiliary Gear (Tail Skid)
3430 Landing and Taxi Aids
3297 Landing Gear System
3431 Localizer/VOR System
Wiring
3432 Glide Slope System
3433 Microwave Landing System
33 Lights
3434 Marker Beacon System
3300 Lighting System
3435 Heads Up Display System
3310 Flight Compartment
3436 Wind Shear Detection
Lighting
System
3320 Passenger Compartment
3440 Independent Position
Lighting
Determining System
3330 Cargo Compartment
3441 Inertial Guidance System
Lighting
3442 Weather Radar System
3340 Exterior Lighting
3443 Doppler System
3350 Emergency Lighting
3444 Ground Proximity System
3397 Light System Wiring
3445 Air Collision Avoidance
System (TCAS)
34 Navigation 3446 Non Radar Weather System
3400 Navigation System 3450 Dependent Position
3410 Flight Environment Data Determining System

20 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

3451 DME/TACAN System 3820 Wash Water System

1.4
3452 ATC Transponder System 3830 Waste Disposal System
3453 LORAN System 3840 Air Supply (Water Press.
3454 VOR System System)
3455 ADF System 3897 Water/Waste System Wiring
3456 Omega Navigation System
3457 Global Positioning System 45 Central Maint. System
3460 Flt Management Computing 4500 Central Maint. Computer
Hardware System 4597 Central Maint. System
3461 Flight Manage. Computing Wiring
Software System
3497 Navigation System Wiring 49 Airborne Auxiliary Power
4900 Airborne APU System
35 Oxygen
4910 APU Cowling/Containment
3500 Oxygen System 4920 APU Core Engine
3510 Crew Oxygen System 4930 APU Engine Fuel and
3520 Passenger Oxygen System Control
3530 Portable Oxygen System 4940 APU Start/Ignition System
3597 Oxygen System Wiring 4950 APU Bleed Air System
4960 APU Controls
36 Pneumatic 4970 APU Indicating System
3600 Pneumatic System 4980 APU Exhaust System
3610 Pneumatic Distribution 4990 APU Oil System
System 4997 APU System Wiring
3620 Pneumatic Indicating
System 51 Standard Practices/
3697 Pneumatic System Wiring Structures
5100 Standard Practices/
37 Vacuum Structures
3700 Vacuum System 5101 Aircraft Structures
3710 Vacuum Distribution System 5102 Balloon Reports
3720 Vacuum Indicating System
3797 Vacuum System Wiring 52 Doors
5200 Doors
38 Water/Waste 5210 Passenger/Crew Doors
3800 Water And Waste System 5220 Emergency Exits
3810 Potable Water System 5230 Cargo/Baggage Doors

1: General Information 21
5240 Service Doors 5340 Fuselage Main, Attach
5241 Galley Doors Fittings
5242 E/E Compartment Doors 5341 Fuselage, Wing Attach
Fittings
5243 Hydraulic Compartment
Doors 5342 Fuselage, Stabilizer Attach
Fittings
5244 Accessory Compartment
Doors 5343 Landing Gear Attach
Fittings
5245 Air Conditioning Compart.
Doors 5344 Fuselage Door Hinges
5246 Fluid Service Doors 5345 Fuselage Equipment Attach
Fittings
5247 APU Doors
5346 Powerplant Attach Fittings
5248 Tail Cone Doors
5347 Seat/Cargo Attach Fittings
5250 Fixed Inner Doors
5350 Aerodynamic Fairings
5260 Entrance Stairs
5397 Fuselage Wiring
5270 Door Warning System
5280 Landing Gear Doors
54 Nacelles/Pylons
5297 Door System Wiring
5400 Nacelle/Pylon Structure
53 Fuselage 5410 Nacelle/Pylon, Main Frame
5411 Nacelle/Pylon, Frame/Spar/
5300 Fuselage Structure
Rib
General)
5412 Nacelle/Pylon, Bulkhead/
5301 Aerial Tow Equipment
Firewall
5302 Rotorcraft Tail Boom
5413 Nacelle/Pylon, Longeron/
5310 Fuselage Main, Structure Stringer
5311 Fuselage Main, Frame 5414 Nacelle/Pylon, Plate Skin
5312 Fuselage Main, Bulkhead 5415 Nacelle/Pylon, Attach
5313 Fuselage Main, Longeron/ Fittings
Stringer 5420 Nacelle/Pylon
5314 Fuselage Main, Keel Miscellaneous Structure
5315 Fuselage Main, Floor Beam 5497 Nacelle/Pylon System
5320 Fuselage Miscellaneous Wiring
Structure
5321 Fuselage Floor Panel 55 Stabilizers
5322 Fuselage Internal Mount
5500 Empennage Structure
Structure
5510 Horizontal Stabilizer
5323 Fuselage Internal Stairs
Structure
5324 Fuselage Fixed Partitions
5511 Horizontal Stabilizer, Spar/
5330 Fuselage Main, Plate/Skin Rib

22 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

5512 Horizontal Stabilizer, Plate/ 56 Windows
Skin

1.4
5600 Window/Windshield System
5513 Horizontal Stabilizer, Tab
5610 Flight Compartment
Structure
Windows
5514 Horiz Stab Miscellaneous
5620 Passenger Compartment
Structure
Windows
5520 Elevator Structure
5630 Door Windows
5521 Elevator, Spar/Rib Structure
5640 Inspection Windows
5522 Elevator, Plates/Skin
5697 Window System Wiring
Structure
5523 Elevator, Tab Structure
57 Wings
5524 Elevator Miscellaneous
Structure 5700 Wing Structure
5530 Vertical Stabilizer Structure 5710 Wing, Main Frame Structure
5531 Vertical Stabilizer, Spar/Rib 5711 Wing Spar
Structure 5712 Wing, Rib/Bulkhead
5532 Vertical Stabilizer, Plates/ 5713 Wing, Longeron/Stringer
Skin 5714 Wing, Center Box
5533 Ventral Structure 5720 Wing Miscellaneous
5534 Vertical Stabilizer Structure
Miscellaneous Structure 5730 Wing, Plates/Skins
5540 Rudder Structure 5740 Wing, Attach Fittings
5541 Rudder, Spar/Rib 5741 Wing, Fuselage Attach
5542 Rudder, Plate/Skin Fittings
5543 Rudder, Tab Structure 5742 Wing, Nac/Pylon Attach
5544 Rudder Miscellaneous Fittings
Structure 5743 Wing, Landing Gear Attach
5550 Empennage Flight Control Fittings
Attach Fitting 5744 Wing, Cont. Surface Attach
5551 Horizontal Stabilizer, Attach Fittings
Fitting 5750 Wing, Control Surfaces
5552 Elevator/Tab, Attach Fittings 5751 Ailerons
5553 Vertical Stabilizer Attach 5752 Aileron Tab Structure
Fittings 5753 Trailing Edge Flaps
5554 Rudder/Tab, Attach Fittings 5754 Leading Edge Devices
5597 Stabilizer System Wiring 5755 Spoilers
5797 Wing System Wiring

1: General Information 23
61 Propellers/Propulsors 6330 Main Rotor Transmission
Mount
6100 Propeller System
6340 Rotor Drive Indicating
6110 Propeller Assembly
System
6111 Propeller Blade Section
6397 Main Rotor Drive System
6112 Propeller De-Ice Boot Wiring
Section
6113 Propeller Spinner Section
64 Tail Rotor
6114 Propeller Hub Section
6120 Propeller Controlling 6400 Tail Rotor System
System 6410 Tail Rotor Blades
6121 Propeller Synchronizer 6420 Tail Rotor Head
Section 6440 Tail Rotor Indicating System
6122 Propeller Governor 6497 Tail Rotor System Wiring
6123 Propeller Feathering/
Reversing 65 Tail Rotor Drive
6130 Propeller Braking
6500 Tail Rotor Drive System
6140 Propeller Indicating System
6510 Tail Rotor Drive Shaft
6197 Propeller/Propulsors
6520 Tail Rotor Gearbox
System Wiring
6540 Tail Rotor Drive Indicating
System
62 Main Rotor
6597 Tail Rotor Drive System
6200 Main Rotor System Wiring
6210 Main Rotor Blades
6220 Main Rotor Head 67 Rotors Flight Control
6230 Main Rotor Mast/ 6700 Rotorcraft Flight Control
Swashplate
6710 Main Rotor Control
6240 Main Rotor Indicating
6711 Tilt Rotor Flight Control
System
6720 Tail Rotor Control System
6297 Main Rotor System Wiring
6730 Rotorcraft Servo System
6797 Rotors Flight Control
63 Main Rotor Drive
System Wiring
6300 Main Rotor Drive System
6310 Engine/Transmission 71 Powerplant
Coupling
7100 Powerplant System
6320 Main Rotor Gearbox
7110 Engine Cowling System
6321 Main Rotor Brake
7111 Engine Cowl Flaps
6322 Rotorcraft Cooling Fan
System 7112 Engine Air Baffle Section

24 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7120 Engine Mount Section 7330 Engine Fuel Indicating
System

1.4
7130 Engine Fireseals
7160 Engine Air Intake System 7331 Fuel Flow Indicating
7170 Engine Drains 7332 Fuel Pressure Indicating
7197 Powerplant System Wiring 7333 Fuel Flow Sensor
7334 Fuel Pressure Sensor
72 Turbine/Turboprop Engine 7397 Engine Fuel System Wiring

7200 Engine (Turbine/Turboprop)

74 Ignition
7210 Turbine Engine Reduction
Gear 7400 Ignition System
7220 Turbine Engine Air Inlet 7410 Ignition Power Supply
Section 7411 Low Tension Coil
7230 Turbine Engine Compressor 7412 Exciter
Section 7413 Induction Vibrator
7240 Turbine Engine Combustion 7414 Magneto/Distributor
Section
7420 Ignition Harness
7250 Turbine Engine Accessory (Distribution)
Drive
7421 Spark Plug/Igniter
7261 Turbine Engine Oil System
7430 Ignition/Starter Switching
7270 Turbine Engine Bypass
Section 7497 Ignition System Wiring
7297 Turbine Engine System
Wiring 75 Air
7500 Engine Bleed Air System
73 Engine Fuel And Control 7510 Engine Anti-Icing System
7300 Engine Fuel And Control 7520 Engine Cooling System
7310 Engine Fuel Distribution 7530 Compressor Bleed Control
7311 Engine Fuel/Oil Cooler 7531 Compressor Bleed
7312 Fuel Heater Governor
7313 Fuel Injector Nozzle 7532 Compressor Bleed Valve
7314 Engine Fuel Pump 7540 Bleed Air Indicating System
7320 Fuel Controlling System 7597 Engine Bleed Air System
Wiring
7321 Fuel Control/Turbine
Engines
7322 Fuel Control/Reciprocating 76 Engine Controls
Engines 7600 Engine Controls
7323 Turbine Governor 7601 Engine Synchronizing
7324 Fuel Divider 7602 Mixture Control

1: General Information 25
7603 Power Lever 79 Engine Oil
7620 Engine Emergency 7900 Engine Oil System
Shutdown System (Airframe)
7697 Engine Control System 7910 Engine Oil Storage
Wiring (Airframe)
7920 Engine Oil Distribution
77 Engine Indicating (Airframe)
7700 Engine Indicating System 7921 Engine Oil Cooler
7710 Power Indicating System 7922 Engine Oil Temp. Regulator
7711 Engine Pressure Ratio 7923 Engine Oil Shutoff Valve
(EPR) 7930 Engine Oil Indicating
7712 Engine BMEP/Torque System
Indicating 7931 Engine Oil Pressure
7713 Manifold Pressure (MP) 7932 Engine Oil Quantity
Indicating 7933 Engine Oil Temperature
7714 Engine RPM Indicating 7997 Engine Oil System Wiring
System
7720 Engine Temperature 80 Starting
Indicating System
7721 Cylinder Head Temp (CHT) 8000 Engine Starting System
Indicating 8010 Engine Cranking
7722 Eng. EGT/TIT Indicating 8011 Engine Starter
System 8012 Engine Start Valves/
7730 Engine Ignition Analyzer Controls
System 8097 Engine Starting System
7731 Engine Ignition Analyzer Wiring
7732 Engine Vibration Analyzer
7740 Engine Integrated 81 Turbocharging
Instrument System 8100 Exhaust Turbine System
7797 Engine Indicating System (Recip)
Wiring 8110 Power Recovery Turbine
(Recip)
78 Engine Exhaust 8120 Exhaust Turbocharger
7800 Engine Exhaust System 8197 Turbocharging System
7810 Engine Collector/Tailpipe/ Wiring
Nozzle
7820 Engine Noise Suppressor 82 Water Injection
7830 Thrust Reverser 8200 Water Injection System
7897 Engine Exhaust System 8297 Water Injection System
Wiring Wiring

26 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

83 Accessory Gearboxes

1.4
8300 Accessory Gearboxes
8397 Accessory Gearbox System
Wiring

85 Reciprocating Engine
8500 Engine (Reciprocating)
8510 Reciprocating Engine Front
Section
8520 Reciprocating Engine Power
Section
8530 Reciprocating Engine
Cylinder Section
8540 Reciprocating Engine Rear
Section
8550 Reciprocating Engine Oil
System
8560 Reciprocating Engine
Supercharger
8570 Reciprocating Engine Liquid
Cooling
8597 Reciprocating Engine
System Wiring

1: General Information 27
1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification

Mark Country Mark Country

AP ..................Pakistan E7 ..................Bosnia and
A2 ..................Botswana Herzegovina
A3 ..................Tonga F ....................France
A4O ...............Oman G ....................United Kingdom
A5 ..................Bhutan HA..................Hungary
A6 ..................United Arab Emirates HB plus
A7 ..................Qatar national
A8 ..................Liberia emblem ......Switzerland
A9C................Bahrain HB plus
B ....................China national
C, CF .............Canada emblem ......Liechtenstein
CC .................Chile HC .................Ecuador
CN .................Morocco HH .................Haiti
CP..................Bolivia HI ...................Dominican Republic
CR, CS ..........Portugal HJ, HK ...........Colombia
CU .................Cuba HL ..................Republic of Korea
CX..................Uruguay HP..................Panama
C2 ..................Nauru HR .................Honduras
C5 ..................Gambia HS..................Thailand
C6 ..................Bahamas HZ ..................Saudi Arabia
C9 ..................Mozambique H4 ..................Solomon Islands
D ....................Germany I......................Italy
DQ .................Fiji JA ..................Japan
D2 ..................Angola JU ..................Mongolia
D4 ..................Cape Verde JY ..................Jordan
D6 ..................Comoros J2 ...................Djibouti
EC..................Spain J3 ...................Grenada
EI, EJ .............Ireland J5 ...................Guinea-Bissau
EK ..................Armenia J6 ...................Saint Lucia
EP ..................Iran (Islamic J7 ...................Dominica
Republic of) J8 ...................Saint Vincent and
ER..................Republic of Moldova the Grenadines
ES ..................Estonia LN ..................Norway
ET ..................Ethiopia LQ, LV ............Argentina
EW .................Belarus LX ..................Luxembourg
EX ..................Kyrgyzstan LY...................Lithuania
EY ..................Tajikistan LZ ..................Bulgaria
EZ ..................Turkmenistan M....................Isle of Man
E3 ..................Eritrea N ....................United States
E5 ..................Cook Islands OB .................Peru

28 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Mark Country Mark Country

1.5
OD .................Lebanon TY ..................Benin
OE .................Austria TZ ..................Mali
OH .................Finland T7 ..................San Marino
OK .................Czech Republic T8 ..................Palau
OM .................Slovakia UK..................Uzbekistan
OO .................Belgium UP..................Kazakhstan
OY..................Denmark UR .................Ukraine
P ....................Democratic People’s VH..................Australia
Republic of Korea VP-A ..............Anguilla (U.K.)*
PH..................Netherlands VP-B, VQ-B....Bermuda (U.K.)*
PJ ..................Netherlands Antilles VP-C ..............Cayman Islands
PK ..................Indonesia (U.K.)*
PP, PR, VP-F ..............Falkland Islands
PT, PU .......Brazil (Malvinas) (U.K.)*
PZ ..................Suriname VP-G ..............Gibralter (U.K.)*
P2 ..................Papua New Guinea VP-L...............Virgin Islands (U.K.)*
P4 ..................Aruba (Netherlands) VP-M..............Montserrat (U.K.)*
RA..................Russian Federation VQ-H..............St. Helena/Ascension
RDPL .............Lao People’s (U.K.)*
Democratic VQ-T ..............Turks and
Republic Caicos (U.K.)*
RP..................Philippines VT ..................India
SE ..................Sweden V2 ..................Antigua and Barbuda
SP ..................Poland V3 ..................Belize
ST ..................Sudan V4 ..................Saint Kitts and Nevis
SU..................Egypt V5 ..................Namibia
SX ..................Greece V6 ..................Micronesia
S2 ..................Bangladesh (Federated States of)
S5 ..................Slovenia V7 ..................Marshall Islands
S7 ..................Seychelles V8 ..................Brunei Darussalam
S9 ..................Sao Tome and XA, XB, XC ....Mexico
Principe XT ..................Burkina Faso
TC ..................Turkey XU..................Cambodia
TF ..................Iceland XV ..................Vietnam
TG..................Guatemala XY, XZ............Myanmar
TI ...................Costa Rica YA ..................Afghanistan
TJ...................Cameroon YI ...................Iraq
TL ..................Central African YJ ..................Vanuatu
Republic YK ..................Syrian Arab Republic
TN ..................Congo YL ..................Latvia
TR ..................Gabon YN..................Nicaragua
TS ..................Tunisia YR..................Romania
TT ..................Chad YS ..................El Salvador
TU ..................Cote d’Ivoire YU..................Serbia

1: General Information 29
Mark Country Mark Country

1.5
YV ..................Venezuela 5W .................Samoa
Z ....................Zimbabwe 5X ..................Uganda
ZK, ZL, ZM.....New Zealand 5Y ..................Kenya
ZP ..................Paraguay 6O ..................Somalia
ZS, ZT, ZU .....South Africa 6V, 6W ...........Senegal
Z3 ..................The former Yugoslav 6Y ..................Jamaica
Republic of 7O ..................Yemen
Macedonia 7P ..................Lesotho
3A ..................Monaco 7Q ..................Malawi
3B ..................Mauritius 7T ..................Algeria
3C ..................Equatorial Guinea 8P ..................Barbados
3D ..................Swaziland 8Q ..................Maldives
3X ..................Guinea 8R ..................Guyana
4K ..................Azerbaijan 9A ..................Croatia
4L...................Georgia 9G ..................Ghana
4O ..................Montenegro 9H ..................Malta
4R ..................Sri Lanka 9J ...................Zambia
4X ..................Israel 9K ..................Kuwait
5A ..................Libyan Arab 9L...................Sierra Leone
Jamahiriya 9M..................Malaysia
5B ..................Cyprus 9N ..................Nepal
5H ..................United Republic 9Q ..................Democratic Republic
Tanzania of the Congo
5N ..................Nigeria 9U ..................Burundi
5R ..................Madagascar 9V ..................Singapore
5T ..................Mauritania 9XR................Rwanda
5U ..................Niger 9Y ..................Trinidad and Tobago
5V ..................Togo

* (United Kingdom)

30 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations

1.6
The documents in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR),
formerly called the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs), are the actual legal
documents that govern civil aircraft operations. Information on the latest
regulations is available at www.faa.gov.

Part Title

Subchapter A—Definitions
1 Definitions and abbreviations
3 General requirements

Subchapter B—Procedural Rules

11 General rulemaking procedures
13 Investigative and enforcement procedures
14 Rules implementing the Equal Access to Justice Act of 1980
15 Administrative claims under Federal Tort Claims Act
16 Rules of practice for Federally-assisted airport enforcement
proceedings
17 Procedures for protests and contract disputes

Subchapter C—Aircraft
21 Certification procedures for products, articles and parts
23 Airworthiness standards: normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter
category airplanes
25 Airworthiness standards: transport category airplanes
26 Continued airworthiness and safety improvements for transport
category airplanes
27 Airworthiness standards: normal category rotorcraft
29 Airworthiness standards: transport category rotorcraft
31 Airworthiness standards: manned free balloons
33 Airworthiness standards: aircraft engines
34 Fuel venting and exhaust emission requirements for turbine engine
powered airplanes
35 Airworthiness standards: propellers
36 Noise standards: aircraft type and airworthiness certification
39 Airworthiness directives
43 Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration
45 Identification and registration marking
47 Aircraft registration
49 Recording of aircraft titles and security documents
50-59 [Reserved]

1: General Information 31
Subchapter D—Airmen
60 Flight simulation training device initial and continuing qualification
and use
61 Certification: Pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors
63 Certification: Flight crewmembers other than pilots
65 Certification: Airmen other than flight crewmembers
67 Medical standards and certification

Subchapter E—Airspace
71 Designation of class A, class B, class C, class D, and class E
airspace areas; airways; routes; and reporting points
73 Special use airspace
75 [Reserved]
77 Safe, efficient use, and preservation of the navigable airspace

Subchapter F—Air Traffic and General Operating Rules

91 General operating and flight rules
93 Special air traffic rules
95 IFR altitudes
97 Standard instrument approach procedures
99 Security control of air traffic
101 Moored balloons, kites, amateur rockets and unmanned free
balloons
103 Ultralight vehicles
105 Parachute operations
106–109 [Reserved]

Subchapter G— Air Carriers and Operators for Compensation or Hire:

Certification and Operations
110 General requirements
111–118 [Reserved]
119 Certification: Air carriers and commercial operators
120 Drug and alcohol testing program
121 Operating requirements: Domestic, flag, and supplemental
operations
125 Certification and operations: Airplanes having a seating capacity of
20 or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6,000
pounds or more; and rules governing persons on board such aircraft
129 Operations: Foreign air carriers and foreign operators of
U.S.-registered aircraft engaged in common carriage
133 Rotorcraft external-load operations
135 Operating requirements: Commuter and on-demand operations
and rules governing persons on board such aircraft
136 Commercial air tours and national parks air tour management

32 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 137 Agricultural aircraft operations
139 Certification of airports

1.6
Subchapter H—Schools and Other Certificated Agencies
140 [Reserved]
141 Pilot schools
142 Training centers
143 [Reserved]
145 Repair stations
147 Aviation maintenance technician schools

Subchapter I—Airports
150 Airport noise compatibility planning
151 Federal aid to airports
152 Airport aid program
153 Airport operations
155 Release of airport property from surplus property disposal
restrictions
156 State block grant pilot program
157 Notice of construction, alteration, activation, and deactivation of
airports
158 Passenger facility charges (PFCs)
161 Notice and approval of airport noise and access restrictions
169 Expenditure of Federal funds for nonmilitary airports or air navigation
facilities thereon

Subchapter J—Navigational Facilities

170 Establishment and discontinuance criteria for air traffic control
services and navigational facilities
171 Non-Federal navigation facilities

Subchapter K—Administrative Regulations

183 Representatives of the Administrator
185 Testimony by employees and production of records in legal
proceedings, and service of legal process and pleadings
187 Fees
189 Use of Federal Aviation Administration communications system
193 Protection of voluntarily submitted information

Subchapters L through M [Reserved]

Subchapter N—War Risk Insurance

198 Aviation insurance

1: General Information 33
1.7 Standard Taxi Signals

1.7
Signalman’s position Signalman directs towing

Flagman Proceed straight Stop Cut

directs pilot ahead engines

Start engines Pull chocks Insert Slow down

chocks

All clear (O.K.) Left turn Right turn Night

operation

34 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 2: Physical and Chemical

2
Periodic Table of Elements 36

2.1 Temperature Conversion 37

2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere 43

2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the Chemical Elements 44

2.4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids 47

2.5 Hydraulic Relationships 48

2.6 Quantity of Liquid in a Drum 50

2: Physical and Chemical 35

36
P
e Periodic Table of Elements
r
i
o
d Light Metals Heavy Metals Nonmetals Inert
s IA II A III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII IB II B III A IV A VA VI A VII A Gases
1 2
1 H 4 Atomic number He
1.00797 Be Symbol 4.0026
3 4 9.0122 Atomic weight 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Transition Elements B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.0122 10.811 12.01115 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 20.179
11 12 Group VIII
13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Aviation Mechanic Handbook

22.9898 24.305 26.9815 28.086 30.9736 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996 54.94 55.847 58.9332 58.70 63.54 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.905 91.22 92.906 95.94 (97) 101.07 102.905 106.4 107.868 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.9045 131.30
55 56 57* 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.09 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89**
7 Fr Ra Ac
(223) 226.02 (227) Atomic weights in ( ) are mass numbers of most stable isotope of that element.

* 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Rare Lathanide Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Series 140.12 140.907 144.24 (145) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.97
Earth
** 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Elements Actinide Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Series 232.038 231.0359 238.03 237.0482 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (254) (257) (258) (259) (260)
2.1 Temperature Conversion

2 .1
To convert between the temperature scales, use these formulas:

Fahrenheit to Celsius:

°F = 1.8 × °C + 32
or
(9 × °C) + 32
°F =
5

Celsius to Fahrenheit:

°F – 32
°C =
1.8
or
5(°F – 32)
°C =
9

For interpolation, 1°C = 1.8°F

°C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

-73.3 -100 -148.0 -23.3 -10 14.0

-70.6 -95 -139.0 -20.6 -5 23.0
-67.8 -90 -130.0 -18.3 -1 30.2
-65.0 -85 -121.0 -17.8 0 32.0
-62.2 -80 -112.0 -17.2 1 33.8
-59.4 -75 -103.0 -16.7 2 35.6
-56.7 -70 -94.0 -16.1 3 37.4
-53.9 -65 -85.0 -15.6 4 39.2
-51.1 -60 -76.0 -15.0 5 41.0
-48.3 -55 -67.0 -14.4 6 42.8
-45.6 -50 -58.0 -13.9 7 44.6
-42.8 -45 -49.0 -13.3 8 46.4
-40.0 -40 -40.0 -12.8 9 48.2
-37.2 -35 -31.0 -12.2 10 50.0
-34.4 -30 -22.0 -11.7 11 51.8
-31.7 -25 -13.0 -11.1 12 53.6
-28.9 -20 -4.0 -10.6 13 55.4
-26.1 -15 5.0 -10.0 14 57.2

2: Physical and Chemical 37

 °C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

-9.4 15 59.0 14.4 58 136.4

-8.9 16 60.8 15.0 59 138.2
-8.3 17 62.6 15.6 60 140.0
-7.8 18 64.4 16.1 61 141.8
-7.2 19 66.2 16.7 62 143.6
-6.7 20 68.0 17.2 63 145.4
-6.1 21 69.8 17.8 64 147.2
-5.6 22 71.6 18.3 65 149.0
-5.0 23 73.4 18.9 66 150.8
-4.4 24 75.2 19.4 67 152.6
-3.9 25 77.0 20.0 68 154.4
-3.3 26 78.8 20.6 69 156.2
-2.8 27 80.6 21.1 70 158.0
-2.2 28 82.4 21.7 71 159.8
-1.7 29 84.2 22.2 72 161.6
-1.1 30 86.0 22.8 73 163.4
-0.6 31 87.8 23.3 74 165.2
0.0 32 89.6 23.9 75 167.0
0.6 33 91.4 24.4 76 168.8
1.1 34 93.2 25.0 77 170.6
1.7 35 95.0 25.6 78 172.4
2.2 36 96.8 26.1 79 174.2
2.8 37 98.6 26.7 80 176.0
3.3 38 100.4 27.2 81 177.8
3.9 39 102.2 27.8 82 179.6
4.4 40 104.0 28.3 83 181.4
5.0 41 105.8 28.9 84 183.2
5.6 42 107.6 29.4 85 185.0
6.1 43 109.4 30.0 86 186.8
6.7 44 111.2 30.6 87 188.6
7.2 45 113.0 31.1 88 190.4
7.8 46 114.8 31.7 89 192.2
8.3 47 116.6 32.2 90 194.0
8.9 48 118.4 32.8 91 195.8
9.4 49 120.2 33.3 92 197.6
10.0 50 122.0 33.9 93 199.4
10.6 51 123.8 34.4 94 201.2
11.1 52 125.6 35.0 95 203.0
11.7 53 127.4 35.6 96 204.8
12.2 54 129.2 36.1 97 206.6
12.8 55 131.0 36.7 98 208.4
13.3 56 132.8 37.2 99 210.2
13.9 57 134.6 37.8 100 212.0

38 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

°C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

38.3 101 213.8 62.2 144 291.2

38.9 102 215.6 62.8 145 293.0

2 .1
39.4 103 217.4 63.3 146 294.8
40.0 104 219.2 63.9 147 296.6
40.6 105 221.0 64.4 148 298.4
41.1 106 222.8 65.0 149 300.2
41.7 107 224.6 65.6 150 302.0
42.2 108 226.4 66.1 151 303.8
42.8 109 228.2 66.7 152 305.6
43.3 110 230.0 67.2 153 307.4
43.9 111 231.8 67.8 154 309.2
44.4 112 233.6 68.3 155 311.0
45.0 113 235.4 68.9 156 312.8
45.6 114 237.2 69.4 157 314.6
46.1 115 239.0 70.0 158 316.4
46.7 116 240.8 70.6 159 318.2
47.2 117 242.6 71.1 160 320.0
47.8 118 244.4 71.7 161 321.8
48.3 119 246.2 72.2 162 323.6
48.9 120 248.0 72.8 163 325.4
49.4 121 249.8 73.3 164 327.2
50.0 122 251.6 73.9 165 329.0
50.6 123 253.4 74.4 166 330.8
51.1 124 255.2 75.0 167 332.6
51.7 125 257.0 75.6 168 334.4
52.2 126 258.8 76.1 169 336.2
52.8 127 260.6 76.7 170 338.0
53.3 128 262.4 77.2 171 339.8
53.9 129 264.2 77.8 172 341.6
54.4 130 266.0 78.3 173 343.4
55.0 131 267.8 78.9 174 345.2
55.6 132 269.6 79.4 175 347.0
56.1 133 271.4 80.0 176 348.8
56.7 134 273.2 80.6 177 350.6
57.2 135 275.0 81.1 178 352.4
57.8 136 276.8 81.7 179 354.2
58.3 137 278.6 82.2 180 356.0
58.9 138 280.4 82.8 181 357.8
59.4 139 282.2 83.3 182 359.6
60.0 140 284.0 83.9 183 361.4
60.6 141 285.8 84.4 184 363.2
61.1 142 287.6 85.0 185 365.0
61.7 143 289.4 85.6 186 366.8

2: Physical and Chemical 39

 °C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

86.1 187 368.6 132.2 270 518.0

86.7 188 370.4 135.0 275 527.0
87.2 189 372.2 137.8 280 536.0
87.8 190 374.0 140.6 285 545.0
88.3 191 375.8 143.3 290 554.0
88.9 192 377.6 146.1 295 563.0
89.4 193 379.4 148.9 300 572.0
90.0 194 381.2 154.4 310 590.0
90.6 195 383.0 160.0 320 608.0
91.1 196 384.8 165.6 330 626.0
91.7 197 386.6 171.1 340 644.0
92.2 198 388.4 176.7 350 662.0
92.8 199 390.2 182.2 360 680.0
93.3 200 392.0 187.8 370 698.0
93.9 201 393.8 193.3 380 716.0
94.4 202 395.6 198.9 390 734.0
95.0 203 397.4 204.4 400 752.0
95.6 204 399.2 210.0 410 770.0
96.1 205 401.0 215.6 420 788.0
96.7 206 402.8 221.1 430 806.0
97.2 207 404.6 226.7 440 824.0
97.8 208 406.4 232.2 450 842.0
98.3 209 408.2 237.8 460 860.0
98.9 210 410.0 243.3 470 878.0
99.4 211 411.8 248.9 480 896.0
100.0 212 413.6 254.4 490 914.0
100.6 213 415.4 260.0 500 932.0
101.1 214 417.2 265.6 510 950.0
101.7 215 419.0 271.1 520 968.0
102.2 216 420.8 276.7 530 986.0
102.8 217 422.6 282.2 540 1004.0
103.3 218 424.4 287.8 550 1022.0
103.9 219 426.2 293.3 560 1040.0
104.4 220 428.0 298.9 570 1058.0
107.2 225 437.0 304.4 580 1076.0
110.0 230 446.0 310.0 590 1094.0
112.8 235 455.0 315.6 600 1112.0
115.6 240 464.0 321.1 610 1130.0
118.3 245 473.0 326.7 620 1148.0
121.1 250 482.0 332.2 630 1166.0
123.9 255 491.0 337.8 640 1184.0
126.7 260 500.0 343.3 650 1202.0
129.4 265 509.0 348.9 660 1220.0

40 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 °C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

354.4 670 1238.0 648.9 1200 2192.0

360.0 680 1256.0 660.0 1220 2228.0

2 .1
365.6 690 1274.0 671.1 1240 2264.0
371.1 700 1292.0 682.2 1260 2300.0
376.7 710 1310.0 693.3 1280 2336.0
382.2 720 1328.0 704.4 1300 2372.0
387.8 730 1346.0 715.6 1320 2408.0
393.3 740 1364.0 726.7 1340 2444.0
398.9 750 1382.0 737.8 1360 2480.0
404.4 760 1400.0 748.9 1380 2516.0
410.0 770 1418.0 760.0 1400 2552.0
415.6 780 1436.0 771.1 1420 2588.0
421.1 790 1454.0 782.2 1440 2624.0
426.7 800 1472.0 793.3 1460 2660.0
432.2 810 1490.0 804.4 1480 2696.0
437.8 820 1508.0 815.6 1500 2732.0
443.3 830 1526.0 826.7 1520 2768.0
448.9 840 1544.0 837.8 1540 2804.0
454.4 850 1562.0 848.9 1560 2840.0
460.0 860 1580.0 860.0 1580 2876.0
465.6 870 1598.0 871.1 1600 2912.0
471.1 880 1616.0 882.2 1620 2948.0
476.7 890 1634.0 893.3 1640 2984.0
482.2 900 1652.0 904.4 1660 3020.0
487.8 910 1670.0 915.6 1680 3056.0
493.3 920 1688.0 926.7 1700 3092.0
498.9 930 1706.0 937.8 1720 3128.0
504.4 940 1724.0 948.9 1740 3164.0
510.0 950 1742.0 960.0 1760 3200.0
515.6 960 1760.0 971.1 1780 3236.0
521.1 970 1778.0 982.2 1800 3272.0
526.7 980 1796.0 993.3 1820 3308.0
532.2 990 1814.0 1004.4 1840 3344.0
537.8 1000 1832.0 1015.6 1860 3380.0
548.9 1020 1868.0 1026.7 1880 3416.0
560.0 1040 1904.0 1037.8 1900 3452.0
571.1 1060 1940.0 1048.9 1920 3488.0
582.2 1080 1976.0 1060.0 1940 3524.0
593.3 1100 2012.0 1071.1 1960 3560.0
604.4 1120 2048.0 1082.2 1980 3596.0
615.6 1140 2084.0 1093.3 2000 3632.0
626.7 1160 2120.0 1104.4 2020 3668.0
637.8 1180 2156.0 1115.6 2040 3704.0

2: Physical and Chemical 41

 °C ← °F °C → °F °C ← °F °C → °F

1126.7 2060 3740.0 1360.0 2480 4496.0

1137.8 2080 3776.0 1371.1 2500 4532.0
1148.9 2100 3812.0 1382.2 2520 4568.0
1160.0 2120 3848.0 1393.3 2540 4604.0
1171.1 2140 3884.0 1404.4 2560 4640.0
1182.2 2160 3920.0 1415.6 2580 4676.0
1193.3 2180 3956.0 1426.7 2600 4712.0
1204.4 2200 3992.0 1437.8 2620 4748.0
1215.6 2220 4028.0 1448.9 2640 4784.0
1226.7 2240 4064.0 1460.0 2660 4820.0
1237.8 2260 4100.0 1471.1 2680 4856.0
1248.9 2280 4136.0 1482.2 2700 4892.0
1260.0 2300 4172.0 1493.3 2720 4928.0
1271.1 2320 4208.0 1504.4 2740 4964.0
1282.2 2340 4244.0 1515.6 2760 5000.0
1293.3 2360 4280.0 1526.7 2780 5036.0
1304.4 2380 4316.0 1537.8 2800 5072.0
1315.6 2400 4352.0 1565.6 2850 5162.0
1326.7 2420 4388.0 1593.3 2900 5252.0
1337.8 2440 4424.0 1621.1 2950 5342.0
1348.9 2460 4460.0 1648.9 3000 5432.0

Absolute Temperature
The Kelvin temperature scale uses the same graduations as are used in the
Celsius scale. Zero degrees Kelvin (0°K) is absolute zero, and is equal to
-273°C.

°K = °C + 273
and
°C = °K – 273

The Rankine temperature scale uses the same graduations as are used in
the Fahrenheit scale. Zero degrees Rankine (0°R) is absolute zero, and is
equal to -460°F.

°R = °F + 460
and
°F = °R – 460

42 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere

2 .2
Altitude Temperature Pressure Speed of Sound
Feet °F °C In. Hg Knots
–2,000 66.10 19.0 32.15 666.0
–1,000 62.50 17.0 31.01 663.7
0 59.00 15.0 29.92 661.7
1,000 55.43 13.0 28.86 659.5
2,000 51.87 11.0 27.82 657.2
3,000 48.30 9.1 26.82 654.9
4,000 44.74 7.1 25.84 652.6
5,000 41.17 5.1 24.90 650.3
6,000 37.60 3.1 23.98 647.9
7,000 34.04 1.1 23.09 645.6
8,000 30.47 -0.8 22.23 643.3
9,000 26.90 -2.8 21.39 640.9
10,000 23.34 -4.8 20.58 638.6
15,000 5.51 -14.7 16.89 626.7
20,000 -12.32 -24.6 13.75 614.6
25,000 -30.15 -34.5 11.12 602.2
30,000 -47.90 -44.4 8.885 589.5
35,000 -65.82 -54.2 7.041 576.6

*36,089 -69.70 -56.5 6.683 573.8

40,000 -69.70 -56.5 5.558 573.8

45,000 -69.70 -56.5 4.355 573.8
50,000 -69.70 -56.5 3.425 573.8
55,000 -69.70 -56.5 2.693 573.8
60,000 -69.70 -56.5 2.118 573.8
65,000 -69.70 -56.5 1.665 573.8
70,000 -69.70 -56.5 1.310 573.8
75,000 -69.70 -56.5 1.030 573.8
80,000 -69.70 -56.5 0.810 573.8
85,000 -64.80 -53.8 0.637 577.4
90,000 -56.57 -49.2 0.504 583.4
95,000 -48.34 -44.6 0.400 589.3
100,000 -40.11 -40.1 0.320 595.2

*Geopotential of the tropopause

2: Physical and Chemical 43

2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the
Chemical Elements
Atomic Element Symbol Atomic Shells
Number Weight k l m n o p q
1 Hydrogen H 1.00797 1
2 Helium He 4.0026 2
3 Lithium Li 6.941 2 1
4 Beryllium Be 9.0122 2 2
5 Boron B 10.811 2 3
6 Carbon C 12.01115 2 4
7 Nitrogen N 14.0067 2 5
8 Oxygen O 15.9994 2 7
9 Fluorine F 18.9984 2 7
10 Neon Ne 20.179 2 8
11 Sodium Na 22.9898 2 8 1
12 Magnesium Mg 24.305 2 8 2
13 Aluminum Al 26.9815 2 8 3
14 Silicon Si 28.086 2 8 4
15 Phosphorus P 30.9736 2 8 5
16 Sulfur S 32.064 2 8 6
17 Chlorine Cl 35.453 2 8 7
18 Argon Ar 39.948 2 8 8
19 Potassium K 39.0983 2 8 8 1
20 Calcium Ca 40.08 2 8 8 2
21 Scandium Sc 44.956 2 8 9 2
22 Titanium Ti 47.90 2 8 10 2
23 Vanadium V 50.942 2 8 11 2
24 Chromium Cr 51.996 2 8 13 1
25 Manganese Mn 54.94 2 8 13 2
26 Iron Fe 55.847 2 8 14 2
27 Cobalt Co 58.9332 2 8 15 2
28 Nickel Ni 58.70 2 8 16 2
29 Copper Cu 63.54 2 8 18 1
30 Zinc Zn 65.38 2 8 18 2
31 Gallium Ga 69.72 2 8 18 3
32 Germanium Ge 72.59 2 8 18 4
33 Arsenic As 74.9216 2 8 18 5
34 Selenium Se 78.96 2 8 18 6
35 Bromine Br 79.904 2 8 18 7
36 Krypton Kr 83.80 2 8 18 8
37 Rubidium Rb 85.4678 2 8 18 8 1
38 Strontium Sr 87.62 2 8 18 8 2
39 Yttrium Y 88.905 2 8 18 9 2

44 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Atomic Element Symbol Atomic Shells
Number Weight k l m n o p q
40 Zirconium Zr 91.22 2 8 18 10 2
41 Niobium Nb 92.906 2 8 18 12 1

2 .3
42 Molybdenum Mo 95.94 2 8 18 13 1
43 Technetium Tc (97) 2 8 18 14 1
44 Ruthenium Ru 101.07 2 8 18 15 1
45 Rhodium Rh 102.905 2 8 18 16 1
46 Palladium Pd 106.4 2 8 18 18 0
47 Silver Ag 107.868 2 8 18 18 1
48 Cadmium Cd 112.41 2 8 18 18 2
49 Indium In 114.82 2 8 18 18 3
50 Tin Sn 118.69 2 8 18 18 4
51 Antimony Sb 121.75 2 8 18 18 5
52 Tellurium Te 127.60 2 8 18 18 6
53 Iodine I 126.9045 2 8 18 18 7
54 Xenon Xe 131.30 2 8 18 18 8
55 Cesium Cs 132.905 2 8 18 18 8 1
56 Barium Ba 137.34 2 8 18 18 8 2
57 Lanthanum La 138.91 2 8 18 18 9 2
58 Cerium Ce 140.12 2 8 18 20 8 2
59 Praseodymium Pr 140.907 2 8 18 21 8 2
60 Neodymium Nd 144.24 2 8 18 22 8 2
61 Promethium Pm (145) 2 8 18 23 8 2
62 Samarium Sm 150.35 2 8 18 24 8 2
63 Europium Eu 151.96 2 8 18 25 8 2
64 Gadolinium Gd 157.25 2 8 18 25 9 2
65 Terbium Tb 158.925 2 8 18 27 8 2
66 Dysprosium Dy 162.50 2 8 18 28 8 2
67 Holmium Ho 164.930 2 8 18 29 8 2
68 Erbium Er 167.26 2 8 18 30 8 2
69 Thulium Tm 168.934 2 8 18 31 8 2
70 Ytterbium Yb 173.04 2 8 18 32 8 2
71 Lutetium Lu 174.97 2 8 18 32 9 2
72 Hafnium Hf 178.49 2 8 18 32 10 2
73 Tantalum Ta 180.948 2 8 18 32 11 2
74 Tungsten W 183.85 2 8 18 32 12 2
75 Rhenium Re 186.2 2 8 18 32 13 2
76 Osmium Os 190.2 2 8 18 32 14 2
77 Iridium Ir 192.2 2 8 18 32 17 0
78 Platinum Pt 195.09 2 8 18 32 17 1
79 Gold Au 196.967 2 8 18 32 18 1
80 Mercury Hg 200.59 2 8 18 32 18 2
81 Thallium Tl 204.37 2 8 18 32 18 3
82 Lead Pb 207.19 2 8 18 32 18 4

2: Physical and Chemical 45

Atomic Element Symbol Atomic Shells
Number Weight k l m n o p q
83 Bismuth Bi 208.980 2 8 18 32 18 5
84 Polonium Po (209) 2 8 18 32 18 6
85 Astatine At (210) 2 8 18 32 18 7
86 Radon Rn (222) 2 8 18 32 18 8
87 Francium Fr (223) 2 8 18 32 18 8 1
88 Radium Ra 226.02 2 8 18 32 18 8 2
89 Actinium Ac (227) 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
90 Thorium Th 232.038 2 8 18 32 18 10 2
91 Protactinium Pa 231.0359 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
92 Uranium U 238.03 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
93 Neptunium Np 237.0482 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
94 Plutonium Pu (244) 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
95 Americium Am (243) 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
96 Curium Cm (247) 2 8 18 32 25 9 2
97 Berkelium Bk (247) 2 8 18 32 26 9 2
98 Californium Cf (251) 2 8 18 32 27 9 2
99 Einsteinium Es (254) 2 8 18 32 28 9 2
100 Fermium Fm (257) 2 8 18 32 29 9 2
101 Mendelvium Md (258) 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
102 Nobelium No (259) 2 8 18 32 31 9 2
103 Lawrencium Lr (262) 2 8 18 32 32 9 2

Values in parentheses give the atomic mass number of the isotope of longest
half-life.

46 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

2.4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids

2.4
Substance Specific Pounds / Pounds /
Gravity Cubic Foot Gallon
Cork 0.22 13.7
Gasoline 0.72 44.9 6.02
JP-4 0.79 49.0 6.60
Alcohol (methyl) 0.81 50.5 6.76
JP-5 0.82 51.2 6.84
Kerosine 0.82 51.2 6.84
Oil (Petroleum) 0.89 55.5 7.43
Ice 0.92 57.4
Oil (Synthetic) 0.93 58.0 7.76
Water (fresh) 1.00 62.4 8.35
Water (sea) 1.03 64.3 8.60
Ethylene Glycol 1.12 69.9 9.35
Sugar 1.59 99.2
Carbon Tetrachloride 1.60 99.8 13.36
Magnesium 1.74 108.6
Salt 2.18 136.0
Aluminum 2.70 168.5
Zinc 7.10 443.0
Steel 7.83 488.6
Iron 7.90 493.0
Brass 8.65 539.8
Copper 8.95 558.5
Lead 11.37 709.5
Mercury 13.55 845.6 113.14
Gold 19.31 1,204.9

Density of Various Gases

Gas Specific Pounds /
Gravity Cubic Foot
Hydrogen 0.073 0.00561
Helium 0.146 0.01114
Air 1.000 0.07651
Nitrogen 1.020 0.07807
Oxygen 1.166 0.08921
Carbon Dioxide 1.613 0.12341

2: Physical and Chemical 47

2.5 Hydraulic Relationships

Relationships exist between pressure, area, and volume in a hydraulic

actuator that allow us to find the value of any one of them when the other two
are known. Circle graphs make it easy for us to visualize the way to find the
desired value.
To find the value of the shaded area, multiply the other two if they are both
below the horizontal line. Divide if they are separated by the horizontal line.
The amount of force produced by a hydraulic actuator can be found by
multiplying the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi), by the area of the
piston in square inches.

F
F=PxA
A P

The area of a piston needed to produce a given amount of force can be

found by dividing the force, in pounds, by the pressure of the hydraulic fluid
in psi.

F
A= F
A P P

The amount of pressure needed for a piston having a given area (in square
inches) to produce a known force may be found by dividing the amount of
force by the area of the piston.

F
P= F
A P A

Relationships exist between the volume of fluid moved by a piston in a cylin-

der, the area of the piston, and the distance the piston moves. Circle graphs
make it easy for us to visualize the way to find the desired value.

48 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 D = 4 in.

A = 2 sq. in.

2.5
V V = AxD

A D = 2x4
V = 8 cu. in.
= 8 cu. in.

The volume of fluid, in cubic inches, moved by a piston is found by multiply-

ing the area of the piston in square inches, by the distance the piston has
moved in inches.

A=V
D
V
8
=
A D 4
= 2 sq. in.

The area of a piston needed to move a given quantity of fluid is found by

dividing the volume of the fluid by the distance the piston moves.

A=V
A
V
8
=
A D 2
= 4 inches

The distance that a piston with a given area must move to displace a given
volume of fluid is found by dividing the volume of the fluid by the area of the
piston.

2: Physical and Chemical 49

2.6 Quantity of Liquid in a Drum

Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon Drum

Drum Upright Drum On Its Side

Depth of Gallons Depth of Gallons
Liquid (inches) (approx.) Liquid (inches) (approx.)

31 54.0 20 55.0
30 52.0 19 52.5
29 50.0 18 50.0
28 48.5 17 47.5
27 47.0 16 44.5
26 45.0 15 41.5
25 43.5 14 38.5
24 41.5 13 35.0
23 40.0 12 32.0
22 38.0 11 28.5
21 36.5 10 25.0
20 34.5 9 22.0
19 33.0 8 18.5
18 31.5 7 15.5
17 29.5 6 12.5
16 27.5 5 9.5
15 26.0 4 7.0
14 24.5 3 4.5
13 22.5 2 2.5
12 21.0 1 0.8
11 19.0
10 17.5
9 15.5
8 14.0
7 12.0
6 10.5
5 8.5
4 7.0
3 5.0
2 3.5
1 2.0

50 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 3: Mathematics

3
3.1 Measurement Systems 53

3.2 Mathematical Constants 56

3.3 Mathematical Symbols 57

3.4 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers 58

3.5 Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle 61

3.6 Geometric Formulas 64

3.7 Trigonometric Functions 67

3.8 Powers of Ten 71

3.9 Number Systems 74

3: Mathematics 51
52 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
3.1 Measurement Systems

There are two systems of measurement used in the United States: the U.S.
Customary system (U.S.), and the metric system.
The U.S. Customary system was mainly derived from the British Imperial

3 .1
system in which there is no correlation between the units, and the basis of
many are arbitrary. However, they have been used for so long that most of us
are familiar with them. The metric system, on the other hand, is based upon
absolute and repeatable physical factors. The sizes of the units change in
multiples of 10.
The metric system had its start in France late in the eighteenth century
when the unit of length, the meter, was accepted as being equal to one ten-
millionth of the length of the arc from the equator to the North Pole. The unit
of mass was the kilogram which was equal to the mass of water contained in
a cube whose length, width, and height are one tenth of a meter.
The metric system spread slowly from France to other European
countries. In the United States, in July of 1866, legislation was signed into
law authorizing, but not mandating the use of the metric system. More than
one hundred years later, in 1968, Congress authorized an intensive study to
determine the advantages and disadvantages of increased use in the U.S. of
the metric system. In 1975 the U.S. Metric Board was established to coordi-
nate the voluntary conversion to the metric system.
The Omnibus Trade Bill passed in 1988 required most federal agencies
to convert to metric units in their activities by 1992.
Enthusiastic adoption of the metric system in the U.S. has been slow
because of the tremendous amount of machinery and equipment in use that
was built to U.S. dimensions. However, the increase in international trade has
caused many U.S. manufacturers to include both U.S. and metric dimensions
in their service literature. The popularity of foreign automobiles in the U.S.
has increased the familiarity of most Americans with metric dimensions. Most
professional mechanics and technicians now have two sets of hand tools,
one U.S. and the other metric.

The International System of Units (SI)

The International System of Units is founded on seven base units:
length ..................................... meter
mass ...................................... kilogram
time ........................................ second
electrical current .................... ampere
temperature ........................... °Kelvin
amount of substance ............. mole
luminous intensity .................. candela

3: Mathematics 53
These units make up a complete set from which all other units of
measurement can be derived.

The Metric System

The metric system is based upon dividing and multiplying the standard units
by the powers of 10 and giving each a name indicating its value.

Prefix Symbol Power

exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 10 9
mega M 10 6
kilo k 103
hecto h 10 2
deka da 101
UNIT
deci d 10 –1
centi c 10 –2
mili m 10 –3
micro m 10 –6
nano n 10 –9
pico p 10 –12
femto f 10 –15
atto a 10 –18

U.S. – Metric Conversion

The basis of many units in the U.S. system are arbitrary and are not repro-
ducible. But by relating them to one of the units in the SI system, they are
traceable back to a reproducible basic unit.

Length
1 inch 2.54 centimeters
1 foot 12 inches 30.48 centimeters
1 yard 3 feet 0.9144 meter
1 statute mile 5,280 feet 1.609 kilometers
1 nautical mile 6,076 feet 1.852 kilometers

54 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Weight
1 ounce 28.3495 gram
1 pound 16 ounces 0.4536 kilogram
1 ton 2,000 pounds 907.2 kilograms

Volume
1 cubic inch 16.39 cubic centimeters

3 .1
1 cubic inch 0.01639 liter
1 U.S. gallon 231 cubic inches 3.785 liters
1 Imperial gallon 1.2 U.S. gallons 4.542 liters

3: Mathematics 55
3.2 Mathematical Constants

π = 3.1416 4π = 12.5664
π 2= 9.8696 π = 1.5708
2
π 3 = 31.0063 π
1 = 0.3183 2 = 1.253
π
2 = 1.4142
1 = 0.1013
π2 3 = 1.7321
1
π = 1.7725 = 0.7071
2
1 = 0.5642
π 1
3 = 0.5773
1 = 0.1592
log π = 0.4971
2π
1 2 log π2 = 0.9943
= 0.0253
2π log π = 0.2486
2π = 6.2832
log π = 1.5708
2 2
2π = 39.4784

56 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

3.3 Mathematical Symbols

+ Plus, or positive
– Minus, or negative

3 .3
x or . Multiplied by
÷ Divided by
= Equal to
≠ Not equal to
∼
= Approximately equal to
≥ Greater than or equal to
≤ Less than or equal to
≡ Identical with
> Greater than
< Less than
|| Parallel with
Perpendicular to
± Plus or minus
∞ Infinity
Increment
a Square root of a
3
a Cube root of a
|a| Absolute value of a
Angle
Therefore
There exists
: Ratio

3: Mathematics 57
3.4 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots
of Numbers

Number Square Square Root Cube Cube Root

1 1 1.0000 1 1.0000
2 4 1.4142 8 1.2599
3 9 1.7321 27 1.4423
4 16 2.0000 64 1.5874
5 25 2.2361 125 1.7110
6 36 2.4495 216 1.8171
7 49 2.6458 343 1.9129
8 64 2.8284 512 2.0000
9 81 3.0000 729 2.0801
10 100 3.1623 1,000 2.1544
11 121 3.3166 1,331 2.2240
12 144 3.4641 1,728 2.2894
13 169 3.6056 2,197 2.3513
14 196 3.7417 2,744 2.4101
15 225 3.8730 3,375 2.4662
16 256 4.0000 4,096 2.5198
17 289 4.1232 4,913 2.5713
18 324 4.2426 5,832 2.6207
19 361 4.3589 6,859 2.6684
20 400 4.4721 8,000 2.7144
21 441 4.5826 9,261 2.7589
22 484 4.6904 10,648 2.8020
23 529 4.7958 12,167 2.8439
24 576 4.8990 13,824 2.8845
25 625 5.0000 15,625 2.9240
26 676 5.0990 17,576 2.9625
27 729 5.1962 19,683 3.0000
28 784 5.2915 21,952 3.0366
29 841 5.3852 24,389 3.0723
30 900 5.4772 27,000 3.1072
31 961 5.5678 29,791 3.1414
32 1,024 5.6569 32,768 3.1748
33 1,089 5.7446 35,937 3.2075
34 1,156 5.8310 39,304 3.2396
35 1,225 5.9161 42,875 3.2711
36 1,296 6.0000 46,656 3.3019
37 1,369 6.0828 50,653 3.3322
38 1,444 6.1644 54,872 3.3620
39 1,521 6.2450 59,319 3.3912

58 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Number Square Square Root Cube Cube Root
40 1,600 6.3246 64,000 3.4200
41 1,681 6.4031 68,921 3.4482
42 1,764 6.4807 74,088 3.4760
43 1,849 6.5574 79,507 3.5034
44 1,936 6.6333 85,184 3.5303
45 2,025 6.7082 91,125 3.5569

3.4
46 2,116 6.7823 97,336 3.5830
47 2,206 6.8557 103,823 3.6088
48 2,304 6.9282 110,592 3.6342
49 2,401 7.0000 117,649 3.6593
50 2,500 7.0711 125,000 3.6840
51 2,601 7.1414 132,651 3.7084
52 2,704 7.2111 140,608 3.7325
53 2,809 7.2801 148,877 3.7563
54 2,916 7.3485 157,464 3.7798
55 3,025 7.4162 166,375 3.8030
56 3,136 7.4833 175,616 3.8259
57 3,249 7.5498 185,193 3.8485
58 3,364 7.6158 195,112 3.8709
59 3,481 7.6811 205,379 3.8930
60 3,600 7.7460 216,000 3.9149
61 3,721 7.8103 226,981 3.9365
62 3,844 7.8740 238,328 3.9579
63 3,969 7.9373 250,047 3.9791
64 4,096 8.0000 262,144 4.0000
65 4,225 8.0623 274,625 4.0207
66 4,356 8.1240 287,496 4.0412
67 4,489 8.1854 300,763 4.0615
68 4,624 8.2462 314,432 4.0817
69 4,761 8.3066 328,509 4.1016
70 4,900 8.3666 343,000 4.1213
71 5,041 8.4262 357,911 4.1408
72 5,184 8.4853 373,248 4.1602
73 5,329 8.5440 389,017 4.1793
74 5,476 8.6023 405,224 4.1983
75 5,625 8.6603 421,875 4.2172
76 5,776 8.7178 438,976 4.2358
77 5,929 8.7750 456,533 4.2543
78 6,084 8.8318 474,552 4.2727
79 6,241 8.8882 493,039 4.2908
80 6,400 8.9443 512,000 4.3089
81 6,561 9.0000 531,441 4.3267
82 6,724 9.0554 551,368 4.3445
83 6,889 9.1104 571,787 4.3621

3: Mathematics 59
Number Square Square Root Cube Cube Root
84 7,056 9.1652 592,704 4.3795
85 7,225 9.2195 614,125 4.3968
86 7,396 9.2736 636,056 4.4140
87 7,569 9.3274 658,503 4.4310
88 7,744 9.3808 681,472 4.4480
89 7,921 9.4340 704,969 4.4647
90 8,100 9.4868 729,000 4.4814
91 8,281 9.5394 753,571 4.4979
92 8,464 9.5917 778,688 4.5144
93 8,649 9.6437 804,357 4.5307
94 8,836 9.6954 830,584 4.5468
95 9,025 9.7468 857,375 4.5629
96 9,216 9.7980 884,736 4.5789
97 9,409 9.8489 912,673 4.5947
98 9,604 9.8995 941,192 4.6104
99 9,801 9.9499 970,299 4.6261
100 10,000 10.0000 1,000,000 4.6416

60 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

3.5 Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle

Diameter Circumference Area

Units Units Square Units
1 3.1416 0.7854

3.5
2 6.2832 3.1416
3 9.4248 7.0686
4 12.5664 12.566
5 15.7080 19.635
6 18.8496 28.274
7 21.9911 38.485
8 25.1327 50.265
9 28.2743 63.617
10 31.4159 78.540
11 34.5575 95.033
12 37.6991 113.10
13 40.8407 132.73
14 43.9823 153.94
15 47.1239 176.71
16 50.2655 201.06
17 53.4071 226.98
18 56.5487 254.47
19 59.6903 283.53
20 62.8319 314.16
21 65.9735 346.36
22 69.1150 380.13
23 72.2566 415.48
24 75.3982 452.39
25 78.5398 490.87
26 81.6814 530.93
27 84.8230 572.56
28 87.9646 615.75
29 91.1062 660.52
30 94.2478 706.86
31 97.3894 754.77
32 100.5310 804.25
33 103.6726 855.30
34 106.8142 907.92
35 109.9557 962.11
36 113.0973 1,017.88
37 116.2389 1,075.21
38 119.3805 1,134.12

3: Mathematics 61
 Diameter Circumference Area
Units Units Square Units
39 122.5221 1,194.59
40 125.6637 1,256.64
41 128.8053 1,320.25
42 131.9469 1,385.44
43 135.0885 1,452.20
44 138.2301 1,520.53
45 141.3717 1,590.43
46 144.5133 1,661.90
47 147.6549 1,734.95
48 150.7964 1,809.56
49 153.9380 1,885.74
50 157.0796 1,963.50
51 160.2212 2,042.82
52 163.3628 2,123.72
53 166.5044 2,206.18
54 169.6460 2,290.22
55 172.7876 2,375.83
56 175.9292 2,463.01
57 179.0708 2,551.76
58 182.2124 2,642.08
59 185.3540 2,733.97
60 188.4956 2,827.43
61 191.6372 2,922.47
62 194.7787 3,019.07
63 197.9203 3,117.25
64 201.0619 3,126.99
65 204.2035 3,318.31
66 207.3451 3,421.19
67 210.4867 3,525.65
68 213.6283 3,631.68
69 216.7699 3,739.28
70 219.9115 3,848.45
71 223.0531 3,959.19
72 226.1947 4,071.50
73 229.3363 4,185.39
74 232.4779 4,300.84
75 235.6194 4,417.87
76 238.7610 4,536.46
77 241.9026 4,656.63
78 245.0442 4,778.36
79 248.1858 4,901.67
80 251.3274 5,026.55
81 254.4690 5,153.00

62 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Diameter Circumference Area
Units Units Square Units
82 257.6106 5,281.02
83 260.7522 5,410.61
84 263.8938 5,541.77
85 267.0354 5,674.50
86 270.1770 5,808.81

3.5
87 273.3186 5,944.68
88 276.4602 6,082.12
89 279.6017 6,221.14
90 282.7433 6,361.73
91 285.8849 6,503.88
92 289.0265 6,647.61
93 292.1681 6,792.91
94 295.3097 6,939.78
95 298.4513 7,088.22
96 301.5929 7,283.23
97 304.7345 7,389.81
98 307.8861 7,542.96
99 311.0177 7,697.69
100 314.1593 7,853.98

3: Mathematics 63
3.6 Geometric Formulas

Triangle Parallelogram
A closed, three-sided, plane figure. A closed, four-sided, plane figure.
The sum of the angles in a triangle The opposing sides are of equal
is always equal to 180 degrees. lengths and are parallel. None of the
angles are right angles.
Area:
Area:
A=b×a
2 A=l×h

b = Length of the base l = Length of longer side

a = Altitude (height) h = Height (perpendicular distance
between the two longer sides)
Square
A closed, four-sided, plane figure. Trapezoid
All sides are of equal length and A closed, four-sided, plane figure.
the opposing sides are parallel. All Two of the opposing sides are paral-
angles are right angles. lel, but are of unequal length.

Area: Area:

A = s2 A = (a + b) × h
2
s = Length of one of the sides
a = Length of the longest parallel
Rectangle side
b = Length of the shortest parallel
A closed, four-sided, plane figure.
side
The opposing sides are of equal
h = Height (perpendicular distance
length and are parallel. All angles
between the parallel sides)
are right angles.

Area:

A=l×w

l = Length of longer side

w = Length of shorter side

64 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Regular Pentagon Circumference:
A closed, five-sided, plane figure.
All sides are of equal length, and all C=π×d
angles are equal.
π = A constant, 3.1416
Area: d = Diameter of a circle

Area:

3.6
A = 1.720 × s2

s = Length of one side A = π × r2

or
Regular Hexagon A = 0.7854 × d 2
A closed, six-sided, plane figure. All
sides are of equal length, and all π = A constant, 3.1416
angles are equal. r = Radius of a circle
d = Diameter of a circle
Area:
Ellipse
A = 2.598 × s 2 A closed, plane curve, generated by
a point moving in such a way that
s = Length of one side the sums of the distances from two
fixed points is constant.
Regular Octagon
Circumference:
A closed, eight-sided, plane figure.
All sides are of equal length, and all a2 + b2
angles are equal. C = 2π
2

A = 4.828 × s2
Area:
s = Length of one side
A = πab
Circle
A closed, curved, plane figure. Every π = A constant, 3.1416
point on the curve is an equal dis- a = Length of one of the semiaxes
tance from a point within the curve b = Length of the other semiaxis
called the center.

3: Mathematics 65
Sphere Volume:
A solid object bounded by a surface,
all points of which are a constant V=l×w×h
distance from a point within, called
the center. l = Length
w = Width
Surface area: h = Height

Cone
A = 4πr 2
A solid figure with a circular base
Volume: and sides that taper to a point.

Curved surface area:

V = 4π × r 3
3
A = πr r 2 + h2
or

V = π × d3 Volume:
6

π = A constant, 3.1416 V = π × r2h

3
r = Radius of a circle
d = Diameter of a circle π = A constant, 3.1416
r = Radius of the base
Cube h = Vertical height of the cone
A regular solid figure having six
square sides. Cylinder
A solid figure with circular ends and
Surface area: parallel sides.

A = 6 × s2 Surface area:

Volume: A=π×d×h

A = s3 Volume:

s = Length of one of the sides V = 0.7854 × d 2 × h

Rectangular Solid π = A constant, 3.1416

A solid figure with six rectangular d = Diameter of the end
sides. h = Height of the cylinder

Surface area:

A = 2 ([l × w] + [l × h] + [w × h])

66 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

3.7 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometry is based on the relationship between the angles and the lengths
of the sides of a right triangle (a triangle that contains one 90-degree angle).
Since the sum of the angles in any triangle is always 180 degrees, the

3 .7
sum of the two acute angles in a right triangle is always 90 degrees.
The functions considered are those of one of the acute angles, called
angle Ø (Theta). The side of the triangle between angle Ø and the right angle
is the side adjacent, and the side away from angle Ø is the side opposite. The
side of the triangle joining the two acute angles is called the hypotenuse.

use
po ten
Hy Side
90° Opposite
Ø

Side Adjacent

The six basic trigonometric functions, the sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent
(tan), cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and cotangent (cot) are the ratios of the
lengths of the three sides of a right triangle.

Sine (sin) Ø = side opposite

hypotenuse

Cosine (cos) Ø = side adjacent

hypotenuse

Tangent (tan) Ø = side opposite

side adjacent
1 = hypotenuse
Cosecant (csc) Ø =
sin Ø side opposite
1 = hypotenuse
Secant (sec) Ø =
cos Ø side adjacent
1 = side adjacent
Cotangent (cot) Ø =
tan Ø side opposite

3: Mathematics 67
Degrees Sines Cosines Tangents Cotangents
0° 00' 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 90° 00'
30' 0.0087 0.9999 0.0087 114.59 30'
1° 00' 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.290 89° 00'
30' 0.0262 0.9997 0.0262 38.188 30'
2° 00' 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.636 88° 00'
30' 0.0436 0.9990 0.0437 22.904 30'
3° 00' 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.081 87° 00'
30' 0.0610 0.9981 0.0612 16.350 30'
4° 00' 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.301 86° 00'
30' 0.0785 0.9969 0.0787 12.706 30'
5° 00' 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.430 85° 00'
30' 0.0958 0.9954 0.0963 10.385 30'
6° 00' 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.5144 84° 00'
30' 0.1132 0.9936 0.1139 8.7769 30'
7° 00' 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 8.1443 83° 00'
30' 0.1305 0.9914 0.1317 7.5958 30'
8° 00' 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.1154 82° 00'
30' 0.1478 0.9890 0.1495 6.6912 30'
9° 00' 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.3138 81° 00'
30' 0.1650 0.9863 0.1673 5.9758 30'
10° 00' 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.6713 80° 00'
30' 0.1822 0.9833 0.1853 5.3955 30'
11° 00' 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.1446 79° 00'
30' 0.1994 0.9799 0.2035 4.9152 30'
12° 00' 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 4.7046 78° 00'
30' 0.2164 0.9763 0.2217 4.5107 30'
13° 00' 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.3315 77° 00'
30' 0.2334 0.9724 0.2401 4.1653 30'
14° 00' 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.0108 76° 00'
30' 0.2504 0.9681 0.2586 3.8667 30'
15° 00' 0.2588 0.9659 0.2679 3.7321 75° 00'
30' 0.2672 0.9636 0.2773 3.6059 30'
16° 00' 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 3.4874 74° 00'
30' 0.2840 0.9588 0.2962 3.3759 30'
17° 00' 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.2709 73° 00'
30' 0.3007 0.9537 0.3153 3.1716 30'
18° 00' 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.0777 72° 00'
30' 0.3173 0.9483 0.3346 2.9887 30'
19° 00' 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.9042 71° 00'
30' 0.3338 0.9426 0.3541 2.8239 30'
20° 00' 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.7475 70° 00'
30' 0.3502 0.9367 0.3739 2.6746 30'
21° 00' 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.6051 69° 00'
Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Degrees

68 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Degrees Sines Cosines Tangents Cotangents
30' 0.3665 0.9304 0.3939 2.5386 30'
22° 00' 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.4751 68° 00'
30' 0.3827 0.9239 0.4142 2.4142 30'
23° 00' 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.3559 67° 00'
30' 0.3987 0.9171 0.4348 2.2998 30'
24° 00' 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 2.2460 66° 00'

3 .7
30' 0.4147 0.9100 0.4557 2.1943 30'
25° 00' 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.1445 65° 00'
30' 0.4305 0.9026 0.4770 2.0965 30'
26° 00' 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.0503 64° 00'
30' 0.4462 0.8949 0.4986 2.0057 30'
27° 00' 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.9626 63° 00'
30' 0.4617 0.8870 0.5206 1.9210 30'
28° 00' 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 1.8807 62° 00'
30' 0.4772 0.8788 0.5430 1.8418 30'
29° 00' 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 1.8040 61° 00'
30' 0.4924 0.8704 0.5658 1.7675 30'
30° 00' 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.7321 60° 00'
30' 0.5075 0.8616 0.5890 1.6977 30'
31° 00' 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.6643 59° 00'
30' 0.5225 0.8526 0.6128 1.6319 30'
32° 00' 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 1.6003 58° 00'
30' 0.5373 0.8434 0.6371 1.5697 30'
33° 00' 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 1.5399 57° 00'
30' 0.5519 0.8339 0.6619 1.5108 30'
34° 00' 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.4826 56° 00'
30' 0.5664 0.8241 0.6873 1.4550 30'
35° 00' 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.4281 55° 00'
30' 0.5807 0.8141 0.7133 1.4019 30'
36° 00' 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.3764 54° 00'
30' 0.5948 0.8039 0.7400 1.3514 30'
37° 00' 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.3270 53° 00'
30' 0.6088 0.7934 0.7673 1.3032 30'
38° 00' 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.2799 52° 00'
30' 0.6225 0.7826 0.7954 1.2572 30'
39° 00' 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 1.2349 51° 00'
30' 0.6361 0.7716 0.8243 1.2131 30'
40° 00' 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.1918 50° 00'
30' 0.6494 0.7604 0.8541 1.1708 30'
41° 00' 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.1504 49° 00'
30' 0.6626 0.7490 0.8847 1.1303 30'
42° 00' 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.1106 48° 00'
30' 0.6756 0.7373 0.9163 1.0913 30'
Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Degrees

3: Mathematics 69
Degrees Sines Cosines Tangents Cotangents
43° 00' 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 1.0724 47° 00'
30' 0.6884 0.7254 0.9490 1.0538 30'
44° 00' 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 1.0355 46° 00'
30' 0.7009 0.7133 0.9827 1.0176 30'
45° 00' 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000 1.0000 45° 00'
Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Degrees

70 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

3.8 Powers of Ten

Numbers larger than one:

Move the decimal to the left until you have a number between one and

3.8
ten. Multiply this number by ten raised to the power equal to the number of
places you moved the decimal.
1 = 1 × 100
10 = 1 × 101
100 = 1 × 10 2
1,000 = 1 × 10 3
10,000 = 1 × 104
100,000 = 1 × 105
1,000,000 = 1 × 106
10,000,000 = 1 × 107
100,000,000 = 1 × 10 8
1,000,000,000 = 1 × 10 9
10,000,000,000 = 1 × 1010
100,000,000,000 = 1 × 1011
1,000,000,000,000 = 1 × 1012

Numbers smaller than one:

Move the decimal to the right until you have a number between one and
ten. Multiply this number by ten raised to the negative power equal to the
number of places you moved the decimal.
0.1 = 1 × 10 –1
0.01 = 1 × 10 –2
0.001 = 1 × 10 –3
0.000 1 = 1 × 10 –4
0.000 01 = 1 × 10 –5
0.000 001 = 1 × 10 –6
0.000 000 1 = 1 × 10 –7
0.000 000 01 = 1 × 10 –8
0.000 000 001 = 1 × 10 –9
0.000 000 000 1 = 1 × 10 –10
0.000 000 000 01 = 1 × 10 –11
0.000 000 000 001 = 1 × 10 –12

3: Mathematics 71
Addition of numbers using powers of ten:

1. Change all the numbers so they will have the same power of ten.
2. Add the numbers.
3. The answer will have the same power of ten.

Add: 356 + 1,254

356 = 3.56 × 10 2
1,254 = 1.254 × 103
Change 1.254 × 103 to 12.54 × 10 2, and add:
3.56 × 10 2 + 12.54 × 10 2 = 16.1 × 102 = 1,610

Subtraction of numbers using powers of ten:

1. Change all the numbers so they will have the same power of ten.
2. Subtract the smaller number from the larger.
3. The answer will have the same power of ten.

Subtract: 1,254 – 356

1,254 = 1.254 × 103
356 = 3.56 × 10 2
Change 1.254 × 10 3 to 12.54 × 10 2, and subtract:
12.54 × 10 2 – 3.56 × 10 2 = 8.98 × 102 = 898

Multiplication of numbers using powers of ten:

1. Change all the numbers into powers of ten.

2. Multiply the numbers.
3. Add the powers of ten and use this as the power of ten for the
answer.

Multiply: 0.356 × 1,254

0.356 = 3.56 × 10 –1
1,254 = 1.254 × 101
3.56 × 10 –1 × 1.254 × 10 3 = 4.464 × 10 2 = 446.4

72 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Division of numbers using powers of ten:

1. Change all of the numbers into powers of ten.

2. Divide the numbers.
3. Subtract the power of ten of the denominator from the power of ten
of the numerator and use this as the power of ten for the answer.

3.8
Divide: 1,254 by 356
1,254 = 1.254 × 103
356 = 3.56 × 102
1.254 × 103 ÷ 3.56 × 10 2 = 0.352 × 101 = 3.52

3: Mathematics 73
3.9 Number Systems

Binary Equivalent of Decimal Binary Equivalent of Octal

Decimal Binary Octal Binary
0 0000 0 000
1 0001 1 001
2 0010 2 010
3 0011 3 011
4 0100 4 100
5 0101 5 101
6 0110 6 110
7 0111 7 111
8 1000
9 1001 Hexadecimal Number System
10 1010 Decimal Hex Binary
11 1011 0 0 0000
12 1100 1 1 0001
13 1101 2 2 0010
14 1110 3 3 0011
15 1111 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Octal Equivalent of Decimal 6 6 0110
Decimal Octal 7 7 0111
0 0 8 8 1000
1 1 9 9 1001
2 2 10 A 1010
3 3 11 B 1011
4 4 12 C 1100
5 5 13 D 1101
6 6 14 E 1110
7 7 15 F 1111
8 10
9 11
10 12

74 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Binary Coded Decimal American Standard Code
Equivalent of Decimal for Information Interchange
Decimal BCD (ASCII)
0 0000 ASCII Decimal Octal Hex
1 0001 NUL 0 000 00
2 0010 SOH 1 001 01
3 0011 STX 2 002 02

3.9
4 0100 ETX 3 003 03
5 0101 EOT 4 004 04
6 0110 ENQ 5 005 05
7 0111 ACK 6 006 06
8 1000 BEL 7 007 07
9 1001 BS 8 010 08
HT 9 011 09
The Gray Code LF 10 012 0A
The gray code is used for optical or VT 11 013 0B
mechanical shaft-position encoders FF 12 014 0C
because of its speed. Only one bit CR 13 015 0D
changes between each successive SO 14 016 0E
word. SI 15 017 0F
DLE 16 020 10
Decimal Gray Binary DC1 17 021 11
0 0000 0000 DC2 18 022 12
1 0001 0001 DC3 19 023 13
2 0011 0010 DC4 20 024 14
3 0010 0011 NAK 21 025 15
4 0110 0100 SYN 22 026 16
5 0111 0101 ETB 23 027 17
6 0101 0110 CAN 24 030 18
7 0100 0111 EM 25 031 19
8 1100 1000 SUB 26 032 1A
9 1101 1001 ESC 27 033 1B
10 1111 1010 FS 28 034 1C
11 1110 1011 GS 29 035 1D
RS 30 036 1E
12 1010 1100
US 31 037 1F
13 1011 1101
SP 32 040 20
14 1001 1110
! 33 041 21
15 1000 1111
“ 34 042 22
# 35 043 23
$ 36 044 24
% 37 045 25
& 38 046 26
‘ 39 047 27
( 40 050 28

3: Mathematics 75
ASCII Decimal Octal Hex ASCII Decimal Octal Hex
) 41 051 29 U 85 125 55
* 42 052 2A V 86 126 56
+ 43 053 2B W 87 127 57
, 44 054 2C X 88 130 58
- 45 055 2D Y 89 131 59
. 46 056 2E Z 90 132 5A
/ 47 057 2F [ 91 133 5B
0 48 060 30 \ 92 134 5C
1 49 061 31 ] 93 135 5D
2 50 062 32 ^ 94 136 5E
3 51 063 33 — 95 137 5F
4 52 064 34 ` 96 140 60
5 53 065 35 a 97 141 61
6 54 066 36 b 98 142 62
7 55 067 37 c 99 143 63
8 56 070 38 d 100 144 64
9 57 071 39 e 101 145 65
: 58 072 3A f 102 146 66
; 59 073 3B g 103 147 67
< 60 074 3C h 104 150 68
= 61 075 3D i 105 151 69
> 62 076 3E j 106 152 6A
? 63 077 3F k 107 153 6B
@ 64 100 40 l 108 154 6C
A 65 101 41 m 109 155 6D
B 66 102 42 n 110 156 6E
C 67 103 43 o 111 157 6F
D 68 104 44 p 112 160 70
E 69 105 45 q 113 161 71
F 70 106 46 r 114 162 72
G 71 107 47 s 115 163 73
H 72 110 48 t 116 164 74
I 73 111 49 u 117 165 75
J 74 112 4A v 118 166 76
K 75 113 4B w 119 167 77
L 76 114 4C x 120 170 78
M 77 115 4D y 121 171 79
N 78 116 4E z 122 172 7A
O 79 117 4F { 123 173 7B
P 80 120 50 | 124 174 7C
Q 81 121 51 } 125 175 7D
R 82 122 52 ~ 126 176 7E
S 83 123 53 DEL 127 177 7F
T 84 124 54

76 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Special Control Functions Used in ASCII
NUL ........................................... Null DLE...................... Data Link Escape
SOH ....................... Start of Heading DC1 .......................Device Control 1
STX............................... Start of Text DC2 .......................Device Control 2
ETX.................................End of Text DC3 .......................Device Control 3
EOT ................. End of Transmission DC4 .......................Device Control 4
ENQ ..................................... Enquiry NAK .............Negative Acknowledge

3.9
ACK ............................ Acknowledge SYN ..................... Synchronous Idle
BEL ...................Bell (audible signal) ETB........ End of Transmission Block
BS ...................................Backspace CAN ...................................... Cancel
HT ................... Horizontal Tabulation EM ......................... End of Message
LF .................................... Line Feed SUB ................................. Substitute
VT ....................... Vertical Tabulation ESC ..................................... Escape
FF ...................................Form Feed FS ..............................File Separator
CR ......................... Carriage Return GS ........................ Group Separator
SO ..................................... Shift Out RS........................Record Separator
SI .......................................... Shift In US............................. Unit Separator
SP .......................................... Space DEL........................................Delete

3: Mathematics 77
78 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 4: Aircraft Drawings

4.1 Types of Aircraft Drawings 81

4.2 Meaning of Lines 83

4
4.3 Material Symbols 84

4.4 Location Identification 85

4: Aircraft Drawings 79
4.1 Types of Aircraft Drawings

There are a number of types of drawings used in aircraft manufacture and

maintenance. Each type of drawing has a definite function and purpose.

Sketches
These are rough drawings made without the use of instruments. They are
used to convey only a specific bit of information and include the minimum

4 .1
amount of detail needed to manufacture the part.

Detail Drawings
Detail drawings are made with the use of instruments, or on a computer.
They include all of the information needed to fabricate a part, including
dimensions.

Assembly Drawings
An assembly drawing shows all of the components in an assembly. The com-
ponents are shown in exploded view to display the way they are assembled.
A parts list is included showing the reference number, part number, descrip-
tion, quantity per assembly, and model usage for each component.

Installation Drawings
These drawings show the location of the parts and assemblies on the com-
pleted aircraft and identifies all of the detail parts used in the installation.

Sectional Drawings
These show the way a component would appear if it were cut through the
middle. Different types of sectional lines and cross-hatching show the differ-
ent types of materials used in the component.
A half-sectional drawing shows a part as it would appear with only one
half a sectional view and the other half a plain view.

Cutaway Drawing
A cutaway drawing shows the outside of a component with part of it cut away
to show the parts on the inside.

Exploded-View Drawing
Exploded-view drawings are similar to assembly drawings. All of the parts in
a component are spread out to show what each looks like and their relation-
ship to other parts.

4: Aircraft Drawings 81
Schematic Diagram
A schematic diagram shows the relative location of all of the parts in a
system but does not give the physical location in the aircraft. Schematic
diagrams are extremely useful in troubleshooting a system.

Block Diagram
Block diagrams show the various functions of a system but do not include
any details. Lines connecting the blocks show the direction of flow of signals
or other forms of information. Block diagrams help explain the way a complex
system works, and they are often used in troubleshooting.

Repair Drawings
These are drawings used to show the way a repair is made. They are used in
aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance and repair manuals to illustrate typical
repairs. No dimensions are given, but enough information is provided that an
experienced technician can use the drawing as a guide to make an airworthy
repair.

Wiring Diagrams
Wiring diagrams show all of the wires in a particular section of an aircraft
electrical system. The parts list accompanying the drawing provides the
wire size, wire number, and the part number of the terminals on each end of
each wire.

Pictorial Diagrams
Pictorial diagrams show the components as they actually appear, rather than
using conventional symbols. Pictorial diagrams are often used for electrical
systems in Pilot’s Operating Handbooks.

Orthographic Projections
There are six possible views in an orthographic projection:

Top

Left side Front Right side Rear

Bottom

82 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

4.2 Meaning of Lines

Centerline Thin

Dimension line Thin

Leader line Thin

4 .2
Long break line Thin

Sectioning and extension line Thin

Phantom and reference line Medium

Hidden line Medium

Stitch line Medum

Datum line Medium

Outline or visible line Thick

Short break line Thick

Viewing-plane line Thick

Cutting-plane line
for complex or offset views Thick

4: Aircraft Drawings 83
4.3 Material Symbols

Cast iron Copper, brass, and Steel and

copper alloys wrought iron

Aluminum, Babbit, lead, zinc Rubber, plastic,

magnesium and and their alloys electrical insulation
their alloys

Fabric and flexible Electrical windings Wood, with the grain

materials

Wood, across the grain Titanium Beryllium

84 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

4.4 Location Identification

Fuselage Stations
Locations along the length of a fuselage are identified by fuselage station
(FS) numbers which represent the distance in inches from FS-0, a point
chosen by the aircraft manufacturer from which all longitudinal
measurements are made. For example, FS-199 is 199 inches aft of FS-0.

4.4
Water Lines
Vertical locations are identified by water lines (WL). Water line zero (WL-0)
is a line chosen by the aircraft manufacturer as a vertical reference line.
Locations above WL-0 are positive and those below are negative. WL+20 is a
plane 20 inches above WL-0.

Butt Lines
Lateral locations are identified by butt lines (BL, or buttock lines) that are
distances to the left or right in inches from BL-0, a vertical plane through the
center of the fuselage. BL-36R is a vertical plane 36 inches to the right (when
facing forward) from BL-0.

Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations

These stations are locations in inches left or right, along the wing or stabilizer
span measured from the center line of the fuselage, BL-0.
232

270
290
310
330
350
370
390

430
450
470
490

526
WL 100

410
WL 19
115

158
164
199

265

513

570
589
608

666

705

760
800
94

Fuselage stations and water lines

4: Aircraft Drawings 85
86 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 5: Aircraft Electrical Systems

5.1 Electrical Symbols 89

5.2 Alternating Current Terms and Values 97

5.3 Ohm’s Law Relationships 98

5
5.4 Electrical Formulas 100

5.5 Electrical System Installation 107

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 87

5.1 Electrical Symbols

Conductors

Conductors, crossing but not connected

Conductors, crossing and connected

5 .1
Spare conductor with end insulated

Shielded conductor

Shielded double conductor

Shielded and twisted double conductor

Coaxial conductor

Ground connection (earth ground)

Chassis ground connection (not necessarily at

ground potential)

Terminal strip

26

Terminal strip
27

28

29

30

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 89

Switches

Single-pole, single-throw switch

Double-pole, single-throw switch

Single-pole, double-throw switch

Double-pole, double-throw switch

Single-pole, double-throw switch — normally

closed, momentarily open

Eight-position rotary switch

Pressure-actuated switch— closes on decreasing

P pressure

Pressure-actuated switch—closes on increasing

P pressure

T Temperature-actuated switch —closes on

decreasing temperature

Temperature-actuated switch — closes on

T increasing temperature

90 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Relay switch

Solenoid switch

Power Sources

5 .1
+ –
Battery

G Generator

–
Thermocouple
+

Piezoelectric crystal

Capacitors

Fixed, nonelectrolytic capacitor

– +
Electrolytic capacitor

Variable capacitor

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 91

Inductors

Air-core inductor

Iron-core inductor

Variable inductor

Autotransformer

Iron-core transformer

Air-core transformer

Resistors

Fixed resistor

Variable resistor — rheostat

Variable resistor — potentiometer

Tapped resistor

92 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 1W
450 Ω Resistor installed external to LRU
(line replaceable unit)

Temperature-sensitive resistor
T

Heater element resistor

Indicators

5 .1
V Voltmeter

A Ammeter

W Wattmeter

Ω Ohmmeter

Ma Milliammeter

µa Microammeter

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 93

Semiconductor Devices

Diode

Zener diode

Light emitting diode

Light sensing diode

Silicon controlled rectifier

NPN bipolar transistor

PNP bipolar transistor

Diac

Triac

94 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Junction field effect transistor
P-channel N-channel

Insulated gate field effect transistor

P-channel N-channel

5 .1
Logic Devices

Buffer or amplifier

Inverter

AND gate

NAND gate

AND gate with one input having an active low

OR gate

NOR gate

EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) gate

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 95

 OR gate with one input having an active low

Three-state buffer

Operational amplifier

Connectors

Wire splice

Plug Receptacle
A A
B B Quick-disconnect connector
C C
D D

96 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

5.2 Alternating Current Terms and Values

Peak = 100%

RMS = 70.7%

5 .2
1
Alternation

1 Cycle

Peak value: The maximum amplitude of current or voltage in one

alternation.
Peak-to-peak value: The voltage or current measured from a positive peak
to a negative peak.
rms value: Root mean square, or effective value. This is 0.707 times peak
value. One amp rms of sine wave AC produces the same amount of heat
as one amp of DC. One amp rms of sine wave AC has a peak value of
1.414 amp.
Cycle: One complete series of values of alternating current in which the volt-
age or current starts from zero, rises to a positive peak, drops back through
zero to a negative peak, and then returns to zero.
Alternation: One half cycle of alternating current.
Period: The time required for one cycle of alternating current.
Frequency: The number of cycles of alternating current that occur in one
second.
Phase: The angular relationship between the current and voltage in an AC
circuit. Inductance and capacitance in a circuit cause the current to either lag
or lead the voltage.
Power: Power in an AC circuit is determined by the voltage and the amount
of current that is in phase with the voltage.
Power factor: The percentage of current in an AC circuit that is in phase
with the voltage.

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 97

5.3 Ohm’s Law Relationships

Ohm’s law gives us the relationship between voltage, current, resistance,

and power in an electrical circuit. When we know any two values, we can find
either of the others by using the appropriate formula.

E = Voltage (volts)
I = Current (amps)
R = Resistance (ohms)
P = Power (watts)

To visualize the relationships, use these circles. The shaded value is the
product or the quotient of the unshaded values.

E E E

I R I R I R

To Find Known Values Formula

E I&R E=IxR

E P&I E= P
I

E P&R E= PxR

I E&R I= E
R

I P&E I= P
E

I P&R I= P
R

98 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

To Find Known Values Formula

R E&I R=E
I

2
R E&P R=E
P

R P&I R = P2
I

P I&E P=IxE

5.3
P I&R P = I2 x R

E2
P E&R P=
R

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 99

5.4 Electrical Formulas

Formulas Involving Resistance

Resistors in series:

R T = R 1 + R2 + R 3 + • • •

RT = Total resistance
R 1, R 2, R 3 = Value of individual resistances

Resistors of the same value in parallel:

RT = R
n
R T = Total resistance
R = Value of a single resistor
n = Number of resistors

Two resistors of different value in parallel:

R 1 × R2
RT =
R1 + R 2

R T = Total resistance
R1 = Value of first resistor
R 2 = Value of second resistor

To find the value of one resistor in a parallel combination when the total
resistance and the value of the other resistor are known:
-R T × R 2
R1 =
R T – R2

R T = Total resistance
R1 = Value of first resistor
R 2 = Value of second resistor

100 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

More than two resistors of different values in parallel:
1
RT =
1 + 1 + 1 + 1
R 1 R2 R3 R4

RT = Total resistance
R 1, R 2, R 3, R4 = Value of each resistor

The total resistance of any number of resistors connected in parallel may be

found by using a calculator with a reciprocal (1/x) key.
Enter the problem in this sequence:

5.4
(R T) (1/x) + (R 2) (1/x) + (R 3) (1/x) + (R 4) (1/x) = (1/x)

The number displayed after the (1/x) key is pressed the last time is the value
of the total resistance.

Formulas Involving Capacitance

Capacity of a capacitor:

KA
C = 0.2235 (N – 1)
D

C = Capacity in picofarads
K = Dielectric constant
A = Area of plates in square inches
D = Thickness of dielectric in inches
N = Number of plates

Capacitors in parallel:
C T = C1 + C2 + C3 + • • •

CT = Total capacitance
C1, C2, C3 = Value of individual capacitors

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 101

Capacitors of the same value in series:
C
CT =
n
C T = Total capacitance
C = Value of a single capacitor
n = Number of capacitors

Two capacitors of different values in series:

C1 × C2
CT =
C1 + C2

CT = Total capacitance
C1 = Value of one capacitor
C2 = Value of other capacitor

More than two capacitors of different values in series:

1
CT =
1 + 1 + 1 + 1
C1 C2 C3 C4

C T = Total capacitance
C1, C2, C3, C4 = Value of individual capacitors

The total capacitance of any number of capacitors connected in series may

be found by using a calculator with a reciprocal (1/x) key.
Enter the problem in this sequence:

(C T) (1/x) + (C2) (1/x) + (C3) (1/x) + (C4) (1/x) = (1/x)

The number displayed after the (1/x) key is pressed the last time is the value
of the total capacitance.

Charge stored in a capacitor:

Q=C×E

Q = Charge in coulombs
C = Capacitance in farads
E = Voltage across the capacitor in volts

102 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Energy stored in a capacitor:
(C × E 2)
W=
2
W = Stored energy in joules (watt-seconds)
C = Capacitance in farads
E = Applied voltage in volts

Capacitive reactance:

XC = 1
2πFC
X C = Capacitive reactance in ohms

5.4
2π = A constant, 6.2832
F = Frequency in hertz
C = Capacitance in farads

Because there are constants in both the numerator and the denominator,
this formula can be changed to:

X C = 159,200
FC
X C = Capacitive reactance in ohms
159,200 = A constant (1,000,000 ÷ 2π)
F = Frequency in hertz
C = Capacitance in microfarads

Formulas Involving Inductance

Inductors in series with no mutual inductance:
L T = L 1 + L2 + L 3 + • • •

L T = Total inductance
L 1, L 2, L 3 = Value of each inductor

Two inductors of different size in parallel with no mutual inductance:

L1 × L 2
LT =
L1 + L 2

L T = Total inductance
L1, L 2 = Value of individual inductors

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 103

More than two inductors of different size in parallel with no mutual
inductance:

1
LT =
1 + 1 + 1 + 1
L1 L2 L3 L4

L T = Total inductance
L1, L 2, L 3, L4 = Value of individual inductors

The total inductance of any number of inductors connected in parallel with

no mutual inductance may be found by using a calculator with a reciprocal
(1/x) key.

Enter the problem in this sequence:

(LT) (1/x) + (L 2) (1/x) + (L3) (1/x) + (L4) (1/x) = (1/x)

The number displayed after the (1/x) key is pressed the last time is the total
inductance.

Mutual inductance of two coils:

LA – L O
LM =
4
L M = Mutual inductance in the same units as that of the individual
inductances
LA = Total inductance of the two coils with their fields aiding
L O = Total inductance of the two coils with their fields opposing

Mutual inductance of two inductors connected in series with fields aiding:

L T = L1 + L 2 + 2M

L T = Total inductance
L1 = Inductance of the first inductor
L2 = Inductance of the second inductor
M = Mutual inductance

104 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Total inductance of two inductors connected in series with fields opposing:

L T = L1 + L 2 – 2M

L T = Total inductance
L1 = Inductance of the first inductor
L2 = Inductance of the second inductor
M = Mutual inductance

Coefficient of coupling:

K= M
L1 x L 2

5.4
K = Coefficient of coupling
M = Mutual inductance
L 1 = Inductance of first inductor
L 2 = Inductance of second inductor

Energy stored in an inductor:

2
W= L×I
M

W = Stored energy in joules (watt-seconds)

L = Inductance in henries
I = Current in amperes
M = Mutual inductance

Inductive reactance:

X L = 2πFL

XL = Inductive reactance in ohms

2π = A constant, 6.2832
L = Inductance in henries
F = Frequency in hertz

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 105

Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance
Resonant Frequency
The resonant frequency of an AC circuit is that frequency which causes the
capacitive reactance and the inductive reactance to be the same. It may be
found by the formula:
1
FR =
2π LC

FR = Resonant frequency in hertz

2π = A constant, 6.2832
L = Inductance in henries
C = Capacitance in farads

Total Reactance
Current in a purely capacitive circuit leads the voltage by 90 degrees, and
current in a purely inductive circuit lags 90 degrees behind the voltage.
Capacitive reactance and inductive reactance are 180 degrees out of
phase with each other, and they cancel. Total reactance is the difference
between the two reactances and is the type of the greater reactance.

X T = X C – XL or XT = XL – XC

Impedance
Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of alternating current, and it is
the vector sum of capacitive reactance, inductive reactance, and resistance.
It is found by the following formulas.

Impedance in a series circuit:

2 2
Z= R +X

Z = Impedance in ohms
R = Total resistance in ohms
X = Total reactance in ohms

Impedance in a parallel circuit:

RxX
Z= 2 2
R +X

Z = Impedance in ohms
R = Total resistance in ohms
X = Total reactance in ohms

106 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

5.5 Electrical System Installation

Selection of Wire Size

Aircraft electrical wire is measured in American Wire Gage (AWG) units. The
larger the number, the smaller the diameter of the wire. The actual American
wire gage, shown in Figure 5.5.1, is a circular piece of steel with notches cut
in its periphery. The width of each notch is the diameter of the wire whose
gage number is beside the notch.

36
35

5.5
7 6 5
8 34
9 4
10

33
11
12 13 14 15 16

32
1

0
31
17
18

19
20
21 30
Wire
22 29
2 3 2 4 25 26 27 28

Figure 5.5.1. An American wire gage is used to determine the size of an

aircraft electrical wire.

When selecting the proper gage of wire, consider both the current-
carrying capability of the wire and the voltage drop caused by it. The charts
in Figure 5.5.2 give the current-carrying capability of copper wire in sizes 20
through 0000, and aluminum wire in sizes 6 through 0000. When wires are
routed in bundles, the maximum current is less than when the wire is routed
by itself in free air. Wires in a bundle cannot readily dissipate heat.

Nominal system Allowable voltage drop

voltage Continuous load Intermittent load
14 0.5 1.0
28 1.0 2.0
115 4.0 8.0
200 7.0 14.0

Figure 5.5.2. Allowable voltage drop in an aircraft electrical system

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 107

 The allowable voltage drop in an aircraft electrical system is determined
by both the nominal system voltage and whether the component is operating
continuously or intermittently. The chart in Figure 5.5.3 gives the allowable
voltage drops for the most commonly used aircraft electrical systems.

To find the correct size copper wire for a continuous load, use the chart in
Figure 5.5.3.
For example: Find the size wire needed to supply 30 amps continuously
to a component in a 28-volt electrical system. The wire must be 60 feet long.
1. Follow the 30-amp diagonal line down until it crosses the horizontal line
for 60 feet in the 28-volt column.
2. These lines cross between the vertical lines for 6-gage and 8-gage wires.
Always use the larger wire, so choose a 6-gage wire. Thirty amps of
current will not produce more than the allowable 1-volt drop when it flows
through 60 feet of 6-gage wire.
3. The intersection of these two lines is above curve 1, which means that
a 6-gage wire carrying 30 amps of current can be routed in a bundle
without causing excessive heat. This can be proved by the chart in Figure
5.5.4, which shows that a 6-gage copper wire in a bundle can carry
60 amps.

To find the correct size copper wire for an intermittent load, use the chart in
Figure 5.5.5.
For example: Find the size wire needed to supply 200 amps to a landing
gear motor in a 28-volt electrical system. The wire must be 10 feet long.
1. In this example, the current-carrying capability of the wire is the limiting
factor, rather than the voltage drop. Assume the wire will be routed by
itself in free air. The chart in Figure 5.5.4 shows that at least a 1-gage
wire must be used. This size wire will carry 211 amps in free air.
2. Follow the 200-amp diagonal line down until it intersects the vertical line
for a 1-gage wire. This intersection is about the location of a horizontal
line for 67 feet in the 28-volt column. This means that it would take 67
feet of 1-gage wire to cause a 2-volt drop (the voltage drop allowed for
an intermittent load in a 28-volt system). The wire is only 10 feet long, so
there will be much less than the allowable voltage drop.

108 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 CONTINUOUS CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE ELECTRIC WIRE CHART
115 200 14 28 1 2 3 4
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 0 0 0
800 100 200
AMPERES 5
600 75 150 12
00 0
0 90 1 1 5
1 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 5
1.
400 700 50 100
17
0
360 630 45 90 20
320 560 40 80
280 490 35 70 0
30
240 420 30 60
200 350 25 50 0
40
160 280 20 40

120 210 15 30 1
100 175 12 25 VE
CUR
80 140 10 20
72 120 9 18
64 112 8 16 2
VE
56 98 7 14 CUR
48 84 6 12 CURVES—
1. CONTINUOUS RATING-AMPERES
40 70 5 10
CABLES IN CONDUIT AND BUNDLES
36 63 4 9 2. CONTINUOUS RATING-AMPERES
32 56 8 SINGLE CABLE IN FREE-AIR
28 49 7

WIRE LENGTH IN FEET FOR ALLOWABLE VOLTAGE DROP

24 42 3 6
20 35 2 5
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems

WIRE SIZE

109
Figure 5.5.3. Wire selection chart for continuous loads

5.5
 Copper wire current-carrying capability
Max. amps single Max. amps wire in
Wire size (gage) wire in free air bundle or conduit
AN-20 11 7.5
AN-18 16 10
AN-16 22 13
AN-14 32 17
AN-12 41 23
AN-10 55 33
AN-8 73 46
AN-6 101 60
AN-4 135 80
AN-2 181 100
AN-1 211 125
AN-0 245 150
AN-00 283 175
AN-000 328 200
AN-0000 380 225

Aluminum wire current-carrying capability

Max. amps single Max. amps wire in
Wire size (gage) wire in free air bundle or conduit
AL-6 83 50
AL-4 108 66
AL-2 152 90
AL-0 202 123
AL-00 235 145
AL-000 266 162
AL-0000 303 190

Figure 5.5.4. Current-carrying capability of copper and aluminum wire

110 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 INTERMITTENT
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE ELECTRIC WIRE CHART
115 200 14 28 1 2 3 4
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 0 0 0
1600 200 400
AMPERES 5
1200 150 300 12
00 0
5 0 90 1 15
1 1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 5
800 1400 100 200
17
0
720 1260 90 180 20
640 1120 80 160
560 980 70 140 0
30
480 840 60 120
400 700 50 100 0
40
320 560 40 80

240 420 30 60
200 350 25 50
160 280 20 40
144 240 18 36
128 224 16 32
112 196 14 28
3
96 168 12 24 VE
CUR
80 140 10 20
CURVE—
72 126 9 18 3. INTERMITTENT RATING-AMPERES
64 112 8 16
MAXIMUM OF 2 MINUTES.
56 96 7 14

WIRE LENGTH IN FEET FOR ALLOWABLE VOLTAGE DROP

48 84 6 12
40 70 5 10
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems

WIRE SIZE

111
Figure 5.5.5. Wire selection chart for intermittent loads

5.5
Notes on Wire Installation
1. All wires should be marked along their entire length with the wire
identification number specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
2. Wires should have a 6-inch diameter loop near their connection to the
component to which they are connected, in order to accommodate any
wire tensions that result from aircraft structural deformations during
a crash.
3. Electrical wire bundles should be routed along the strongest aircraft
structural members, and should not cross areas where there is likely to
be severe structural deformation during a crash.
4. When electrical wire bundles pass through a structural member, the
holes should be 8 to 12 times the diameter of the bundle. The edges of
the hole should be protected with grommets, and the wire bundle should
be securely clamped to the structure.
5 If a wire bundle is routed parallel to a fluid line, the wire bundle should be
above the fluid line and should not be secured to the line.
6. No more than four wire terminals should be secured to any single stud
in a terminal strip. If more wires must be connected at a single point, use
more than one stud, and connect the studs with metal bus bars.

Figure 5.5.6. Never install more than four wire terminals on any single
terminal-strip lug. If more wires should be connected, join two adjacent lugs
with a connector strip.

7. All bonding jumpers should be as short as possible and must not have
more than 0.003-ohm resistance. The jumper must not interfere with the
free movement of the component that is being bonded.
8. When a ground connection is made to an anodized aluminum alloy
component, the oxide film must be removed at the location where the
connection is made. After the connection is made, the area must be
protected against corrosion.

112 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

9. When wire bundles must be routed through areas where they can likely
be damaged, they should be protected by routing them through a flexible
or rigid conduit.
a. The conduit must not be installed in such a way that it can be used
as a step or a hand hold.
b. The inside diameter of the conduit must be large enough that the wire
bundle does not fill more than 80% of the conduit area.
c. Drain holes must be provided at the lowest point in a conduit run.
d. Rigid conduit must not be flattened in the bends enough to decrease
its minimum diameter to less than 75 percent of the original diameter.
e. All burrs must be removed from the ends of the conduit and from any

5.5
drain holes.
f. Do not use a smaller bend radius for rigid conduit than is allowed by
the chart in Figure 5.5.7.
g. Do not use a smaller bend radius for flexible aluminum or brass
conduit than is allowed by the chart in Figure 5.5.8.

Bend radii allowed for rigid conduit

Nominal tube O.D. Minimum bend
(inches) radius (inches)

1/8 3/8
3/16 7/16
1/4 9/16
3/8 15/16
1/2 1- 1/4
5/8 1- 1/2
3/4 1- 3/4
1 3
1- 1/4 3- 3/4
1- 1/2 5
1- 3/4 7
2 8

Figure 5.5.7. Minimum bend radius for rigid electrical conduit

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 113

 Bend radii allowed for flexible aluminum or brass conduit
Nominal I.D. of conduit (inches) Minimum bend radius (inches)

3/16 2-1/4
1/4 2-3/4
3/8 3-3/4
1/2 3-3/4
5/8 3-3/4
3/4 4-1/4
1 5-3/4
1-1/4 8
1-1/2 8-1/4
1- 3/4 9
2 9-3/4
2-1/2 10

Figure 5.5.8. Minimum bend radius for flexible electrical conduit

10. Securely attach all wire bundles to the aircraft structure with cushioned
clamps. There should be no more slack between supports than that
which will allow a 1/2-inch deflection.

Figure 5.5.9. Support wire bundles

from aircraft tubing with clamps.
The clamp around the wire should
be cushioned.

11. Wrap the cord twice around wire bundles secured with individual ties,
and secure them with a clove hitch and a square knot.

Switch Derating Factors

Incandescent lamps, motors, relays, and heaters all allow a large amount of
current to flow when the switch is first closed. Soon after the current begins
to flow, its value drops off to a nominal value. Because of this high inrush,
switches in these circuits must be derated. The chart in Figure 5.5.10 shows
the derating factors to be used.

114 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Nominal system DC voltage Type of load Derating factor

24 volts Lamp 8
24 volts Inductive 4
24 volts Resistive 2
24 volts Motor 3
12 volts Lamp 5
12 volts Inductive 2
12 volts Resistive 1
12 volts Motor 2
Example: A switch installed in a 24-volt circuit to control a 100-watt incandescent lamp
must have a current rating of more than 33.3 amps.

5.5
Figure 5.5.10. Switch derating factors

Wire and Circuit Protectors

Fuses and circuit breakers are installed in an aircraft to protect the wiring
from overheating due to excessive current. The chart in Figure 5.5.11 shows
the size circuit protectors that should be used with the various gage wires.

Values in parentheses may be substituted when the indicated ratings are not available.

Figure 5.5.11. Wire and circuit protector chart

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 115

MS Electrical Connectors

MS27480 E 10 A 6 P B

MIL SPECIFICATION POLARIZATION

CONTACT STYLE
CLASS
INSERT ARRANGEMENT
SHELL SIZE
FINISH

MS27472 WALL MOUNT RECEPTACLE

MS27473 STRAIGHT PLUG
MS27474 JAM NUT RECEPTACLE
MS27475 HERMETIC WALL MOUNT RECEPTACLE
MS27476 HERMETIC BOX MOUNT RECEPTACLE
MS27477 HERMETIC JAM NUT RECEPTACLE
MS27478 HERMETIC SOLDER MOUNT RECEPTACLE
MS27479 WALL MOUNT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27480 STRAIGHT PLUG (NOTE 1)
MS27481 JAM NUT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27482 HERMETIC WALL MOUNT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27483 HERMETIC JAM NUT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27484 STRAIGHT PLUG, EMI GROUNDING
MS27497 WALL RECEPTACLE, BACK PANEL MOUNTING
MS27499 BOX MOUNTING RECEPTACLE
MS27500 90° PLUG (NOTE 1)
MS27503 HERMETIC SOLDER MOUNT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27504 BOX MOUNT RECEPTACLE (NOTE 1)
MS27508 BOX MOUNT RECEPTACLE, BACK PANEL MOUNTING
MS27513 BOX MOUNT RECEPTACLE, LONG GROMMET
MS27664 WALL MOUNT RECEPTACLE, BACK PANEL MOUNTING (NOTE 1)
MS27667 THRU-BULKHEAD RECEPTACLE

Figure 5.5.12. MS Electrical Connector Information

116 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

NOTE
1. ACTIVE SUPERSEDES
MS27472 MS27479
MS27473 MS27480
MS27474 MS27481
MS27475 MS27482
MS27477 MS27483
MS27473 WITH MS27500
MS27507 ELBOW
MS27478 MS27503
MS27499 MS27504
MS27497 MS27664

CLASS
E ENVIRONMENT RESISTING-BOX AND THRU-BULKHEAD MOUNTING TYPES ONLY
(SEE CLASS T)
P POTTING-INCLUDES POTTING FORM AND SHORT REAR GROMMET

5.5
T ENVIRONMENT RESISTING-WALL AND JAM-NUT MOUNTING RECEPTACLE AND PLUG
TYPES: THREAD AND TEETH FOR ACCESSORY ATTACHMENT
Y HERMETICALLY SEALED

FINISH
A SILVER TO LIGHT IRIDESCENT YELLOW COLOR CADMIUM PLATE OVER NICKEL
(CONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO +150°C (INACTIVE FOR NEW DESIGN)
B OLIVE DRAB CADMIUM PLATE OVER SUITABLE UNDERPLATE (CONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO
+175°C
C ANODIC (NONCONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO +175°C
D FUSED TIN, CARBON STEEL (CONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO 150°C
E CORROSION RESISTANT STEEL (CRES), PASSIVATED (CONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO +200°C
F ELECTROLESS NICKEL COATING (CONDUCTIVE), -65°C TO +200°C
N HERMETIC SEAL OR ENVIRONMENT RESISTING CRES (CONDUCTIVE PLATING), -65°C
TO +200°C

CONTACT STYLE
A WITHOUT PIN CONTACTS
B WITHOUT SOCKET CONTACTS
C FEED THROUGH
P PIN CONTACTS-INCLUDING HERMETICS WITH SOLDER CUPS
S SOCKET CONTACTS-INCLUDING HERMETICS WITH SOLDER CUPS
X PIN CONTACTS WITH EYELET (HERMETIC)
Z SOCKET CONTACTS WITH EYELET (HERMETIC)

POLARIZATION
A, B NORMAL-NO LETTER REQUIRED
C, OR
D

Figure 5.5.12. MS Electrical Connector Information (continued)

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 117

Wall receptacle Cable receptacle Box receptacle

Quick-disconnect Straight plug Plug

straight plug

Angle plug Angle plug

MS Connector

Figure 5.5.13. Typical MS Electrical Connectors

118 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Receptacle Facing view plug

5. 5
Receptacle Plug

Triple Quadruple Single Double insert

insert plug insert receptacle insert plug receptacle

Figure 5.5.13. Typical MS Electrical Connectors (continued)

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 119

Receptacle Plug

Typical rack and panel connectors

Plug Receptacle

Figure 5.5.13. Typical MS Electrical Connectors (continued)

Resistor Color Code

The resistance in ohms of a composition resistor is designated by a series of
colored bands around one end, as shown in Figure 5.5.14 at right.
• The first colored band (nearest the end) represents the first significant
figure in the resistance.
• The second band represents the second significant figure.
• The third band represents the multiplier, or the number of zeros to add to
the two significant figures. If this band is gold, the resistance is less than
ten ohms, and the multiplier is 0.1. If it is silver, the resistance is less than
one ohm and the multiplier is 0.01.
• The fourth band from the end shows the tolerance of the resistor in a plus
or minus percentage.

120 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 TOLERANCE PERCENTAGE ±10%
MULTIPLIER 000,000
SECOND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE 7
FIRST SIGNIFICANT FIGURE 4

Resistance is 47,000,000 ohms ± 10%

Colors for the first and second significant figure (first and second band),
and multiplier (third band):

5.5
Black 0 Green 5

Brown 1 Blue 6

Red 2 Violet 7

Orange 3 Gray 8

Yellow 4 White 9

Colors for the fractional multiplier (third band):

Gold 0.1 Silver 0.01

Colors for tolerance in percentage (fourth band):

Gold ± 5% Silver ± 10%

No band ± 20%

Examples:
A resistor marked red, red, orange, silver has a resistance of 22,000
ohms ± 10%.
A resistor marked brown, green, brown has a resistance of 150 ohms
± 20%.
A resistor marked yellow, violet, gold has a resistance of 4.7 ohms.

Figure 5.5.14.

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 121

Aircraft Storage Batteries
Lead-Acid Batteries
To prevent a lead-acid battery from overheating, limit the charging voltage
to 2.35 volts per cell unless the battery manufacturer specifies a different
voltage for the specific battery.
The freezing temperature of the electrolyte in a lead-acid battery is
determined by its specific gravity as indicated in Figure 5.5.15.

Freezing point
Specific gravity
°C °F
1.300 -70 -95
1.275 -62 -80
1.250 -52 -62
1.225 -37 -35
1.200 -26 -16
1.175 -20 -4
1.150 -15 +5
1.125 -10 +13
1.100 -8 +19

Figure 5.5.15. The freezing temperature of the electrolyte

in a lead-acid battery is determined by its specific gravity.

When measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, a correction

must be applied if its temperature is different from the standard of 80°. If the
temperature is greater than 80°F, add four points to the specific gravity for
each ten degrees. If the temperature is lower than 80°F, subtract four points
for each ten degrees. The correction is shown in the chart in Figure 5.5.16.
Other cautions for lead-acid batteries are:
• Neutralize any spilled electrolyte with bicarbonate of soda and water.
• Remove all traces of corrosion and treat any bare metal in the battery box
or adjacent structure with an acid-proof paint.
• Be sure the battery box drain is open and if a sump jar is used, be sure
the pad is saturated with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water.
• If electrolyte is to be mixed, always pour the acid into the water.
DO NOT pour water into the acid.
• Do not service lead-acid batteries in the same area as is used for
servicing nickel-cadmium batteries.

122 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Electrolyte Points to be subtracted
temperature or added to specific
°C °F gravity reading
60 140 +24
55 130 +20
49 120 +16
43 110 +12
38 100 +8
33 90 +4
27 80 0
23 70 -4
15 60 -8
10 50 -12

5.5
5 40 -16
-2 30 -20
-7 20 -24
-13 10 -28
-18 0 -32
-23 -10 -36
-28 -20 -40
-35 -30 -44

Figure 5.5.16. Correction for nonstandard temperature

of the electrolyte of a lead-acid battery.

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Be sure the top of the battery is clean, and that all of the cell connectors are
free from corrosion and are properly torqued.
The electrolyte level varies with the state of charge of the battery. Never
add electrolyte to the battery while it is installed in the aircraft. Remove
the battery, clean and inspect it, and add distilled or demineralized water
according to the battery manufacturer’s recommendation.
Other cautions for nickel-cadmium batteries are:
• Neutralize spilled electrolyte with a solution of 3 percent acetic acid,
vinegar, or lemon juice, and wash the area with fresh water.
• Do not service nickel-cadmium batteries in the same area used for
lead-acid batteries.

5: Aircraft Electrical Systems 123

124 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 6: Aircraft Materials

6.1 Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys 127

6.2 Four-Digit Designation System for

Wrought Aluminum Alloys 128

6.3 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys 129

6.4 Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys 130

6.5 Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys 131

6
6.6 Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet 132

6.7 Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets 133

6.8 SAE Classification of Steel 134

6.9 Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness 135

6.10 Color of Steel for Various Temperatures 136

6.11 Color of Oxides on Steel at Various

Tempering Temperatures 137

6: Aircraft Materials 125

6.1 Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys

Percent of alloying elements; aluminum and normal impurities constitute

remainder of metal.

Alloy
Number Silicon Copper Manganese Magnesium Chromium Zinc

1100 —99.00% aluminum minimum—

2017 4.0 0.5 0.5
2024 4.5 0.6 1.5
2117 2.5 0.3
3003 1.2

6 .1
5052 2.5 0.25
5056 0.10 5.2 0.10
6061 0.6 0.25 1.0 0.25
7075 1.6 2.5 0.30 5.6

6: Aircraft Materials 127

6.2 Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought
Aluminum Alloys

First digit: Principal alloying element

Second digit: A measure of the limits for impurities
Third and fourth digits: The amount of the alloying element in the metal

Type of Alloy Number Group

Aluminum 99% or greater 1xxx
Copper 2xxx
Manganese 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx
Magnesium 5xxx
Magnesium and silicon 6xxx
Zinc 7xxx
Other elements 8xxx
Unused series 9xxx

Pure aluminum is the softest and most corrosion-resistant form of alumi-

num, but it is not generally used in aircraft construction or maintenance. 1100
is the most widely used form of commercially pure aluminum used in aircraft
maintenance. It can only be used in nonstructural applications, such as
fairings.
Copper is alloyed with aluminum to increase its strength and make it
heat-treatable, but this makes it susceptible to corrosion. 2024 is the most
widely used alloy in this series. To make a 2024 sheet more corrosion-
resistant, a thin layer of pure aluminum is rolled onto its surface when the
sheet metal is made. This process is called “cladding.” Most of the rivets used
in sheet metal construction are made of 2117, 2017, or 2024.
Manganese makes the aluminum stronger and easier to weld. 3003 is
the most widely used alloy in this series because it is soft and easy to form. It
is used for cowling, propeller spinners, and wheel pants.
Magnesium adds strength to the aluminum, which makes it more difficult
to form. 5052 is widely used for fluid lines; in its sheet form it is used for fuel
tanks because it is weldable and reasonably corrosion-resistant. 5052 is not
heat-treatable.
Magnesium and silicon give aluminum strength, malleability, and
weldability. 6061 is used in applications in which heat treatability, ease of
forming, medium strength and corrosion-resistance are important.
Zinc gives aluminum high strength, but makes it expensive and difficult to
form. 7075 is the alloy used in modern aircraft where high strength and light
weight are the primary considerations.

128 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

6.3 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys

Alloy and Tensile strength, psi Brinell hardness

temper* Ultimate Yield 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
1100-O 13,000 5,000 23
1100-H18 24,000 22,000 44
2017-O 26,000 10,000 45
2017-T4 62,000 40,000 105
2024-O 27,000 11,000 47
2024-T36 72,000 57,000 130
2024-T4 68,000 47,000 120
Alclad 2024-O 26,000 11,000 na
Alclad 2024-T36 67,000 53,000 na
3003-O 16,000 6,000 40

6.3
3003-H18 29,000 27,000 10
5052-O 28,000 13,000 47
5052-H38 42,000 37,000 77
6061-O 18,000 8,000 30
6061-T6 45,000 40,000 95
7075-O 33,000 15,000 60
7075-T6 83,000 73,000 150
Alclad 7075-O 32,000 14,000 na
Alclad 7075-T6 76,000 67,000 na

*See Section 6.4, “Temper Designations”

6: Aircraft Materials 129

6.4 Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys

Heat-Treatable Alloys
-O..........Annealed temper of wrought alloys
-F ..........As-fabricated condition for wrought alloys and as-cast for casting
alloys
-T2 ........Annealed temper of casting alloys
-T3 ........Solution heat-treated followed by strain hardening; a second digit,
if used, indicates the amount of strain hardening
-T4 ........Solution heat-treated followed by natural aging at room temperature
-T5 ........Artificially aged at an elevated temperature
-T6 ........Solution heat-treated followed by artificial aging
-T7 ........Solution heat-treated followed by stabilization
-T8 ........Solution heat-treated followed by strain hardening, then artificial
aging
-T9 ........Solution heat-treated followed by artificial aging, then strain
hardening

Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys
-O..........Annealed
-H1 ........Strain hardened by cold-working; a second digit indicates the
degree of strain hardening
-H12 ......1/4 hard
-H14 ......1/2 hard
-H18 ......Full hard
-H19 ......Extra hard
-H2 ........Strain hardened by cold-working, then partially annealed
-H3 ........Strain hardened and stabilized

130 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

6.5 Temperatures for Heat Treatment of
Aluminum Alloys

Alloy Annealing Solution Heat treat. Precip. Heat treat.

temp. time temp. temper temp. time temper
°F hours °F °F hours

1100 650 2-3

2017 775 2-3 940 -T4
2024 775 2-3 920 -T4 375 7-9 -T86
2117 775 2-3 940 -T4
3003 775 2-3
5052 650 2-3

6.5
6061 775 2-3 970 -T4 320 16-20 -T6
7075 775 2-3 870 -W 250 24-28 -T6

6: Aircraft Materials 131

6.6 Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum
Alloy Sheet

Sheet Diameter of rivet

thickness (inches)
(inches) 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
0.014 71 107 143 179 215 287 358 430
0.016 82 123 164 204 246 328 410 492
0.018 92 138 184 230 276 369 461 553
0.020 102 153 205 256 307 410 512 615
0.025 128 192 256 320 284 512 640 768
0.032 164 245 328 409 492 656 820 984
0.036 184 276 369 461 553 738 922 1,107
0.040 205 307 410 512 615 820 1,025 1,230
0.045 230 345 461 576 691 922 1,153 1,383
0.051 261 391 522 653 784 1,045 1,306 1,568
0.064 492 656 820 984 1,312 1,640 1,968
0.072 553 738 922 1,107 1,476 1,845 2,214
0.081 622 830 1,037 1,245 1,660 2,075 2,490
0.091 699 932 1,167 1,398 1,864 2,330 2,796
0.102 784 1,046 1,307 1,569 2,092 2,615 3,138
0.125 961 1,281 1,602 1,922 2,563 3,203 3,844
0.156 1,198 1,598 1,997 2,397 3,196 3,995 4,794
0.188 1,445 1,927 2,409 2,891 3,854 4,818 5,781
0.250 1,921 2,562 3,202 3,843 5,125 6,405 7,686
0.313 2,405 3,208 4,009 4,811 6,417 7,568 9,623
0.375 2,882 3,843 4,803 5,765 7,688 9,068 11,529
0.500 3,842 5,124 6,404 7,686 10,250 12,090 15,372

132 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

6.7 Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets

Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets

Rivet Strength Diameter of rivet

comp. of rivet (inches)
(alloy) (psi) 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
2117-T 27,000 83 186 331 518 745 1,325 2,071 2,981
2017-T 30,000 92 206 368 573 828 1,472 2,300 3,313

6 .7
2024-T 35,000 107 241 429 670 966 1,718 2,684 3,865

Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets

Rivet Strength Diameter of rivet

comp. of rivet (inches)
(alloy) (psi) 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
2117-T 27,000 166 372 662 1,036 1,490 2,650 4,142 5,962
2017-T 30,000 184 412 736 1,146 1,656 2,944 4,600 6,626
2024-T 35,000 214 482 858 1,340 1,932 3,436 5,368 7,730

6: Aircraft Materials 133

6.8 SAE Classification of Steel

Type of steel Identification

number
Carbon steels ..........................................................................................1xxx
Plain carbon steel ............................................................................... 10xx
Free cutting steel ................................................................................ 11xx
Manganese steels (Manganese 1.60 to 1.90%) ..................................... 13xx
Nickel steels.............................................................................................2xxx
3.50% nickel ....................................................................................... 23xx
5.00% nickel ....................................................................................... 25xx
Nickel chromium steels ............................................................................3xxx
9.7% nickel, 0.07% chromium ............................................................ 30xx
1.25% nickel, 0.60% chromium .......................................................... 31xx
1.75% nickel, 1.00% chromium .......................................................... 32xx
3.50% nickel, 1.50% chromium .......................................................... 33xx
Corrosion and heat resisting .............................................................30xxx
Molybdenum steels................................................................................. 40xx
Chromium molybdenum steels ........................................................... 41xx
Nickel chromium molybdenum steels ................................................. 43xx
Nickel molybdenum steels
1.75% nickel, 0.25% molybdenum ..................................................... 46xx
3.50% nickel, 0.25% molybdenum ..................................................... 48xx
Chromium steels......................................................................................5xxx
Low chromium .................................................................................... 51xx
Medium chromium .............................................................................52xxx
Corrosion and heat resisting .............................................................51xxx
Chromium vanadium steels .....................................................................6xxx
1.00% chromium ................................................................................ 61xx
National emergency steels ......................................................................8xxx
Silicon manganese steels ........................................................................9xxx
2.00% silicon ...................................................................................... 92xx

134 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

6.9 Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness

Rockwell Rockwell
C-Scale Brinell Tensile C-Scale Brinell Tensile
hardness hardness strength hardness hardness strength
number number 1,000 psi number number 1,000 psi
52 500 262 30 286 142
51 487 253 29 279 138
50 475 245 28 271 134
49 464 239 27 264 131
48 451 232 26 258 127
47 442 225 25 253 124
46 432 219 24 247 121
45 421 212 23 243 118

6.9
44 409 206 22 237 115
43 400 201 21 231 113
42 390 196 20 226 110
41 381 191 (18) 219 106
40 371 186 (16) 212 102
39 362 181 (14) 203 98
38 353 176 (12) 194 94
37 344 172 (10) 187 90
36 336 168 (8) 179 87
35 327 163 (6) 171 84
34 319 159 (4) 165 80
33 311 154 (2) 158 77
32 301 150 (0) 152 75
31 294 146

Numbers in parentheses ( ) are beyond the normal range of the Rockwell

C-Scale.

6: Aircraft Materials 135

6.10 Color of Steel for Various Temperatures

Color of Steel Temperature of steel

°F °C
Faint red 900 482
Blood red 1,050 566
Dark cherry 1,075 579
Medium cherry 1,250 677
Cherry (full red) 1,375 746
Bright red 1,550 843
Salmon 1,650 899
Orange 1,725 941
Lemon 1,825 996
Light yellow 1,975 1,079
White 2,200 1,204
Dazzling white 2,350 1,288

136 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

6.11 Color of Oxides on Steel at Various
Tempering Temperatures

Oxide color Temperature

°F °C
Pale yellow 428 220
Straw 446 230
Golden yellow 469 243
Brown 491 255
Brown with purple spots 509 265

6 .11
Purple 531 277
Dark blue 550 288
Bright blue 567 297
Pale blue 610 321

To temper a small tool, first harden it by heating it until it is cherry red, and
then quench it in oil or water. Polish the hardened tool and then reheat it until
the correct color oxide forms on the polished surface. The first oxides to form
are pale yellow, and they progress through darker yellows, brown, purple and
shades of blue. When the correct color oxide forms, quench the tool again.

The correct color of oxides for tempering small tools are:

Tool Oxide Color

Scribers, scrapers and hammer faces ............................................ Pale yellow
Center punches and drills .......................................................... Golden yellow
Cold chisels and drifts ............................................................................Brown
Screwdrivers .......................................................................................... Purple

6: Aircraft Materials 137

138 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools 141

7.2 Holding Tools 147

7.3 Safety Wiring Tools 149

7.4 Bending and Forming Tools 150

7.5 Cutting Tools 151

7.6 Hole Cutting Tools 157

7.7 Threads and Threading Tools 165

7
7.8 Torque and Torque Wrenches 168

7.9 Pounding Tools 172

7.10 Punches 173

7.11 Wrenches 175

7.12 Screwdrivers 179

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 139

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools

Steel Rule
For greater accuracy, when making a measurement with a steel rule do not
use the end of the rule, but measure the distance between two marks away
from the end.

Hook Rule

7.1
Hook rules are a special type of
steel rule that are usually stiff and
have a hook on one end accurately
aligned with the end of the rule,
for measuring from the edge of an
object where a radius is involved.

Combination Set
A combination set consists of a 12-inch steel rule with three heads held
onto the rule by clamps. The stock head converts the rule into a square to
measure 90° and 45° angles. The protractor head can be set to measure
any angle between the rule and the bottom of the head. When the two arms
of the center head are held against a circular object, the edge of the rule
passes across its center.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 141

 Dividers
Dividers are used to transfer
distances from a steel rule to a piece
of sheet metal that is being laid out.
They are also used for dividing a line
into equal increments.

Outside Calipers
On outside calipers, the ends of
the legs are pointed inward so that
the outside of an object can be
measured. Adjust the legs so the
ends are exactly the same distance
apart as the outside of the object,
and then measure the distance
between the ends with a steel rule.

Inside Calipers
Adjust the legs of inside calipers so
the ends exactly fit into the object
being measured, and then measure
the distance between the ends with
a steel rule.

Hermaphrodite Calipers
Hermaphrodite calipers are used
to scribe a line along a piece of
material a specific distance from the
edge.

Scriber
Scribers have a needle-sharp point
used to mark very fine lines on the
surface of a piece of metal to be
cut. Scribed lines on highly stressed
metal can cause stress risers.

Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers are used to make rapid and accurate inside and outside
measurements over a greater range than that of a micrometer caliper.
Each inch on the main scale is divided into 10 numbered increments, each
representing 1/10 inch (0.1 inch). One inch on the vernier scale is divided into
25 increments, with each increment representing 1/25 inch or 0.040 inch.

142 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

How to Read the Vernier Scale
The vernier scale’s “zero” is beyond the main scale’s 3-inch mark
(3.000). It is also past the 4/10-inch mark (0.400), and past one of the
1/40-inch marks (0.025). Only one mark on the vernier scale aligns with
a mark on the main scale: the “11” mark (see asterisk in figure below).

7.1
Add 0.011 to the total: 3.000 + 0.400 + 0.025 + 0.011 = 3.436 inches.

Vernier scale

The vernier scale’s “zero” is beyond the main scale’s 41.5-mm mark.
Only one mark on the vernier scale aligns with one of the marks on the
main scale: the “.18” mark (see asterisk in figure below). Add 0.18 to
41.5 to get a total reading of 41.68 mm.

Vernier scale

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 143

Micrometer Caliper
Micrometer calipers are available as inside and outside calipers, with ranges
from 0 to 1 inch, to special calipers that measure up to 60 inches. Standard
micrometer calipers can be read to 0.001 inch (one one thousandth of an
inch) and vernier micrometer calipers can be read to 0.0001 inch (one ten
thousandth of an inch).

144 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

How to Read the Vernier
Micrometer Scale
In the figure shown, the thimble
was screwed out more than eight
complete turns, which moved the
spindle out two tenths of an inch
(0.200); then it stopped, before
another turn, with the reference
line on the barrel between the 22
and 23 thousandth-inch marks
on the thimble. The measuring
faces are between 0.222- and
0.223-inch apart. The “5” mark
on the vernier scale lines up with
one of the marks on the thimble.
This means that the spindle
moved out five ten thousandths of
an inch beyond 0.222. The total
separation of the measuring faces

7.1
is 0.2225 inch.

In the metric example, the

thimble moved out more than
8.5 mm, and then more than 25
graduations, or 0.25 mm, beyond
the reference mark. The vernier
mark representing 6 divisions is
aligned with one of the marks
on the thimble, indicating the
spindle moved 0.006 mm beyond
0.25. The total separation of the
measuring faces is therefore
8.5 + 0.25 + 0.006 = 8.756
millimeters.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 145

 Dial Indicator
Dial indicators are used to measure
end-play in shaft installations, gear
backlash, bevel gear preload, and
shaft out-of-round or runout.

Feeler Gages
Feeler gages are used for
measuring clearances in valve
trains and breaker points, gear
backlash, piston ring end-gap and
side clearance, and the flatness of
objects when used with a precision
surface plate.

Small-Hole Gages
Small holes, up to approximately
1/2-inch in diameter, may be
accurately measured with small-hole
gages. Place a ball-type small-hole
gage into the hole to be measured
and twist the knurled end of the
handle to expand the ball end until it
exactly fits in the hole. Remove the
gage and measure its diameter with
a vernier micrometer caliper.

Telescoping Gages
Select the gage with the proper
range and place it in the hole.
Loosen the knurled end of the
handle to release the hardened steel
plungers in the telescoping head.
This allows an internal spring to
force the plungers out against the
walls of the cylinder bore. Hold the
gage so the T-head is perpendicular
to the inside wall of the bore and
tighten the end of the handle.
Remove the gage and measure the
distance between the ends of the
plungers with a vernier micrometer
caliper.

146 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.2 Holding Tools

Vises
Bench Vise
Bench vises normally have
replaceable serrated jaws to hold
the material without slipping and
are mounted on a swiveling base.
The size of a vise is indicated by the
width of the jaws, which normally
range from 3-1/2 to 6 inches.

Drill Press Vise

Drill-press vises have a flat bottom with slots which allow them to be bolted

7.2
to the table of a drill press.

Pliers
Combination/Slip Joint Pliers
Standard pliers that have serrated
jaws for gripping round objects and
flat jaws for holding flat materials.
When the jaws are open wide, the
handle pivot may be slipped from
one pivot hole to the other, allowing
the jaws to open wider to hold larger
objects.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 147

 Water Pump Pliers
Also called adjustable-joint pliers.
The long handles are for applying
force to the jaws and torque to the
object being turned. Available with
a slip-joint adjustment or a tongue
and groove type of adjustment that
cannot slip, in lengths from 4-1/2
inches with parallel jaws that open
to 1/2 inch, to 16 inches with jaws
that open to more than 4 inches.

Vise-Grip ® Pliers
These patented locking pliers have
a knurled knob in the handle that
adjusts the opening of the jaws.
When the handles are squeezed
together, a compound-lever action
applies a tremendous force to the
jaws, and an over-center feature
holds them tightly locked on the
object between the jaws.

Needle-Nose Pliers
Used to hold wires or small objects
and to make loops or bends in
electrical wires. Some have straight
jaws and others are bent to reach
into obstructed areas; available in
lengths from 4-1/2 to more than 10
inches.

148 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.3 Safety Wiring Tools

Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Diagonal cutters, or “dikes,” are used
to cut safety wire and cotter pins.
The name of these pliers is derived
from the shape of the jaws that have
an angled cutting edge.

Duckbill Pliers
Duckbill pliers have long handles
and wide serrated jaws that hold
safety wire firmly while it is being
twisted.

Safety Wire Twisting Tool

7.3
This safety-wiring tool grips wire securely, and the jaws lock on the wire;
when the knob in the handle is pulled out, the tool twists the safety wire with
a uniform twist. Can be used to give wire a left-hand or right-hand twist.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 149

7.4 Bending and Forming Tools

Tools for Making Straight

Bends and Curves
Cornice Brake
The cornice, or leaf brake is a heavy
shop tool used to make straight
bends across a piece of sheet
metal. The bend radius appropriate
for the thickness and temper of the
metal can be chosen by using the
appropriate radius block on the
upper jaw of the brake.

Box Brake
A box, or finger brake is similar to a
cornice brake, except the upper jaw
is made up of a number of heavy
steel fingers so all four sides of a
box can be folded up.

Press Brake
A press brake is used when a
large number of duplicate pieces of
material must be made with exactly
the same amount of bend. The metal
is placed over the female die whose
inside radius is the same as the
outside radius of the finished bend.
A matching male die, or punch, with
the correct radius forces the material
into the die with energy stored in
a large flywheel or with hydraulic
pressure. Angles and channels are
formed on press brakes.

150 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Slip Roll Former
Used for making large radius bends
across a piece of sheet metal. The
metal is clamped between the drive
roller and the gripping roller, and the
handle is turned to pull the metal
through the machine against the
radius roller, which is adjusted to
control the radius of the bend.

Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal

English Wheel
Aluminum alloy sheets are formed by stretching them, which is initially done
with a soft mallet and a sandbag, resulting in a rough surface that must be
smoothed out. The smoothing is done by moving the stretched aluminum
sheet back and forth between the two rollers in an English wheel. The upper
roller is a large cast-iron wheel with a highly polished and very slightly
concave surface. A smaller, lower wheel is adjustable so it can be moved

7.5
closer to or further from the upper wheel. The lower wheel has a convex
surface, and there are a number of wheels available with differing radii to
vary the radius of the metal being formed. The metal being worked is moved
back and forth between the two wheels to smooth and form it.

7.5 Cutting Tools

Shears
Throatless Shears
Throatless shears have two short
cutting blades that cut much like a pair
of scissors. The lower blade is fixed
to the base and the upper blade is
operated by a long handle.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 151

 Squaring Shears
Foot-treadle-operated shears can
make a straight cut across aluminum
alloy sheets up to approximately
0.051-inch thickness and mild steel of
22-gage or thinner. Power-operated
shears that use a small electric motor
to store a large amount of energy in a
heavy flywheel can cut much thicker
sheets. Place the metal to be cut on
the bed and square it by holding it
against the squaring fence. Lock the
hold-down clamp in place to hold
the metal tight on the table and keep
your fingers out of the way of the
blade. The blade is angled so that it
slices its way through the sheet when
the foot-treadle is pressed or when
the energy stored in the flywheel
forces the blade down.

Scroll Shears
Used to pierce a piece of sheet
metal and cut irregular curves on the
inside of the sheet without having to
cut through to the edge. The upper
blade has a sharp point for piercing
the metal and is fixed to the frame of
the shears; the lower blade is raised
against the upper by the compound
action of a hand-operated handle.

Hand Shears
Tin Snips
Used to cut sheets of aluminum
alloy up to about 0.032-inch thick to
roughly the size needed to fabricate
a part. Final cutting and trimming is
done with other tools.

152 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Compound Shears
Also known as aviation shears or
Dutchman shears. They have short
serrated blades, actuated by a
compound action from the handles.
There are three shapes of blades,
one designed to cut to the left, one
to cut to the right, and one to make
straight cuts. The serrated blades
leave a rough edge that must be
filed off to prevent stress risers.
The handles of these shears are
often color coded. Shears with
red handles cut to the left, green
handles cut to the right, and yellow
handles cut straight.

Saws
Band Saw

7.5
This contour band saw
has a work table adjusted
for tilt, and a variable-
speed drive that allows the
cutting speed of the blade
to be adjusted to meet
the requirements for the
material being cut. It also
has a cutter, welder, and
grinder that allows the saw
to be used for cutting inside
a piece of sheet material
without cutting through to
the edge. Drill or punch a
hole in the area to be sawed
and remove the blade from
the wheels of the saw. Cut the blade
in two and place one end through the
hole in the material. Clamp the two ends
of the blade in the butt welder. Electric
current flows through them, and heats them enough to melt the ends so they
flow together. Shut the current off and allow the joint to cool, then grind it
smooth. Reinstall the blade over the wheels, and cut the inside of the material.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 153

 Hacksaw
A hacksaw uses a narrow
replaceable blade held under
tension in a steel frame. The blades
are available in 10 and 12-inch
lengths and from 14 to 32 teeth per
inch. A blade should be chosen that
will allow at least two teeth to be
on the material at all times. When
cutting, pressure should be applied
on the forward stroke and relaxed on
the return stroke.

Wood Saws
Crosscut Saw
A crosscut saw is a handsaw used
for cutting across the grain of wood.
The teeth, or points, are filed so
they have a knife-like cutting edge
on the same side of each alternate
Kerf tooth. The teeth are set by bending
every other tooth to one side and the
alternate teeth to the opposite side.
The set of the teeth results in a cut
that is wider than the saw blade. This
widened cut, called the kerf, keeps
the blade from binding in the cut.

Ripsaw
Ripsaws are similar to crosscut saws
except for the shape and number of
the teeth. They have fewer teeth per
inch than a crosscut saw and the
teeth are shaped to act as chisels
and dig into the wood fibers.

Compass, or Keyhole Saw

A compass, or keyhole saw is a
small saw with teeth similar to those
of a crosscut saw. The blade is thin
and tapered so it can enter a drilled
hole and cut curves or circles.

154 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Backsaw
Backsaws have teeth similar to
crosscut saws, but much smaller with
more teeth per inch and less set. The
blade has a stiffener across its back
to keep it from bending. Backsaws
produce a smooth cut across the
grain for wood stringers or capstrips
and they are often used with a miter
box.

Chisels
Flat Chisel
Made of a piece of hardened steel
that is ground with a cutting angle
of 70°. The cutting edge is ground to
a convex shape to concentrate the
force of the hammer blows at the
point the cut is being made.

7.5
Cape Chisel
Cape chisels have a narrow cutting
edge used to remove the head of a
solid rivet after the head has been
drilled through.

Diamond Point Chisel

These are forged to a sharp-
cornered square, and the end is
ground to an acute angle to form a
sharp pointed cutting edge. They are
used for cutting V-shaped grooves,
and for cutting the sharp corners in
square or rectangular grooves.

Round Nose Chisel

These chisels look much like
diamond-point chisels except the
cutting edge is ground to a circular
point. They are used for cutting radii
in the bottom of grooves.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 155

Files
Flat file: Rectangular cross-section, tapered toward point in both width and
thickness.
Hand file: Rectangular cross-section, sides parallel, tapers in thickness. One
edge is safe (there are no teeth cut on it). Used for finishing flat surfaces.
Half-round file: Flat side and rounded side. Tapers in both width and
thickness. Used to file the inside of large radius curves.
Triangular, or three-square file: Double-cut with triangular cross-section,
tapered. Used to file acute internal angles and to restore damaged threads.
Round file: Commonly called a rattail file. Circular cross-section, tapered in
length. Used to file the inside of circular openings and curved surfaces.
Knife file: Tapered in both width and thickness, cross-sectional shape much
like a knife blade. Used for filing work with acute angles.
Vixen file: Curved teeth across file; used for removing large amounts of soft
metal.
Wood rasp: Resembles file, except teeth formed in rows of individual round-
point chisels. Used to remove large amounts of wood; they do not leave a
smooth surface.

156 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.6 Hole Cutting Tools

Twist Drills
Twist drills are available in two
materials, carbon steel and high-
speed steel. Carbon drills cost
less and have a shorter life than
high-speed drills and therefore they
have limited use. High-speed drills
are made of alloy steel and maintain
their sharpness even when they
are hot. They are available in three
groups of sizes: number, letter, and
fraction.

Twist Drill Sizes

7.6

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 157

158 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
 7.6

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 159

Drill Gage
To identify the size of the drill, find the hole that exactly fits the drill; the
number beside the hole is the size of the drill.

Twist Drill Sharpening

Twist drills are perhaps the simplest cutting tool used by an AMT but it is
important that they be properly sharpened for the material they are used on.
The point angles shown here are for aluminum alloys and brass, hard and
tough metals, and transparent plastics and wood. When sharpening a drill,
be sure that the lengths of the lips, or cutting edges, are the same, and the
included angle and lip relief angle are correct for the material to be drilled.

160 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 7.6
Drill Point Gage
Because the points of most drills used in routine aviation maintenance are
ground to an included angle of 118°, or 59° either side of center, a handy drill
point gage is available to determine that the angle is proper and the lips are
of the same lengths.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 161

 Large Hole Cutters
Hole Saws
Used to cut large-diameter holes in
thin sheet metal or wood. Different
diameter saws can be installed,
available from 9/19-inch up to more
than 4 inches. A shank fits into a
drill press or a hand drill motor, and
the pilot drill has a short section of
flutes with a longer smooth shank.
This allows the drill to cut the pilot
hole, then when the saw reaches the
material, the shank of the pilot drill
is in the hole and therefore does not
enlarge the hole, yet holds the saw
centered.

Fly Cutter
Used to cut large holes in thin sheet
metal, but not limited to specific size
holes. A cutting tool is mounted in
the arm of the fly cutter, and the arm
is adjusted so the tip of the cutter is
exactly the radius of the desired hole
from the center of the pilot drill. The
shank of the fly cutter is chucked in
a drill press, and the pilot drill cuts
the guide hole.
WARNING: It is important when cutting
Operate the drill press at a slow
holes in thin sheet metal to support the
metal on a piece of scrap plywood and speed, and feed the cutter into the
clamp the metal and plywood firmly to work very slowly and carefully so it
the drill press table. This prevents the cuts rather than grabs.
metal from becoming a lethal spinning
knife if the cutter should dig into it. Countersink
A stop countersink cuts a countersink
to the correct depth. Place the proper
cutter in the tool and adjust the fiber
collar so it contacts the skin when the
countersink hole is the correct depth.
To determine the correct adjustment
of the skirt, make some test counter-
sinks in scrap material until the
recess is just deep enough so the top
of the fastener is flush with the metal
surface.

162 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Reamers
A special cutting tool with sharp
knife-edge blades, or flutes, cut into
its periphery that are extremely hard
and easily chipped. When preparing
a hole for a close-tolerance bolt,
drill the hole about one to three
thousandths of an inch (0.001 to
0.003 inch) smaller than the outside
diameter of the reamer. Be sure that
the reamer is perfectly aligned with
the hole and turn it steadily in its
proper cutting direction to prevent
it from chattering. Never turn the
reamer backward after it has begun
to cut as this will dull the reamer.
Fixed-diameter reamers enlarge
the hole to the most accurate
dimensions, but expansion reamers
may be used to ream a hole slightly

7.6
larger than a fixed reamer. The hex
on the end of the cutter is turned to
increase the diameter of the cutters
which can be measured with a
vernier micrometer caliper.

Drills for Wood and

Composite Materials
Auger Bits
Auger bits are turned with a bow-
type brace. The feed screw in the
end of the bit screws into the wood
and pulls the bit in. Sharp cutting
edges parallel with the axis of the
bit cut a circle in the wood and the
cutting edge perpendicular to the
axis of the bit cuts the chips from
within the circle. The chips travel up
the spiral flutes and out of the hole.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 163

 Forstner Bits
Mounted in a drill press and used
for boring flat-bottom holes in wood.
The vertical cutting edge cuts a
circle the size of the hole being
bored and the horizontal edge cuts
the chips from the area within the
circle.

Flat Wood-Boring Bits

Available in sizes from 1/4-inch
to more than one inch. These bits
are chucked into an electric or
pneumatic drill motor. The pointed
pilot keeps the bit centered in the
hole as the cutting edge of the bit
cuts the chips and moves them out
of the hole.

Brad-Point Drills
Brad-point drills are used for cutting
Kevlar reinforced material. The drill
is chucked into a high-speed electric
or pneumatic drill motor and pressed
into the material with little pressure.
The cutting edges cut the fibers and
produce a fuzz-free hole.

Spade Drill
Used to drill graphite materials,
these provide ample space for the
graphite dust to leave so it will not
enlarge the hole. Spade drills are
turned at a high speed in an electric
or pneumatic drill motor, using very
little pressure.

164 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.7 Threads and Threading Tools

Unified and American

Standard Thread Form
There are a number of forms of
threads used on bolts and screws,
but the Unified and American
Standard Thread form has been
accepted as the standard for most
aircraft hardware. This thread form
is available in both fine (UNF) and
coarse (UNC) threads.

7.7
Thread-Cutting Tools
Cut threads are formed with a die
as shown at right. The adjusting
screw is screwed in to spread the
split in the die in order to shallow
the threads being cut. The die is put
in the die stock, and the four set
screws are tightened to hold the die
in place. The die is then placed over
the end of the rod to be threaded
and turned to cut the threads.
The depth of the threads can be
increased by screwing out on the
adjusting screw.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 165

 Taps
Threads are cut inside a hole using
a series of taps. A taper tap is used
to start the threads as the first
several threads are ground back so
the tap will enter the hole and easily
begin to cut the threads. For thick
material, a plug tap is used to follow
the taper tap. If the threads are to
extend all the way to the bottom of
a blind hole, a bottoming tap is used
to follow the plug tap. The threads
on a bottoming tap are full depth all
the way to the end. Taps are held in
a tap wrench which is turned with
both hands to ensure that the tap
is perpendicular to the material as
threads are cut.

Body and Tap Drill Sizes

166 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 7.7

Screw Pitch Gage

Screw pitch gages help to identify
the thread type and size on a bolt
or nut. Each leaf in the gage has
teeth that correspond to bolt or nut
threads, with the number of threads
per inch stamped on it. To find the
number of threads per inch on a
bolt or nut, select the leaf with an
exact fit to the threads and note the
number stamped on the leaf.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 167

7.8 Torque and Torque Wrenches

NOTE: The strongest threaded joint is one in which the load applied to the
fastener when it is installed is greater than the maximum load that will be
applied to the joint in service. If a threaded fastener does not fail when it is
being properly torqued, it will not fail in service.

Click-Type Torque Wrench

Twist the handle until a reference mark aligns with a graduation on the shaft
of the wrench indicates the desired torque. Place the correct socket on the
wrench and put it on the fastener to be torqued. With the wrench perfectly
square to the fastener, apply a smooth pull on the wrench until it clicks. Click-
type torque wrenches do not limit the amount of torque that can be applied;
rather, they indicate the set amount of torque being applied when they click.
Stop the pull as soon as the wrench clicks.

Deflecting-Beam Torque
Wrench
It is important that the socket
is square on the fitting and the
force applied to the wrench is
concentrated at the pivot point on
the handle. The torque read on the
wrench (TW) measured in inch-
pounds is the product of the lever
length (L) in inches and the force (F)
in pounds.

168 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

When using an adapter on a torque wrench that adds to the lever length, you
must use the formula below to determine the torque reading on the wrench
TW in order to attain the required amount of torque applied to the fastener by
the adapter TA.

7.8
When the extension subtracts from the lever length of the wrench, use this
formula.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 169

Torque Conversions

Recommended Torque Values

170 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

The International System of Units (SI) is the modern form of the metric 7.8
system, and is used in many countries; however, the U.S. continues to use
the U.S. customary system. The SI unit for torque is newton meters (N.m);
in the U.S. customary units, it is foot-pounds force (ft-lbf).
1 N.m = 0.738 ft-lbf
1 ft-lbf = 1.355 N.m
1 inch-pound (in-lbf) = 0.1129 N.m

In some of the European countries, torque is measured in m.daN which is a

deci newton/meter (1/10 of a N.m).
1.m.daN = 7.38 ft-lbf or 88.5 in-lbf

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 171

7.9 Pounding Tools

Carpenter’s Claw Hammer

This hammer is used for driving and
removing nails, but is seldom used
when working on an aircraft. It is not
designed for use in metal working
because its face is slightly crowned
to concentrate the force when
driving nails.

Ball Peen Hammer

This is the most widely used
hammer for general aviation
maintenance; available with head
weights from a few ounces to
several pounds. The face of the
hammer is flat with slightly rounded
edges, and the opposite end of the
head is rounded like a ball.

Metalworking Hammers
Straight Peen and Cross Peen
Hammers
These are similar to the ball peen
except the peen end is in the form
of a wedge. The wedge on a straight
peen hammer is parallel to the
handle; the wedge on a cross peen
hammer is across the handle.

Body, or Planishing Hammer

To form compound curves in
sheet aluminum, the metal may
be stretched by hammering it into
a sandbag, then smoothed out by
hammering it over a smooth steel
dolly block with a planishing, or body
hammer, a lightweight hammer with
a large-area smooth face.

172 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers
Sheet aluminum is formed by first
stretching it, then smoothing it
so the stretched metal forms the
desired curves. The initial stretching
is done by pounding the metal into
a sandbag or around a form with a
soft-face hammer, or mallet. These hammers may have replaceable faces
of soft metal, resilient plastic, or coils of rawhide. Some hammer faces are
domed to better stretch the metal; some are flat for the initial smoothing.

Sledge Hammers
Sledge hammers are long-handled, heavy-head hammers that have two
parallel flat faces. They are wielded with two hands and used for heavy
pounding work, or for driving stakes in the ground.

7.10 Punches

7.10
Prick Punch
Has a sharp point; used to mark
the exact location for drilling a hole
in a piece of sheet metal. The point
of the prick punch is placed at this location, and the punch is tapped with a
lightweight hammer, leaving a small indentation at the location for the hole.

Center Punch
Similar to a prick punch, but its point
is more blunt. It is ground to an angle
of approximately 60°, which is correct
for starting a properly ground twist drill to cut. The point is placed in the
indentation formed by the prick punch, and the punch is hit with a hammer to
create a depression for holding the drill as it begins to cut.

Drift, or Starting Punch

Has a tapered shank; used to drive
bolts from their holes and to align
parts for assembly. Especially useful
when installing wings or other large airplane components. The wing is put in
place, and a drift punch is used to align the holes in the wing spars and the
fuselage before the bolts are put in place.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 173

Pin Punch
Used to remove rivets after the
manufactured head has been drilled
through. A punch of the proper size
is placed in the drilled hole, and the
rivet head is broken off. The punch is then tapped with a lightweight hammer
to punch the rivet shank from the hole. Also used to align components being
assembled.

Transfer Punch
Used to locate rivet holes when
making a new aircraft skin using
the old skin as a pattern. A transfer
punch whose outside diameter is the same as the diameter
of the rivet hole is placed in the hole in the old skin. The punch
is tapped with a lightweight hammer and the sharp point in the
center of the flat end makes a small indentation; this transfers a
location for a center punch to the new skin.

Automatic Center Punch

Used when a large number of holes
must be marked. A spring inside the
handle is adjusted by twisting the
handle. Place the point in the indentation made by a prick punch and press
the punch into the metal. As you press, the spring is compressed, and when
the proper compression is reached, the spring automatically releases and
drives the point into the metal.

174 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.11 Wrenches

Open End Wrench

Open end wrenches have parallel
jaws on each end. These jaws
are angled 15° to the axis of the
wrench to allow the wrench to be
flipped over to get a new grip on
the fastener when turning it in a
confined space. Most have different-
sized openings on the ends.

7.11
Adjustable Open End Wrench
Adjustable end wrenches have one
fixed jaw and one jaw that slides in
a groove and moves by a worm gear
that is rotated by the user. Important:
Place the wrench on the fastener
so the pull is away from the fixed
jaw. When the wrench is held in
this way, the strain is placed on the
tip of the fixed jaw and at the base
of the movable jaw where it is the
strongest.

Ratcheting Open End Wrench

A ratcheting open end wrench allows a
fastener to be turned down or removed
without having to lift the wrench at each turn.
It looks like an ordinary open end wrench
except one of the jaws is much shorter than
the other. When you pull the wrench toward
you the pressure is applied near the end of
the long jaw and the root of the short jaw. When the direction of wrench
movement is reversed the short jaw moves around to the next flat.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 175

Box End Wrench
Much more torque can be applied with
a box end wrench than with an open
end, as they cannot be sprung open.
Available in both 6-point and 12-point
ends, with gripping surfaces offset so
the wrench can be flipped over to get a
new grip on the fastener while working
in close quarters. The handles of some box end wrenches are offset so they
extend upward, for clearance, when the box of the wrench is flat.

Ratcheting Box Wrench

These have two thin 6- or 12-point
open sockets mounted in the ends,
in the same way as the box ends
of a standard box end wrench. The
outside of the sockets have ratchet
teeth cut in them, and the ratchet pawls are inside the wrench handle — to
get a new grip on the fastener, just ratchet the handle for a new grip each
time the pawl slips over a ratchet tooth. To reverse the wrench, remove it and
flip it over. Made with both straight and offset handles.

Combination Wrench
This wrench has a box end and an
open end of the same size handy for
removing tight fasteners. The box end
is used to apply maximum torque for
breaking the fastener loose, then the open end is used as it is much quicker
to get a new grip with an open end than with a box end.

Flare Nut Wrench

Flare nut wrenches resemble a
straight box end wrench that has a
portion of the box removed so the
wrench will slip over the fluid line to
loosen or tighten the fitting. These
are weaker than box end wrenches and should not be used in place of a box
end wrench for general nut tightening or loosening.

176 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Socket Wrenches
Socket Wrench Handles
The ratchet-type allows a socket to be placed on a fastener, and by moving
the handle back and forth, it is possible to tighten or loosen the fastener
without removing the socket. The break-over handle, or breaker bar, is a long
handle with the socket drive mounted on a pin that allows its angle relative to
the handle to be varied. Break-over handles can apply the maximum torque
to a fastener to tighten or loosen it. Speed handles, or speeders, resemble
a crank that allows a fastener to be rapidly spun into place. Very little torque
can be applied with a speed handle.

Break-over handle, or breaker bar

7.11
Hand Impact Tool
Used to break loose nuts and screws that have been corroded or rusted
to the extent that an ordinary socket or screwdriver cannot budge them.
Especially useful when fitted with a screwdriver bit to loosen structural
screws in stressed inspection plates. The recess
in the screw is cleaned out, and the screwdriver
bit is installed on the driver and placed in the
recess. The end of the driver is struck with a ball
peen hammer; the blow rotates the screwdriver
bit and at the same time prevents it from jumping
out of the recess.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 177

Typical Socket Wrenches
Available in 6- and 12-point openings, and in U.S. and metric sizes. Varieties
are shallow sockets, semi-deep sockets, and deep sockets. Sockets with
universal joints are available, as well as universal joints that can be placed
between a normal socket and a drive. Crowfoot wrenches with an open end
or a flare-nut end can be mounted on an extension to reach fasteners that
cannot be reached by any other type of wrench.

Extensions and Adapters

Straight extensions are available from less than 2 inches long to more than
36 inches. Some extensions are made of double-wrapped steel wire and
are flexible so the socket can be oriented at any angle relative to the drive
handle. Universal joints allow any socket to be used as a universal socket.
Ratchet adapters can be installed between a handle and a socket, or an
extension and a socket, so the socket can be ratcheted.

Allen Wrenches
Allen wrenches are made of
hardened tool steel with a hexagonal
cross section, in the shape of the
letter L with a long and a short leg.
They normally come in sets and
have dimensions across their flats
of from 1/16 inch to 5/8 inch.

178 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7.12 Screwdrivers

Slot Screwdrivers
Slot-head screws have limited use
in aircraft because they cannot be
installed or removed with power
screwdrivers — the blade slips out of
the screw slot and can damage the
component. Mostly they have been
replaced with recessed-head screws. The blade of a slot screwdriver must
be properly sharpened to prevent damage to the screw or the component in
which the screw is installed. The sides of the tip should be ground parallel
with the shank, and the edges should be sharp to grip the screw at the
bottom of the slot.

Offset Screwdriver
Used to turn screws in locations that

7.12
a straight screwdriver cannot reach.

Recessed-Head Screwdrivers
Power screwdrivers require a screw
head that will not allow the bit to slip
out. Two types of recessed-head, or
cross point screws have been used
in aviation maintenance for decades:
the Phillips and the Reed & Prince.
The point of the Phillips screwdriver
is blunt, and the sides of the point
have a double taper. The Reed &
Prince has a sharp point and a
single taper.

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 179

Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws
The airlines and the military use screws with other types of recessed heads
that hold the point of the screwdriver bit more tightly to prevent its slipping
out when used with a power screwdriver. Screwdriver bits are made to fit all
of these special screws. The Pozidriv screwdriver tips are an improvement on
the Phillips because the tip is not as tapered, with wedges that ensure a tight
fit in the screw head. Phillips screwdriver bits should not be used on Pozidriv
screws as they will ride up out of the recess and round the corners of both
the screw head and the screwdriver bit.

180 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 8: Aircraft Hardware

8.1 Standards 183

8.2 Threaded Fasteners 183

8.3 Washers 199

8.4 Special Rivets 201

8.5 Cowling Fasteners 208

8.6 Thread Repair Hardware 209

8: Aircraft Hardware 181

8.1 Standards

In the past, most manufacturers used standard aircraft parts that had been
engineered and approved by the Army and Navy, with their specifications
issued as AN standards. AN standard parts were easy to identify and
their numbering system was relatively simple. But with the introduction
of the turbine engine and high-speed, high-performance aircraft, aircraft
hardware has become a much more complex and critical field. AN standards
were replaced by Air Force-Navy standards; then other standards were
developed—some of the more important standards are listed below:

AN—Air Force / Navy Standards

NAS—National Aerospace Standards
MS—Military Standards
AMS—Aeronautical Material Specifications
SAE— Society of Automotive Engineers
MIL— Military Specifications

The task of looking at markings on a part and measuring it to determine

its part number is now a thing of the past. Many parts look alike, but their

8 .1
materials or tolerances can be quite different. Any replacement hardware
must be the part number specified in the aircraft or engine parts
manual, and each piece of hardware must be purchased from a source
known to be reputable. Look-alike parts that might be of inferior strength
can jeopardize the safety of an aircraft. The most commonly used parts and
pertinent facts about their proper use are listed in this Section. AMTs should
become familiar with the parts manuals for the aircraft and engines he or she
is working on to find the correct part number for each piece of hardware used.

8.2 Threaded Fasteners

Bolts
The most common type of threaded fastener, available in a number of
materials such as nickel steel, aluminum alloy, corrosion-resistant steel, and
titanium. Different types of heads for special purposes and different thread
pitches adapt them to special functions.

8: Aircraft Hardware 183

Hex-Head Bolts
The standard bolt used in airframe and
powerplant construction, designed for both
tensile and shear loads. They depend on
the proper application of torque for the
strength of the joint. Available with both
UNC and UNF threads, made of SAE 2330 nickel steel, 2024 aluminum alloy,
corrosion resistant steel, and titanium. Most have a medium (class 3) fit and
most of the steel bolts are cadmium-plated. Also available with holes drilled
through the head for safety wire, and/or with a hole through the shank for a
cotter pin. The material or bolt type is identified by marks on the head. Close-
tolerance bolts, identified by a triangle, are ground to a fit of ±0.0005 inch and
the ground surface is not plated, but is protected from rust with grease.

Bolt Head Identification Marks

E-11

A B C D E F
E-11 EC-3 NAS S 11
464
NAS NA

00
501
EC-3

-
G H I J K L

184 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Flush-Head Bolts
Many modern aircraft applications require
high-strength bolts with heads that can be
flush with the outside skin of the aircraft.
Most bolts in the NAS and MS series have
a 100° head, but some have an 82° head. These high-strength bolts are made
of alloy steel and titanium and some have self-locking inserts in the threads.

Head Recesses

Phillips Hi-Torque Torq-Set Tri-Wing

Drilled-Head Bolts
Drilled-head airframe bolts are used in
*

8.2
locations where a high tensile strength is
required and where the bolt is safetied with
safety wire. There is no hole in the shank
for a cotter pin.

Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts

Designed for special high-strength and
high-temperature airframe and powerplant
applications; available in both NAS and MS
series. The heads of many of these bolts
are drilled for safety wire.

Internal Wrenching Bolts

These are the typical high-strength NAS144, MS2004
alloy steel bolts used in special airframe
applications where severe loads are
imposed on the structure. They have a
radius between the shank and the head,
and a special chamfered, heat-treated steel
washer (such as the NAS 143C) is used under the head to provide a bearing
surface. Turned with a hex wrench which fits into the socket in the head.

8: Aircraft Hardware 185

Clevis Bolts
Designed for shear loads only. To prevent AN21 to AN36 series
them from being used for tensile loads, the
head is shallow and has a slot or recess *
for turning with a screwdriver. The threads
are short to take a thin nut, and there is a
notch between the threads and the shank.
Most have a drilled shank so a cotter pin can be used to prevent the nut from
backing off. A typical application is the attachment of a cable to a control
horn: the bolt is installed and the nut is tightened just enough that the cable
terminal is free to move on the horn.

Eye Bolts
Used to attach wires and cables to aircraft AN42 to AN49 series
structure; made of alloy steel, cadmium-
plated, and available with or without drilled
shanks.

Bolt Installation
Almost all hex-head bolts have a round, Grip
smooth, washer-like bearing surface just length
below the head. This surface prevents
the edges of the head from damaging the
surface of the component into which the
bolt is installed. If there is no such surface,
a washer should be placed under the head.
Also, always place a washer under the nut to provide a good bearing surface
and prevent damage to the component as the nut is tightened.
The bolt length should be chosen so that the grip length (the length of
the unthreaded shank) is the same as the thickness of the materials being
joined. The nut must never be screwed down against the last thread on
the bolt. If the grip length is too long, use plain washers to act as shims to
prevent the nut reaching the last thread. Bolts must be installed in exactly
the way the aircraft or engine maintenance manual specifies. If there is
no information of this nature, bolts should be installed with the head upward,
forward, or inboard. These orientations normally aid in preventing the bolt
from falling out if the nut were not screwed on.
Some bolts have holes drilled in the threaded portion of the shank for
cotter pins to secure a castellated nut. If a self-locking nut is to be used on
a drilled shank bolt, be sure that the edges of the hole are chamfered to
prevent the sharp edges from cutting threads in the nut insert.

186 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Bolt Fits
If there is any looseness or play in a threaded joint, vibration can produce
a cyclic stress that can further loosen the fastener and lead to destruction.
Aircraft design engineers calculate the stresses that will affect every joint,
and the fasteners are designed to produce a stress within the joint greater
than any anticipated applied stress. This bolt stress is determined by the fit
of the bolt in the bolt hole, and by the torque applied (see Pages 168–171).
The maintenance manual usually specifies the drill size for all bolt holes.
If no drill size is specified, it is normally satisfactory to use the next larger
number drill (smaller number) than the shank diameter of the bolt being
installed. Example: a #12 drill (0.1890) can be used for a 3/16-inch (0.1875)
bolt. Some manuals specify a type of drive fit for the bolt in which the hole
is drilled slightly undersize and reamed to the diameter that will provide the
desired fit (see table below):

Type of fit How to drill/ream hole

Loose fit .................. Use a drill number one size larger than the diameter of
bolt. Hole is 0.002 to 0.005 inch larger than bolt shank.
Push fit.................... Reamed fit— allows bolt to be forced into the hole by
hard, steady push against bolt head.
Tight-drive fit ........... Requires bolt to be driven into the hole with sharp blows

8.2
from a 12- or 14-ounce hammer.
Interference fit ......... Bolt diameter is larger than reamed diameter of hole.
The component with the hole must be heated to expand
the hole—the bolt is chilled with dry ice to shrink it.
When bolt is installed, and the component and the bolt
reach the same temperature, the bolt cannot be moved.

Screws
Normally differ from a bolt because they have a slot or recess in the head so
they can be turned with a screwdriver rather than a wrench, and their threads
extend all of the way to the head. However, this distinction has been blurred:
a number of high-strength bolts also exist with flush heads so they can be
installed on the outside of an aircraft structure and not cause wind resistance.

8: Aircraft Hardware 187

Aircraft Screw Heads

Round head
Normally used for nonstructural applications and are
made in steel and brass. Most have a class 2 fit;
available with both coarse and fine threads. Slot
heads and Phillips recessed heads are the most
common.

Pan head
Flatter than round heads, used to replace round
heads for new designs. Available with slot or Phillips
recessed heads.

100° Flush head

Used for applications where high strength and a
smooth surface are necessary. Available in both
NAS and MS series; may have Phillips, Hi-Torque,
or Torq-Set heads.

82° Flush head

Found on some AN screws; used for a flush
installation where high strength is not necessary.

Fillister head
Used where surface smoothness is not necessary.
Often drilled for safety wire.

Tri-wing® recess
Slot (Registered trademark of
Phillips Screw Company)

Hi-Torque recess Phillips recess

Torq-Set recess

188 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Set Screws
A special type of headless screw used for such applications as securing
wheels or pulleys to shafts, or indexing a wheel on a splined shaft. The
cup and cone points bite into the shaft for a tight grip. The full dog and half
dog points are used to ride in a spline to allow lengthwise movement while
preventing rotation.

Hex Spline Slotted

Socket

Flat Cone Cup Oval Full Dog Half Dog

Type A Type B Type D Type F Type C Type E

8.2
Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal
Screws
Used in the installation of cowling Round head
and inspection plates for some
lighter aircraft. Often called PK
screws because the first ones to Pan head
become popular were made by the
Parker-Kaylon company. Available in
the AN, MS, and NAS series. They
may have either a sharp point (Type Truss head
A) or a blunt end (Type B), and are
made with either a slot or a Phillips
recessed head in sizes 4, 6, 8, 82° countersunk
and 10. head

82° countersunk
oval head

All of the screws shown are

Type A, having a sharp point.

8: Aircraft Hardware 189

Nuts
These components have internal threads that screw down over a bolt to
provide the clamping action that holds all the components in a bolted joint
tightly together.

Nonlocking Nuts
• No built-in provision for automatically locking them to the bolt.
• Must use a cotter pin, safety wire, or a check nut to prevent them from
turning.

AN310 and AN320

• Secured to bolts by cotter pins
passed through bolt holes and Castellated, or Castle
slots in the nuts. Airframe Nuts
• AN310 — thick nut used for
tensile loads
• AN320 — thin nut used only for
shear loads.
AN 320
• Available in cadmium-plated
nickel steel, aluminum alloy, and
corrosion resistant steel.

AN315 and AN316

• AN315 — used on a bolt with no
cotter pin hole; thick, for tensile Plain Airframe Nuts
loads.
• AN316 — check nut used to lock
the AN315 to a bolt.
• The AN315 nut is screwed down
on the bolt and tightened with the AN 315 AN 316
proper torque, then the AN316
nut is screwed down on top of it
and tightened.
• Tightening the AN316 applies a
tensile stress to the bolt which holds the nuts tightly together, preventing
vibration from loosening the joint.

190 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

AN355
• Slotted nut; locked onto bolt or stud with a
cotter pin or safety wire through the slots and Slotted Engine Nut
through a bolt or stud hole.
• Designed for use on engines; not approved
for use on aircraft structures.
• Being replaced with AN121551 through
AN121600 series nuts. AN 355

Self-Locking Nuts
Vibration is an ever-present problem in aircraft operation, and some method
must be used to prevent nuts from loosening on bolts or studs. This is often
done with cotter pins or safety wire through holes in the bolt or stud and
slots in the nuts. Self-locking nuts were devised to save the time needed to
safety these nuts. These are classified by the temperature they are designed
to withstand. Low-temperature nuts should not be used where temperatures
exceed 250°F, but high-temperature nuts are good to temperatures as high
as 1,400°F.

Low-temperature locking nuts:

1. Has a fiber or nylon insert locked

8.2
into the end of the nut, with a
hole slightly smaller than the
major diameter of the bolt used.
2. Screws down freely until the
MS20365 MS20364
insert is reached, then a wrench
(AN365) (AN364)
is required to turn it further.
3. The bolt does not cut threads
in the insert, rather it distorts the insert causing it to grip the bolt threads.
This gripping action plus the opposition to turning caused by the insert
produces a force between the nut and bolt threads which prevents the nut
from loosening.
4. Self-locking nuts should not be used in any application where the nut and
bolt are subject to rotation (such as in attaching a control cable to a control
horn).
5. A self-locking nut can be reused as long as a wrench is required to turn it
on the bolt.
6. To ensure that the insert grips all of the bolt threads, the complete chamfer
on the end of the bolt must stick out beyond the insert; if the bolt is not
chamfered, at least one complete thread should show beyond the insert.

8: Aircraft Hardware 191

High-temperature locking nuts:
• The fiber or nylon insert cannot tolerate high
temperatures, therefore several methods A
have been devised to lock all-metal nuts to
the bolt—two of the most popular methods
are distorting the pitch of the threads, and
compressing the end of the nut.
• Some nuts, such as the 12-point nut in view
A, have a thinned section near the end that B
is compressed enough to distort the pitch of
the threads. As the nut is screwed down on
the bolt, it turns easily until the bolt threads
encounter the distorted area, then a wrench
is needed to turn it further. This type of nut
is widely used in aircraft engine and missile
applications and is suitable for applications to temperatures as high
as 1,400°F.
• The nut in view B is made of relatively thin steel, with the end of the nut
formed into an elliptical shape. As it screws down on the bolt threads the
ellipse rounds out, and the spring action of the nut grips the bolt threads.

Not all nuts used in aviation construction are of the hex or 12-point
configuration. There are many types of nuts that are fixed to the structure
that do not require a wrench for installation with screws or bolts.

Wing Nuts
1. For special aircraft applications that require a nut
that can be turned without the use of any tools.
2. Not normally required to produce a great deal
of force, so they do not need much torque for
installation.
3. Used to secure objects that must be frequently removed.

Anchor Nuts
1. For use on inspection plates that
are retained with screws from the
outside of the aircraft, with no
access to the nuts on the inside.
2. Available in both low- and high-temperature styles.
3. Riveted around the screw hole in the aircraft structure so that the
inspection plate screws can be screwed into the anchor nut without having
to hold the nut with a wrench.

192 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Channel Nuts
1. A form of anchor nut used when
it is necessary to have a number
of nuts inside the aircraft structure
for attaching components such as
access panels.
2. The channel is riveted to the
structure, and the nuts ride loosely
inside the channel; this looseness
allows for slight movement to align
the nut with the screw.
3. The body of the nut is square so it will not turn as the screw is driven
into it.
4. The ESNA (Elastic Stop Nut series) nuts use fiber or nylon inserts to grip
the screws and prevent them from loosening.
5. On the Boots series nuts, the pitch of the last threads at the nut end is
distorted with respect to the nut threads in the body. The difference in the
thread pitch grips the screw tightly so they will not loosen.

Pressed-Steel Nuts
1. Saves cost and weight in aircraft construction.

8.2
2. The best example is the Pal nut, a thin nut used
primarily on engines as a check nut to prevent a
plain nut from loosening.
3. The plain nut is tightened to the proper torque,
then the Pal nut is installed over it and tightened only snugly.
4. The thin steel of the nut rides in the threads of the bolt, and as the nut is
tightened it exerts a force on the threads that holds the nut so tight against
the plain nut, that normal vibration cannot loosen it.

Tinnerman Type U Speed Nut

8: Aircraft Hardware 193

5. The Type U Speed nut is a popular pressed-steel nut for cowling and other
applications on light aircraft. It is slipped over a screw hole in the fixed
portion of the cowling, and a self-tapping sheet metal screw is passed
through the mating hole in the removable part. As the screw is tightened,
it forces down the edge of the spring steel nut and holds the screw tight so
vibration will not loosen it. Prevents the hole in the soft sheet aluminum of
the cowling from being enlarged by repeated installation and removal of
the screws.
6. Anchor nuts are available in
pressed-steel—two of the more Pressed Steel Anchor Nuts
popular configurations are the
plain type and the corner type,
both available for round-head
and flat-head screws. Anchor
nuts for flat-head screws are
dimpled so the dimpled hole of
the inspection plate will nest in it.

Instrument Nuts
1. This nut can be slipped into the Pressed-Steel Instrument
mounting holes and will receive the. Mounting Nut
screw and not turn when the nut is
tightened.
2. For mounting instruments on the front
side of the panel, the same type of
nut is available with the legs just long
enough to go through the panel metal.

Rivnuts
1. Developed to attach rubber deicer
boots to the thin metal of aircraft
wings and empennage leading
edge surfaces.
2. Special tubular nuts are screwed
onto a mandrel in the puller, and
inserted in the hole in the aircraft
skin.
3. The handles of the puller are squeezed together and the Rivnut tube is
collapsed, tightly gripping the skin.
4. The mandrel of the puller is screwed out, then the machine screw used to
attach the boot can be screwed in.

194 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

5. Many Rivnuts have a key under the head that fits into a notch cut into the
edge of the hole in the skin to prevent the Rivnut from turning when the
screw is inserted or removed.

Threaded Fastener Safetying

All threaded fasteners with the exception of self-locking nuts are secured with
some form of safety device.

Locking Washers
• Fit over the bolt or stud.
• Tab fits into a hole or slot in the
body of the component.
• Plain nut installed and torqued;
the triangular-shaped tabs are
bent up against the flats of the nut.
• Nut cannot back off of the stud, stud cannot back out of the component.

Cotter Pins
• Castellated nuts are safetied on bolts with cotter pins passed through the
castellations and the hole in the shank of the bolt.

8.2
• Available as AN380 in low-carbon steel, and AN381 in corrosion-resistant
steel.
• Be sure to check the airframe or engine maintenance or parts manual to
get the correct part number for the correct pin.

Cotter Pin Installation

8: Aircraft Hardware 195

Installation:
1. First check the alignment of the slots in the nut with the hole in the bolt
at the minimum recommended torque. If they are not aligned, continue
to tighten. This normally ensures the hole and slots will align within the
allowable torque range. If there is no alignment by the time maximum
torque is reached, remove the nut and install a different thickness plain
washer under the nut and retorque. It is not recommended that maximum
torque be exceeded for alignment.
2. When the nut is properly torqued, slip the correct cotter pin through the
slots in the nut and the hole in the bolt shank.
3. Spread the pin and pull the head tightly into the slot of the nut.
4. Fold one of the legs back against the end of the bolt shank and cut it off
with a pair of diagonal cutters so it does not extend past the edge of the
bolt shank.
5. Cut the other leg of the pin so it does not extend beyond the edge of the
nut and fold it securely down against the flat of the nut.
6. As a final check, be sure that the cotter pin is tight, with no looseness or
play, and that the ends of the pin are tight against the bolt and nut (so they
cannot cut you if you rub your hand over them).
7. If it is important that the cotter pin not protrude beyond the end of the bolt
shank, the pin may be inserted with the split vertical and the ends folded
back against the flats of the nut. The pin should be tight in the slot and the
ends cut off so they leave no sharp edges.

Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting

• Safety wire is available in copper, brass, stainless steel, and galvanized or
tinned steel.
• Sizes in diameters from 0.020 to 0.051 inch.
• Be sure to use the size and material wire specified by the equipment
manufacturer, and safety as specified in the appropriate maintenance
manual.
• Safety wire twisting can be done with a pair of duckbill pliers, but one of
the reversible safety wire twisting tools makes the job much faster and
more uniform.

196 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Some tips for twisting safety wire:
Direction of tightening

Right-hand twist

Left-hand twist

Right-hand twist
for pigtail

8.2

8: Aircraft Hardware 197

There are many different applications for safety wiring in modern aircraft and
engines, and some basic principles apply to all installations:
1. Before safety wiring a fastener, be sure that it is properly torqued.
2. Be sure to use the method of safety wiring specified in the airframe or
engine maintenance manual.
3. Install the wire so that it always pulls the fastener in the direction of tight-
ening. This will prevent the fastener from backing off if it should loosen.
4. Loop the wire around the outside of the fastener so that it is routed under
the wire protruding from the hole. This causes the loop to stay down and
prevents slackening. The direction of twist should reverse from run to run,
and from run to pigtail. This reversal is done to hold the loop of wire down
around the fastener.
5. Be sure that the twists are tight and even, and the twisted wire between
the fasteners is taut but not too tight. The recommended number of twists
per inch depends upon the diameter of wire.
Wire diameter Twists per inch
0.020 – 0.025 8 – 14
0.032 – 0.041 6 – 11
0.051 – 0.060 4–9

6. Be sure that the pigtail at the end of the wire is no more than 3/4 inch long
and has a minimum of 4 twists. Double the pigtail back, cut the end off,
and bend it under so it will not snag or cut anything that rubs across it.

198 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

8.3 Washers

Plain washers,
(examples of) Uses Description

AN 960 • Provides smooth bearing • Steel or

surface for nut. aluminum alloy

• Serves as shim for bolt grip • Hole with plain

purposes. edges

• Prevents sharp edges

under lock washers from
damaging material clamped.

AN 143C • Used under the heads of • Steel

high-strength internal-
wrenching bolts such as • Hole has
NAS 144 (because of the chamfered edges
radius between the head

8.3
and shank).

AN 970 • When bolting wood • Large area

structures together: spreads (outside diameter
force applied by bolt and nut larger than
over large area of the wood. AN 960)

AN 960 Plain Washer

8: Aircraft Hardware 199

 Lock Washers,
Types Uses Description

Split lock • Prevent vibration from • Heavy spring

washer loosening nut by producing steel
a stress between the nut
and the material being • Cut and twisted
clamped.

• Not to be used on aircraft

structure where failure of
washer might result in
damage or danger to
aircraft or personnel.

• Primarily used under large

nuts.

Shakeproof lock • Teeth are twisted to • Thin spring steel

washer produce the needed stress. with internal or
external teeth
• Primarily used with
machine screws.

Lock Washers

Split Internal shakeproof External shakeproof

200 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Ball Socket and
Seat Washers Uses Description

AN 950 Used together as a pair to • Ball socket

help clamp when it is
AN 955 impossible to get perfect • Seat washer
alignment between the bolt
and material.

AN 950 and AN 955 ball socket and seat washers

8.4 Special Rivets

8.4
Solid rivets, the most widely used fasteners in aircraft construction, and their
identification are covered in Section 9 Metal Aircraft Fabrication. Other types
of rivets for special uses in aircraft materials and construction are listed
below.

Blind Rivets
Often it is necessary to install rivets where there is access to only one side of
the material, as opposed to solid rivets which require access to both sides for
driving. There are a number of rivets that meet this need, such as the blind
rivet types listed below.

NOTE: When using a blind rivet in a repair, it must be the rivet specified
in the maintenance manual for the specific repair. The common pull-type
Pop rivets such as those found in most hardware stores are not approved
for use on certificated aircraft.

8: Aircraft Hardware 201

Friction-Lock Rivets
• Made by the Townsend Division of Textron, approved for aircraft structure.
• May be used to replace a solid rivet in some instances, but normally must
have a diameter one size larger than the rivet it replaces.

Self-Plugging, Friction-Lock Cherry Rivets

Total shank

Grip range
length

3/64 to 1/8 inch

To install a friction-lock rivet:

1. Insert it in the prepared hole, then grip and pull the serrated stem with a
special tool.
2. This pulls the tapered plug up into the hollow shank and swells it to form
the upset head inside the structure.
3. Continued pulling snaps the stem off and leaves the plug inside the shank.
4. Cut off the broken-off stem and file it flush with the rivet head.

NOTE: Plug is held in the shank only with friction — it is possible that
vibration can shake it out and weaken the joint.

5. To remove friction-lock rivets, punch the stem out of the rivet. Using a drill
the diameter of the rivet shank, drill the head and tap the shank out of the
skin with a properly fitting pin punch.

202 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Mechanical-Lock Rivets
• Normally approved to replace solid rivets on a size-for-size basis because
the stem is locked into the hollow rivet shank and it cannot vibrate out.
• As strong or stronger than a solid rivet of the same diameter.
• Available with both universal heads and 100° countersunk heads.
• Standard and oversize diameters.
• Lengths measured in increments of 1/16 inch.

Mechanical-locked rivets

Bulbed cherrylock rivet

8.4
(Before stem is pulled out) (After stem is pulled out)

Installed in the same way as the friction-lock rivet:

1. As the stem is pulled, the head is forced firmly against the skin and the
skins are pulled tightly together.
2. The shear ring on the bottom of the stem upsets the shank, forms the
blind head inside the structure and swells the shank to completely fill the
rivet hole.
3. Continued pulling of the stem shears off the shear ring and pulls the end
of the stem up to form the bulbed head.
4. The locking collar is forced into the groove in the stem, holding it tight,
preventing it vibrating loose.
5. The stem then breaks off flush with the rivet head.

8: Aircraft Hardware 203

CherryMax Rivets, Olympic-Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets
• Mechanical-locking blind rivets that are approved for use in aircraft
structure.
• All function on the same principle as that described for the Bulbed
Cherrylock rivet.

To remove mechanical-locked rivets:

1. File the head to weaken the locking ring.
2. Tap the stem out with a properly fitting pin punch.
3. Drill through the head of the rivet and tap the shank out of the hole with a
pin punch.

High-Strength Pin Rivets

Pin rivets are a group of fasteners that have the strength of a bolted joint
but are lighter weight and easier to install than a bolt, and are installed in
locations where they are not likely to need to be removed.

Hi-Shear Rivet
• Has a heat-treated alloy steel pin equivalent or superior in strength to the
AN bolt that it is approved to replace.

To install a Hi-Shear rivet:

1. Tap pin into a hole that has been drilled and reamed to an interference fit.
2. The grip length of the pin must be such that no more than 1/16-inch
protrudes from the material.
3. A collar is placed over the end of the pin and special rivet set in a rivet gun
swages the collar down into the groove of the pin.

• Hi-Shear pin rivets are removed by splitting the collar with a small, sharp
chisel and tapping the pin from the hole.

204 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Hi-Shear Pin Rivet

Installation:
Rivet set

Heavy
bucking bar

Inspection:
Proper Installation

8.4
Correctly-driven pin rivet. 0.032-inch steel washer may be
used to adjust grip length of pin.

Improper Installation

More than
1/32-inch

Collar is underdriven. It may be Collar is overdriven. If there is more

driven more. than 1/32-inch between shearing
edge of pin and top of collar, collar
should be removed and a new one
installed.

Pin is too long. Remove collar, Pin is too short. Remove collar and
install washer, or use shorter pin. use longer pin.

8: Aircraft Hardware 205

Hi-Lok Fasteners
• Hi-Lok/Hi-Tigue fasteners are a product of the Hi-Shear Corporation; they
are an improvement of the Hi-Shear pin rivet.
• Consists of a special precision-threaded pin, with either a flush or
protruding head and a special collar.
• The pin is inserted in a reamed hole to provide a slight (up to 0.002-inch)
interference fit.
• Of the two counterbores in the collar, the smaller and deeper one
compensates for differences of material thickness by providing space
for the threads when the grip length is long. The larger counterbore
accommodates the bead of the Hi-Tigue pin.
• A Teflon insert forms a fluid-tight seal between the pin and the collar,
allowing use in fuel tanks without the need for any sealant.

Hi-Lok/Hi-Tigue Fastener
Recess to allow for
differences in pin grip
Collar driving hex
length
Shear-off groove
Recess to accommodate
the Hi-Tigue bead
Teflon sealing insert
to provide fuel-tight joint

Installation of a protruding-head Hi-Lok Fastener

206 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Installation:
1. The collar is started on the pin by hand, then continued by an electric
or pneumatic driving tool. The tool has a hex wrench tip that fits into a
hexagonal hole in the end of the pin to hold it and prevent its turning
while the collar is being driven.
2. A socket that exactly fits the collar driving hex turns it; as the collar
contacts the surface of the material being joined, it pulls the pin up tightly
and clamps the structural parts together.
3. Continued turning of the driving hex breaks it off at the shear-off groove,
ensuring that the minimum-weight fastener is properly torqued without
the need of an accurately-calibrated torque wrench.

Hi-Tigue Fasteners
• Similar to the Hi-Lok, except the
pin has a slightly enlarged bead Hi-Tigue Fastener
near the threaded area of the pin.
• The hole should be drilled and
reamed so the bead area will have
between a 0.002 and 0.004-inch
interference fit. Bend
Pin area

8.4
• The pin is driven into the prepared
hole with a conventional rivet gun
and the opposite side of the material is supported by a draw bar whose
hole just fits over the pin.
• The interference fit holds the pin while the collar is driven and therefore
does not need to be held with a hex wrench (as is done with the
Hi-Lok pin).

Both the Hi-Lok and Hi-Tigue fasteners can be driven with an open end
or box wrench, and the Hi-Lok pin can be held with an Allen wrench. Both
fasteners may be removed by unscrewing the collar using a pair of vise-grip
pliers or cutting away the collar with a hollow mill-type cutter. The pin may
be reused if it is not damaged.

8: Aircraft Hardware 207

8.5 Cowling Fasteners

Aircraft cowling require fasteners that allow the pilot to open the cowling for
preflight inspection without requiring special tools. Some fasteners hold the
cowling tightly in place, yet allow it be opened with a quarter of a turn with a
screwdriver, or even with a coin. The Dzus (pronounced zoos) fastener is one
of the oldest and most popular cowling fastener.
Other fasteners, notably the Camloc and Airloc, are different physically
but operate on the same principle as the Dzus, and are used for the same
applications. Both of these fasteners turn a cross pin in the stud into a cam-
shaped receptacle. In the Camlok fastener, the pin is spring loaded, and in
the Airloc, the receptacle is made of spring steel.

Cut-away view of complete

Dzus assembly

Stud

Detachable part
Stud assembly

Grommet

Fixed part

Spring and
rivets Spring assembly

• A wire spring is riveted across the hole in the fixed part of the cowling and
a notched stud is assembled in the detachable part.
• The stud is held in its hole with an aluminum grommet that is swaged into
the hole so it fills the notch just under the head of the stud, allowing it to
turn but preventing it from falling out.

208 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

• When the cowling is closed, the stud fits through the hole in the fixed part
and the notch straddles the spring.
• A clockwise quarter turn forces the cam-shaped notch to pull the spring
up and hold the detachable part of the cowling tight against the fixed
structure.

8.6 Thread Repair Hardware

There are a number of aluminum castings in an aircraft, particularly in the

engine. These castings are relatively soft and the threads are easy to strip
out, so provisions are made to repair the damage rather than replace the
expensive component.

Helicoil Insert
One of the handiest and most
useful thread repair tools is the
Helicoil insert. Damaged threads

8.6
are drilled out with a special drill
and new threads are tapped in
using a special Helicoil tap.
Helicoil inserts are used not
only in repair work, but some
engine manufacturers use them
rather than bushings for the threads
in the spark plug holes. The inserts
give more durable threads than the
cast aluminum cylinder head and may be replaced if they are ever damaged.

1. The insert, a coil of stainless steel wire with a diamond-shaped cross-

section, is placed on the insertion tool with the slot in the end of the tool
straddling a driving tang at the end of the insert.
2. As the insert is screwed into the new threads, it is wound tighter and its
outside diameter decreases enough that it can screw in easily.
3. When the insert is screwed in all the way, the tool is reversed, the driving
tang breaks off and the spring force of the insert expands it outward,
holding it tightly in the threads.
4. The inside of the insert now acts as the new threads into which the bolt
can be screwed.

8: Aircraft Hardware 209

Acres Sleeves
Corrosion often damages the threaded area in aluminum alloy castings;
these can be repaired with Acres sleeves.

1. The damaged hole is drilled out 1/64-inch oversize to clean up the

damage or corrosion.
2. A bonding agent is applied to the outside of the insert and it is pressed
into the hole.
3. When the bonding agent cures the threads on the inside, the sleeve allows
the original fastener to be installed.
4. Grooves around the outside of an Acres sleeve allows it to be broken off
to a length correct for the material into which it is inserted and to hold the
bonding agent.

Existing
fastener

Acres
sleeve Structure

1/64
Oversize
hole

210 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication

9.1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming 213

9.2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in Aluminum Alloys 217

9.3 Setback 218

9.4 Bend Allowance Chart 221

9.5 Rivets and Riveting 224

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 211

9.1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming

Definitions
bend radius (BR) — The radius of the inside of the bend.
bend allowance — The actual amount of metal used in the bend.
setback(SB) — The distance between the bend tangent line and the mold line.
K — A multiplier used to find the bend allowance for bends of angles other
than 90°.
neutral line — The line through a material that has no stresses imposed by a
bend; material along the neutral axis neither shrinks nor stretches when
the material is bent.
mold line — The extension of the flat side of an object beyond the radius.
sight line — A line drawn on a sheet metal layout that is placed directly below
the nose of the radius bar in a leaf brake.
open angle — A bend in which the metal is bent less than 90°.
closed angle — A bend in which the metal is bent more than 90°.
bend tangent line — The line in a sheet metal layout that marks the end of a
flat surface and the beginning of the bend.

9.1
Bend Nomenclature
Bend allowance Neutral line

Mold line
Radius of
Bend bend
tangent
line

T
0.445 T

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 213

Layout Procedure

Bend Dimensions

Metal thickness = 0.040

Flat Bend radius = 0.250 Flat
MLL 1 3 MLL
1 3

Flat
2
MLL
2

Example
MLL 1 = 1.00 inch BR = 0.25 inch
MLL 2 = 2.00 inch Thickness = 0.040 inch
MLL 3 = 1.00 inch

1. Find the setback by adding the bend radius and the metal thickness.
SB = (BR + MT) × K
= (0.250 + 0.040) × 1
= 0.290 inch
The value of the constant K can be found in the chart on Pages 218
through 220.
For a 90° bend, K = 1
2. Find the length of flat 1 by subtracting the setback from mold line length 1.
Flat 1 = MLL 1 – setback
= 1.00 – 0.290
= 0.710
3. Find the bend allowance by using the chart on Pages 221 through 223.

214 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Follow the 0.040 metal thickness row across to the column for 1/4-inch bend
radius. The top number is the amount of bend allowance for a 90° bend, and
the bottom number is the amount of material used for each degree of bend.
In the example, a 90° bend in a piece of 0.040 sheet metal using a 1/4-inch
bend radius requires 0.421 inch of metal.

Flat Pattern Layout

Flat BA Flat BA Flat

1 1 2 2 3

0.71 1.42 0.71

0.42 0.42
3.68

4. Find the length of flat 2 by subtracting two setbacks from mold line
length 2.
Flat 2 = MLL 2 – 2 setbacks

9.1
= 2.00 – 2(0.290)
= 1.42 inch
5. Bend allowance 2 is the same as bend allowance 1.
BA 2 = 0.421 inch
6. Find the length of flat 3 by subtracting the setback from mold line length 3.
Flat 3 = MLL 3 – Setback
= 1.00 – 0.290
= 0.710 inch
7. Cut the material 3.68 inches wide and as long as needed. Mark the bend
tangent lines with a sharp-pointed soft lead pencil.

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 215

Forming

Correct placement of metal in the brake

Sight Bend tangent

line line Brake Radius bar
leaf
Radius
bar
Brake Brake
bed bed
Bend tangent line
Brake leaf
Setback
BR + MT

1. Clamp the metal in the brake with the bend tangent lines even with the
beginning of the radius of the radius bar.
2. You can determine this position by drawing a sight line inside the bend
allowance material. Draw this line one bend radius from the bend tangent
line.
3. Position the material so this sight line is directly below the edge of the
radius block when viewing it perpendicular to the surface of the metal.
4. When the brake leaf is raised, the metal will form smoothly around the
radius bar.

216 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

9.2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in
Aluminum Alloys

Alloy and Sheet Thickness

Temper 0.020 0.025 0.032 0.040 0.050 0.063 0.071 0.080
2024-O1 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 1/8 1/8
2024-T41,2 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 5/32 7/32 1/4
5052-O 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/8 1/8
5052-H34 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 1/8
6061-O 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32
6061-T4 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 3/32 5/32 5/32
6061-T6 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 3/16 3/16
7075-O 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 5/32 3/16
7075-W 3/32 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 9/32 5/16
7075-T61 1/8 1/8 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16
1
Clad sheet may be bent over a slightly smaller radii than the
corresponding tempers of bare alloy sheets.
2
Immediately after quenching, this alloy may be formed over appreciably
smaller radii.

9.2

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 217

9.3 Setback

Setback for a 90° bend is the bend radius plus the metal thickness
(BR + MT). For any angle other than 90°, the sum of the bend radius and the
metal thickness must be multiplied by the value of “K” found in the setback
(K) chart below.

Setback (K) Chart

Degrees K Degrees K
1 0.00873 18 0.15838
2 0.01745 19 0.16734
3 0.02618 20 0.17633
4 0.03492 21 0.18534
5 0.04366 22 0.19438
6 0.05241 23 0.20345
7 0.06116 24 0.21256
8 0.06993 25 0.22169
9 0.07870 26 0.23087
10 0.08749 27 0.24008
11 0.09629 28 0.24933
12 0.10510 29 0.25862
13 0.11393 30 0.26795
14 0.12278 31 0.27732
15 0.13165 32 0.28674
16 0.14054 33 0.29621
17 0.14945 34 0.30573

218 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Degrees K Degrees K
35 0.31530 79 0.82434
36 0.32492 80 0.83910
37 0.33459 81 0.85408
38 0.34433 82 0.86929
39 0.35412 83 0.88472
40 0.36397 84 0.90040
41 0.37388 85 0.91633
42 0.38386 86 0.93251
43 0.39391 87 0.80978
44 0.40403 88 0.96569
45 0.41421 89 0.9827
46 0.42447 90 1.0000
47 0.43481 91 1.0176
48 0.44523 92 1.0355
49 0.45573 93 1.0538
50 0.46631 94 1.0724
51 0.47697 95 1.0913
52 0.48773 96 1.1106
53 0.49858 97 1.1303
54 0.50952 98 1.1504
55 0.52057 99 1.1708
56 0.53171 100 1.1917
57 0.54295 101 1.2131
58 0.55431 102 1.2349
59 0.56577 103 1.2572

9.3
60 0.57735 104 1.2799
61 0.58904 105 1.3032
62 0.60086 106 1.3270
63 0.61280 107 1.3514
64 0.62487 108 1.3764
65 0.63707 109 1.4019
66 0.64941 110 1.4281
67 0.66188 111 1.4550
68 0.67451 112 1.4826
69 0.68728 113 1.5108
70 0.70021 114 1.5399
71 0.71329 115 1.5697
72 0.72654 116 1.6003
73 0.73996 117 1.6318
74 0.75355 118 1.6643
75 0.76733 119 1.6977
76 0.78128 120 1.7320
77 0.79543 121 1.7675
78 0.80978 122 1.8040

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 219

Degrees K Degrees K
123 1.8418 152 4.0108
124 1.8807 153 4.1653
125 1.9210 154 4.3315
126 1.9626 155 4.5107
127 2.0057 156 4.7046
128 2.0503 157 4.9151
129 2.0965 158 5.1455
130 2.1445 159 5.3995
131 2.1943 160 5.6713
132 2.2460 161 5.9758
133 2.2998 162 6.3137
134 2.3558 163 6.6911
135 2.4142 164 7.1154
136 2.4751 165 7.5957
137 2.5386 166 8.1443
138 2.6051 167 8.7769
139 2.6746 168 9.5144
140 2.7475 169 10.385
141 2.8239 170 11.430
142 2.9042 171 12.706
143 2.9887 172 14.301
144 3.0777 173 16.350
145 3.1716 174 19.081
146 3.2708 175 22.904
147 3.3759 176 26.636
148 3.4874 177 38.188
149 3.6059 178 57.290
150 3.7320 179 114.590
151 3.8667 180 Infinite

220 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

9.4 Bend Allowance Chart

The top number in each group of numbers (at the intersections of the metal
thickness rows and bend radius columns) is the bend allowance for a 90°
bend. The bottom number is the bend allowance for each degree of bend.

Metal Radius of bend (inches)

thickness 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32

0.020 .062 .113 .161 .210 .259 .309 .358

.000693 .001251 .001792 .002333 .002874 .003433 .003977
0.025 .066 .116 .165 .214 .263 .313 .362
.000736 .001294 .001835 .002376 .002917 .003476 .004017
0.028 .068 .119 .167 .216 .265 .315 .364
.000759 .001318 .001859 .002400 .002941 .003499 .004040
0.032 .071 .121 .170 .218 .267 .317 .366
.000787 .001345 .001886 .002427 .002968 .003526 .004067
0.038 .075 .126 .174 .223 .272 .322 .371
.000837 .001396 .001937 .002478 .003019 .003577 .004118
0.040 .077 .127 .176 .224 .273 .323 .372

9.4
.000853 .001411 .001952 .002493 .003034 .003593 .004134
0.051 .134 .183 .232 .280 .331 .379
.001413 .002034 .002575 .003116 .003675 .004215
0.064 .144 .192 .241 .290 .340 .389
.001595 .002136 .002676 .003218 .003776 .004317
0.072 .198 .247 .296 .346 .394
.002202 .002743 .003284 .003842 .004283
0.078 .202 .251 .300 .350 .399
.002249 .002790 .003331 .003889 .004430
0.081 .204 .253 .302 .352 .401
.002272 .002813 .003354 .003912 .004453
0.091 .212 .260 .309 .359 .408
.002350 .002891 .003432 .003990 .004531
0.094 .214 .262 .311 .361 .410
.002374 .002914 .003455 .004014 .004555
0.102 .268 .317 .367 .416
.002977 .003518 .004076 .004617

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 221

Metal Radius of bend (inches)
thickness 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32

0.109 .273 .321 .372 .420

.003031 .003572 .004131 .004672
0.125 .284 .333 .383 .432
.003156 .003697 .004256 .004797
0.156 .355 .405 .453
.003939 .004497 .005038
0.188 .417 .476
.004747 .005288

Metal Radius of bend (inches)

thickness 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 7/16 1/2

0.020 .406 .455 .505 .554 .603 .702 .799

.004515 .005056 .005614 .006155 .006695 .007795 .008877
0.025 .410 .459 .509 .558 .607 .705 .803
.004558 .005098 .005657 .006198 .006739 .007838 .008920
0.028 .412 .461 .511 .560 .609 .708 .805
.004581 .005122 .005680 .006221 .006762 .007862 .008944
0.032 .415 .463 .514 .562 .611 .710 .807
.004608 .005149 .005708 .006249 .006789 .007889 .008971
0.040 .421 .469 .520 .568 .617 .716 .813
.004675 .005215 .005774 .006315 .006856 .007955 .009037
0.051 .428 .477 .527 .576 .624 .723 .821
.004756 .005297 .005855 .006397 .006934 .008037 .009119
0.064 .437 .486 .536 .585 .634 .732 .830
.004858 .005399 .005957 .006498 .007039 .008138 .009220
0.072 .443 .492 .542 .591 .639 .738 .836
.004924 .005465 .006023 .006564 .007105 .008205 .009287
0.078 .447 .496 .546 .595 .644 .745 .840
.004963 .005512 .006070 .006611 .007152 .008252 .009333
0.081 .449 .498 .548 .598 .646 .745 .842
.004969 .005535 .006094 .006635 .007176 .008275 .009357
0.091 .456 .505 .555 .604 .653 .752 .849
.005072 .005613 .006172 .006713 .007254 .008353 .009435
0.094 .459 .507 .558 .606 .655 .754 .851
.005096 .005637 .006195 .006736 .007277 .008376 .009458

222 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Metal Radius of bend (inches)
thickness 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 7/16 1/2

0.102 .464 .513 .563 .612 .661 .760 .857

.005158 .005699 .006257 .006798 .007339 .008439 .009521
0.109 .469 .518 .568 .617 .665 .764 .862
.005213 .005754 .006312 .006853 .007394 .008493 .009575
0.125 .480 .529 .579 .628 .677 .776 .873
.005338 .005878 .006437 .006978 .007519 .008618 .009700
0.156 .502 .551 .601 .650 .698 .797 .895
.005579 .006120 .006679 .007220 .007761 .008860 .009942
0.188 .525 .573 .624 .672 .721 .820 .917
.005829 .006370 .006928 .007469 .008010 .009109 .010191
0.250 .568 .617 .667 .716 .764 .863 .961
.006313 .006853 .007412 .007953 .008494 .009593 .010675

The empirical formula for bend allowance for each degree of bend is:
Bend Allowance = (0.01743 R) + (0.0078 T)
R = Bend Radius
T = Metal Thickness

9.4

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 223

9.5 Rivets and Riveting

Solid rivets are the most widely-used fastening devices for sheet metal
aircraft construction.

Alternatives to Riveting
• Milled skins reduce the number of stringers and stiffeners, and eliminate
the need for many rivets.
• Composite structure is bonded and does not require rivets.
• Welding has not proven to be a viable alternative because of the nature of
sheet aluminum alloy.

Aircraft Solid Rivets

Most of the rivets used in aircraft structure range in diameter from 3/32-inch
to 1/4-inch and most are made of an aluminum alloy. They are available with
either a protruding head or a flush head.

Rivet Head Shapes

After WW II, aircraft manufactures adopted the universal head rivet to replace
all protruding head rivets, and the 100° countersunk head rivet to be used for
almost all flush riveting requirements.

Length

AN AN 456 MS20426 MS20470 AN AN 425

441 Brazier 100° Universal 430 78°
Flat head Counter- head Round Counter-
head sunk head head sunk head

• AN 441 — Used in internal structure

• AN 456 — Replaced with MS20470
• MS20426 — Most widely-used flush rivet
• MS20470 — Most widely used protruding head rivet
• AN 430 — Replaced with MS20470
• AN 425 — Replaced with MS20426

224 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Rivet Material
• Nonstructural applications of 1100 or 3003 aluminum may be riveted with
the soft 1100 (A) rivet.
• Bare or clad 2024-T4 aluminum alloy is generally riveted with 2117 (AD)
rivets. AD rivets may be driven as they are received from the manufacturer
without additional heat treatment.
• When greater strength is needed than can be provided by an AD rivet, a
2017 (D) or 2024 (DD) rivet may be used. Both D and DD rivets require
heat treatment before they are driven. These rivets are soft enough to
drive immediately after they are removed from the quench bath, but will
begin to harden within 10 minutes if left at room temperature. The
hardening can be delayed for several days if they are immediately stored
in a sub-zero refrigerator.
• Magnesium structural parts may be joined with 5056 aluminum alloy (B)
rivets. B rivets may be driven as received from the manufacturer.
• High-strength aluminum alloy with zinc as its chief alloying agent must be
riveted with 7050-T73 and 7075-T73 rivets.
• Titanium structure must be riveted with titanium rivets.

Rivet Diameter
• Diameter chosen must allow a riveted joint to fail by the rivets shearing
rather than the sheet metal tearing at the rivet holes.

9.5
• A general rule of thumb is for the rivet diameter to be three times the
thickness of the thickest sheet being joined.
• Refer to the charts on Pages 227–228 to select the diameter and number
of rivets to use in a repair.
• The columns in these charts represent the rivet diameter, and the rows the
metal thickness. The numbers represent the number of rivets per inch for
a single lap splice.
• One number in each column is underlined. A riveted joint using rivets
listed below the underlined number will fail by the rivets shearing, and
those above this underline will fail by tearing out of the rivet holes.

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 225

 Rivet head markings identify the metal of which rivet is
made.
Head Mark Alloy Code

Plain 1100 A

Recessed dot 2117 T AD

Raised dot 2017 T D

Raised double dash 2024 T DD

Raised cross 5056 H B

Three raised dashes 7075 T73

Raised circle 7050 T73 E

Recessed large
Titanium
and small dots

Corrosion resistant
Recessed dash F
steel

Recessed triangle Carbon Steel

226 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 9.5

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 227

228 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Examples of Rivet Selection
— Use the chart on Page 227 to find the minimum number of rivets needed
to make a splice on an intermediate frame using a single-lap joint, 2024 clad
sheet aluminum 0.040-inch thick, with 1/8-inch 2117-AD rivets.

1. At the intersection of the 1/8-inch rivet column and the 0.040-inch metal
thickness row, notice that 6.2 rivets per inch are needed for full strength.
This choice is below the underlined number in this column, indicating the
joint will fail by the rivets shearing, as it should, rather than the rivet holes
tearing out.
2. According to NOTE 2, an intermediate frame requires only 60% of this
number, therefore 3.72 rivets per inch is required for the splice.

— Use the chart on Page 228 to find the minimum number of rivets needed
to make a single-lap joint in 5052-H36 sheet aluminum 0.064-inch thick, with
5/32-inch 2117-AD rivets.

1. At the intersection of the 5/32-inch rivet column and the 0.064-inch metal
thickness row, notice that 4.6 rivets per inch are needed for full strength.
This choice is below the line in this column, indicating the joint will fail by
the rivets shearing, as it should, rather than the rivet holes tearing out.
2. A single-lap sheet joint requires only 75% of this number, therefore 3.45
rivets per inch is required for the joint.

9.5
Rivet Length

Determining the length of a rivet for a properly formed shop head

0.5 D
1.5 D
1.5 D
D

• The shop head on a rivet should have a diameter of one and one-half
times the diameter of the shank, and its thickness should be one-half of
the shank diameter.
• To get this size head, the shank should stick through the material by a
distance of one and one-half times the shank diameter.

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 229

Riveting Tools
Rivet Sets

• Rivet sets fit over the manufactured head of a rivet and are driven by the
rivet gun.
• For protruding-head rivets, the cup in the rivet set should have a slightly
larger radius than the head of the rivet.
• The rivet set for driving flush rivets is slightly crowned and highly polished
so it will not mark the skin.

Bucking Bars

• The rivet set is held tightly against

Bucking bar selection
the manufactured head of the
Rivet Bucking Bar rivet, and a bucking bar of
Diameter Weight hardened and polished steel is
(inch) (pounds) held squarely against the end of
3/32 2 to 3 the rivet shank. The blows from
the rivet gun cause the bucking
1/8 3 to 4 bar to bounce on the end of the
5/32 3.5 to 4.5 rivet shank and flatten it.
3/16 4 to 5 • The shape of a bucking bar must
1/4 5 to 6.5 be chosen so it can fit squarely on
the end of the rivet, and the
weight of the bar must be
compatible with the rivet
diameter.

230 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Installing Flush Rivets
• If the top skin is thicker than the
head of the rivet, it should be
countersunk to a depth that will
cause the top of the rivet to be
flush with the skin.
• It is permissible, but not recom-
mended, to countersink the top
skin if its thickness is the same as
the thickness of the rivet head.
• If the top skin is thinner than the
rivet head, the skin should be
dimpled either by coin or radius
dimpling.

Blind Rivet Code

When team riveting, with the gunner unable to see or hear the bucker, this
code serves for communications:

One Tap — Start riveting

Two Taps — Rivet OK
Three Taps — Bad rivet, mark it and move to next one.

9.5
Removal of Damaged Rivets

Make center punch Drill through head with

mark in center of drill one size smaller
manufactured head. than used for rivet.

Buck up metal with

bucking bar beside
shop head and
Use pin punch the size of the use pin punch to
hole, pry the head off rivet or drive shank from
use cape chisel to cut head off. the metal.

9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication 231

Minimum Rivet Spacing and Edge Distance

STRENGTH THROUGH THIS

SECTION IS 75% OF SHEET
WITHOUT HOLES

4D D = DIAMETER OF
RIVET (PREFERABLY
ABOUT 3 x THICKNESS
OF THICKER SHEET t)

2D 4D 2D

DOUBLE ROW

STRENGTH THROUGH THIS

SECTION IS 83% OF SHEET
WITHOUT HOLES.

6D
3D

2D 2D
3D 3D 3D

TRIPLE OR MULTIPLE ROWS

You must determine that the repaired structure will be at least as strong and
rigid as the original, and if the repair is made to an external skin it must have
no adverse effect on the airflow. To obtain proper strength from a riveted joint,
the rivet spacing and edge distance shown here must be observed. If a rivet
hole has been damaged when a rivet is being replaced, the next size larger
rivet may be used provided the rivet spacing and edge distance are within
the limits shown here.

232 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 10: Aircraft Fabric Covering

10.1 Rib Stitch Spacing 235

10.2 Rib Stitch Knots 236

10

10: Aircraft Fabric Covering 233

 Almost all modern aircraft are of either all-metal or composite construction.
Fabric covering is used only on older airplanes and some modern ultralight
aircraft.
When a fabric-covered aircraft is being recovered, the type of materials
crafted in its original manufacture must be used. One of the modern
materials (much stronger and of longer-life) may be used if it has been
approved as an alteration for the particular aircraft. This approval is normally
accomplished with a Supplemental Type Certificate obtained by the
manufacturer of the covering system.

10.1 Rib Stitch Spacing

If for any reason the original rib stitch spacing cannot be determined, use
the spacing indicated by the chart below. For the purpose of this chart the
slipstream is the diameter of the propeller plus one rib on each side.

4
Maximum Spacing of

Spacing other than

Rib Lacing—Inches

3 in slipstream

10.1
Spacing in slipstream

100 150 200 250 300

Placard Never-Exceed Speed —MPH Indicated

10: Aircraft Fabric Covering 235

10.2 Rib Stitch Knots

Completed Knot
Pull No. 2

Operation No. 2
Pull No. 2–10 lb
to tighten knot
Pull No. 1–10 lb
to tighten stitch

After pull No. 1 hold stitch

tension by pressing here
during pull No. 2

Operation No. 1

Edge of capstrip
Direction of lacing

A modified seine knot is used to tie the rib stitch cord around each rib.

236 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Knot Formed But Not Tightened

Pull to tighten Pull to tighten

Knot Completed

Load Load

A splice knot is used to join two pieces of waxed rib stitch cord.

10.2

10: Aircraft Fabric Covering 237

238 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 11: Corrosion Detection
and Control

11.1 Types of Corrosion 241

11.2 Oxidation 243

11.3 Surface and Pitting Corrosion 244

11.4 Intergranular Corrosion 245

11.5 Stress Corrosion 246

11.6 Galvanic Corrosion 246

11.7 Concentration Cell Corrosion 247

11.8 Fretting Corrosion 248

11.9 Filiform Corrosion 248

11.10 Corrosion Control 249

11

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 239

11.1 Types of Corrosion

There are several types of corrosion that attack aircraft. Some types, like iron
rust, continue to eat the metal until it is all gone; but others, like aluminum
oxidization, form a dense film that prevents oxygen from reaching the metal,
and the corrosive action almost stops.

Appearance of Corrosion on Various Metals

Alloy Type of Attack to Which Appearance of

Alloy is Susceptible Corrosion Product

Magnesium Highly susceptible to pitting White, powdery,

snowlike mounds
and white spots on
the surface

Low alloy steel Surface oxidation and pitting, Reddish-brown

surface, and intergranular oxide (rust)

Aluminum Surface pitting, intergranular, White to gray

exfoliation, stress-corrosion powder
and fatigue cracking, and
fretting

Titanium Highly corrosion resistant; No visible

extended or repeated contact corrosion products
with chlorinated solvents at low temperature.
may result in degradation Colored surface
oxides develop
11.1
of the metal’s structural
properties at high above 700°F
temperature (370°C)

Cadmium Uniform surface corrosion; From white

used as sacrificial plating to powdery deposit
protect steel to brown or black
mottling of the
surface

(continued)

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 241

 Appearance of Corrosion on Various Metals

Alloy Type of Attack to Which Appearance of

Alloy is Susceptible Corrosion Product

Stainless Steels Crevice corrosion; Rough surface;

(300–400 series) some pitting in marine sometimes a uniform
environments; corrosion red, brown stain
cracking; intergranular
corrosion (300 series);
surface corrosion
(400 series)

Nickel-base Generally has good Green powdery

(Inconel, Monel) corrosion-resistant deposit
qualities; susceptible to
pitting in sea water

Copper-base Surface and intergranular Blue or blue-green

brass, bronze corrosion powdery deposit

Chromium Pitting (promotes rusting No visible corrosion

(plate) of steel where pits occur in products; blistering of
plating) plating due to rusting
and lifting

Silver Will tranish in the Brown to black film

presence of sulfur

Gold Highly corrosion-resistant Deposits cause

darkening of
reflective surfaces

Tin Subject to whisker growth Whisker-like deposits

242 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

11. 2 Oxidation

Type Reaction Upon Exposure Protect Against

to Air

Aluminum • When pure aluminum is • Protect aluminum

Oxidation exposed to the air, a alloys from
chemical reaction takes oxidation by
place between the metal electrolytically or
and the oxygen. chemically
forming a hard
• Aluminum oxide forms on oxide film on its
the surface and produces a surface.
dull, rough appearance.

• Once the oxide forms, it

insulates the surface from
the air and any further
reaction continues at a
greatly reduced rate,
or almost stops.

Iron Oxidation • When any metal containing Protect metals

iron is exposed to the air, containing iron
iron oxide (or, rust) forms. from rust:
Iron oxide is porous, and • temporarily by
the iron will continue to covering the
react rust until it is surface with oil or
completely destroyed. grease, or

• permanently by 11.2
plating it with
cadmium or
chromium, or by
covering it with
paint.

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 243

11. 3 Surface and Pitting Corrosion

When unprotected metal is exposed to an atmosphere containing industrial

contaminants, exhaust or battery fumes, corrosion will form on the surface
giving it a dull appearance.

244 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

11. 4 Intergranular Corrosion

Aluminum alloys are made of tiny grains of aluminum and the various alloying
elements.
• Heating the metal causes the alloying elements to go into a solid solution
with the aluminum.
• Quenching the metal in cold water locks the alloying elements and the
aluminum together into the tiny grains.

11. 4

Exfoliation Corrosion
• An extreme form of intergranular corrosion.
• Occurs chiefly in extruded materials such as channels or angles where the
grain structure is layer-like, or laminar.
• Occurs along the grain boundaries, and causes the material to separate or
delaminate. By the time it shows up on the surface, the strength of the
metal has been destroyed.

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 245

11. 5 Stress Corrosion

A type of intergranular corrosion that forms in a metal subjected to a tensile

stress in the presence of a corrosive environment.
1. Stresses may come from improper quenching after heat treatment, from a
fitting or bushing that has been pressed into a structural part with an
interference fit, or from tapered pipe fittings.
2. Cracks caused by stress corrosion grow rapidly as the corrosive attack
concentrates at the end of the crack, rather than along its sides as it does
in other types of intergranular corrosion.
3. Visual inspection may indicate the presence of stress corrosion; but to
determine the extent of the damage, dye penetrant, eddy current, or
ultrasonic inspection must be used.

11. 6 Galvanic Corrosion

Occurs any time two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in the
presence of an electrolyte. The rate at which corrosion occurs depends on
the galvanic groups of the two metals. The greater the difference between
the groups, the more active the corrosion.

Galvanic Grouping of Metals

Group I Magnesium and magnesium alloys

Group II Aluminum, aluminum alloys, zinc, cadmium,

and cadmium-titanium plate

Group III Iron, steel (except stainless steel), lead, tin and their
alloys
Group IV Copper, brass, bronze, copper-beryllium, copper-nickel,
chromium, nickel, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys,
graphite, stainless steels, titanium, and titanium alloys

246 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Galvanic Corrosion

Cause • Forms where dissimilar metal skins are riveted together,

and where aluminum alloy inspection plates are attached
with steel screws.

Results • The material in the lower number group is the anode, and
is the one corroded. When a steel screw (Group III) is
used in 2024 aluminum alloy (Group II) the aluminum alloy
will become the anode and is corroded.

• When a sheet of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy (Group II)

is riveted to a piece of magnesium alloy (Group I) the
magnesium will corrode.

11. 7 Concentration Cell Corrosion

Two types of concentration cell corrosion affect aircraft structure:

1. Low oxygen concentration cell corrosion attacks areas where oxygen is
excluded from the surface. These areas are in the faying surface of
riveted joints where skins overlap, under the ferrules on aluminum alloy
tubing, and under nameplates and decals on aluminum alloy components.
2. High metal-ion concentration cell corrosion attacks areas in the open
along the edges of lap joints in aircraft skins. Most generally, both types
11.7
of corrosion occur at the same time in the same general areas of an
aircraft structure.

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 247

11. 8 Fretting Corrosion

Fretting corrosion forms between two surfaces that fit tightly together, but
can move slightly relative to one another. These surfaces are not normally
close enough together to shut out oxygen, so the protective oxide coatings
can form on the surfaces. However, this coating is destroyed by the continued
rubbing action.
• When the movement between the two surfaces is small, the debris
between them does not have an opportunity to escape, and it acts as an
abrasive further eroding the surfaces. Fretting corrosion around rivets in a
skin is indicated by dark deposits streaming out behind the rivet heads.
• By the time fretting corrosion appears on the surface, enough damage is
usually done that the parts must be replaced.

11. 9 Filiform Corrosion

Filiform corrosion consists of threadlike filaments of corrosion on the

surface of metals that are coated with organic substances such as paint films.
• Does not require light, electrochemical differences within the metal, or
bacteria, but takes place only in relatively high humidity, between 65%
and 95%.
• The threadlike filaments are visible under clear lacquers and varnishes,
but also occur under opaque paint films such as polyurethane enamels,
especially when an improperly cured wash primer has left some acid on
the surface beneath the enamel.

248 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

11.10 Corrosion Control

The thin, highly reactive aircraft structural metals make them especially
vulnerable to corrosion. Once corrosion has started in a structure, it opens
the way for more, and the corrosion spreads until the structure is destroyed.
Corrosion cannot be prevented, but it can be controlled by eliminating one or
more of the basic requirements for its formation:
1. Prevent the electrical potential difference within the metal.
2. Insulate the conductive path between areas of potential difference.
3. Eliminate any electrolyte that could form a conductive path on the surface
of the metal.

Corrosion itself is highly complex, but its control is mainly a matter of good
housekeeping:
1. Keep the structure clean and dry, and immediately repair any breaks in
the finish.
2. Promptly remove any corrosion that is found, and treat the surface from
which the corrosion was removed in order to neutralize any residue and
inhibit further corrosion formation.

NOTE: Modern surface treatments, sealers, and finishes are complex,

and they will not tolerate any improper procedures in mixing or
application. It is imperative that the specific instructions from the
manufacturer of these products be followed in detail.

11.10

11: Corrosion Detection and Control 249

250 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 12: Nondestructive Inspection

12.1 Visual Inspection 253

12.2 Tap Test 254

12.3 Penetrant Inspection 255

12.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection 256

12.5 Eddy Current Inspection 257

12.6 Ultrasonic Inspection 259

12 .7 Radiography 259

12

12: Nondestructive Inspection 251

12.1 Visual Inspection

NDI
The complexity, high cost, and long life of modern aircraft and engines have
made nondestructive inspection, or NDI, an extremely important aspect of
aviation maintenance.

Visual Inspection
Visual inspection, the least expensive and most widely-used inspection
method, is an important adjunct to all other types of inspection. There are
two basic types: surface inspection and internal inspection.

Surface Visual Inspection

• Requires a strong flashlight, a 2X to a 10X magnifying glass, and a mirror,
preferably one with a ball joint.
• Flashlights used in an explosive environment such as in fuel tanks must
be explosion proof. Flashlights with krypton and halogen bulbs give out far
more light than standard incandescent bulbs.
• Cracks and deformations show up most clearly when the light is shined
on the surface toward the viewer at a low angle to the surface.
• Any suspect area must be clean and free of all paint — and if warranted,
inspected with some other NDI method such as a penetrant or eddy
current inspection.

Internal Visual Inspection

Borescopes have made internal visual inspection practical as it is no longer
necessary to disassemble an engine or a piece of airframe structure to
see inside of it. Three types of internal visual inspection instruments are
commonly used in aircraft maintenance shops:
12 .1

1. A rigid-tube borescope has a controllable power source to regulate the

intensity of the light produced by a lamp in the end of the scope tube. An
orbital scan control on the body of the instrument allows different areas
within the component to be scanned.
a) Insert the tube into the appropriate inspection port and adjust the light.
b) Aim the instrument at the area to be inspected and focus it to get the
sharpest image.
(continued)

12: Nondestructive Inspection 253

2. Flexible fiber-optic scopes consist of a light guide and an image guide
made of bundles of transparent fibers enclosed inside a protective sheath.
A power supply with a controllable light source is connected to the light
guide, and an eyepiece lens allows the user to view the area at the end
of the image guide. Bending and focusing controls guide the probe inside
the component and focus the lens to get the clearest image of the area.
3. Borescopes with video-imaging capability have a sensor in the tip of
the probe which acts as a miniature video camera. The image is digitized,
enhanced, and displayed on a video monitor. Then it is recorded on
video tape or a disk to provide a permanent record of the interior of the
component.

12.2 Tap Test

A quick nondestructive test of composite structure to determine the presence

of delaminations:
• Tap the area to be inspected with the edge of a coin.
— If there is no delamination, the coin will produce a clear ringing sound.
— If there is delamination, the sound will be a dull thud.
• The coin tap procedure is not a quantitative test, but it gives an indication
when further investigation is needed.

254 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

12.3 Penetrant Inspection

Fluorescent and visible-dye penetrant inspection can be used on nonporous

metallic or nonmetallic materials to detect faults that extend to the surface
and are too small to be seen with normal visual inspection.
1. Part being inspected must be thoroughly clean and dry so the penetrant
can get into any surface faults.
2. Penetrant must remain on the surface long enough to completely fill any
existing fault. This is called the dwell time and it depends upon:
a) The size of the anticipated fault
b) The temperature of the part being inspected
3. Allow the appropriate dwell time, then wash the penetrant off the surface,
taking care to not wash it out of any possible faults.

3 types of penetrants:

Oil base (with — with a fluorescent dye and an emulsifier added, to

additives) make the penetrant removable with a hot water bath.

Oil base — does not contain the emulsifier, so a separate

emulsifier must be used.

Solvent- — not removable with water, must be cleaned from the

removable surface with a solvent. Solvent-removable penetrant
penetrant can seep into smaller faults than the other two types.

4. After the penetrant has been removed from the surface, cover the area
being inspected with a developer that acts as a blotter to draw some of
the penetrant from hidden flaws. This developer may be:
12 .3

a) A dry powder
b) A quick-drying spray that leaves a white chalky surface.
5. If the dye is fluorescent, inspect the part with an ultraviolet, or black light.
Any penetrant drawn from a fault shows up as a bright line, usually yellow-
green, against a dark background.
6. If the dye is visible under ordinary light, a fault will show up as a highly
visible red mark on the white background.
7. As soon as the inspection is completed, remove all traces of the
inspection materials, clean and dry the surface.

12: Nondestructive Inspection 255

12.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Surface and subsurface faults in a ferromagnetic part can be detected with

magnetic particle inspection.
1. Magnetize the part to be inspected. Any flaw or fault within the component
interrupts the magnetic lines of flux and forms a north and south pole.
2. Cover the area being inspected with very fine iron oxide particles.
3. The iron oxide is attracted to the magnetic poles where it forms a visible
indication of the fault.
4. There are two ways of magnetizing a part. Overhaul manuals specify the
way a part must be magnetized and the amount of current to be used for
the magnetization:

Circular • Lines of magnetic flux encircle the part at right

magnetization — angles to the flow of current.
by passing DC
through the part. • Used for detecting faults that are parallel to the
length of the part.

Longitudinal • Lines of flux extend lengthwise through the part

magnetization — at right angles to the coil.
by holding the part
• Used for detecting faults that are perpendicular
inside a coil of
wire carrying DC. to the length of the part.

5. The iron oxide used to detect the fault contains a fluorescent dye. It may
be applied as a dry powder, or as a suspension in a light oil such as
kerosine.
6. The powder is dusted over the part, or the suspension is flowed over the
surface being inspected. The oxide particles that are attracted to the poles
created by the fault show up as a green mark when viewed under a black
light.
7. Two types of magnetic particle inspection:
• Continuous: the magnetizing current flows all the time the part is being
inspected.
• Residual: the part is magnetized and removed from the magnetic field,
then inspected.

256 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

8. After inspection is completed, thoroughly demagnetize the part, in either
of two ways:
a) Place the part in an AC magnetic field and slowly remove it from
the field.
b) Place the part in a magnetic field made by pulses of DC of reversing
polarity that is programmed to decrease its intensity.
—The reversing polarity of the field causes the magnetic domains
within the material to continually change their orientation.
—The decreasing field strength allows them to remain in a disoriented
condition.

12.5 Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection checks for faults inside a metal by detecting a

change in its conductivity caused by the presence of a fault. This method is
especially suited for detecting intergranular corrosion.

How it works
A test probe containing an AC excited coil induces an eddy current into the
material being tested.
1. Excite the coil with the proper frequency of AC.
2. Place the probe on the surface being inspected so it can induce a
changing magnetic field in the metal.
3. The changing magnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal.
The amount of current is determined by four things:
a) the conductivity of the metal which is a function of its alloy type, grain
12 .5

size, degree of heat treatment, and tensile strength.

b) the permeability of the metal.
c) the mass of the material.
d) the presence of any faults or voids.

12: Nondestructive Inspection 257

What it is suited for
1. Identifying metals by comparison of their alloy type, degree of heat treat-
ment, and tensile strength.
2. Detection of cracks or hidden faults. This is an ideal way to check aircraft
wheels for cracks in the bead seat area. These cracks close up when the
stress is off the wheel and are almost impossible to detect visually, but
show up with eddy current inspection.

Method
1. Place the test probe on a piece of metal (known to be good) of the type
being inspected, and zero the indicator.
2. Place the probe on the metal being inspected.
— If there are no internal faults, the indicator will again zero.
— If there are any faults within the metal, a different amount of current
will be induced and the indicator will show the difference.

Detection of corrosion
The mass of sound material changes when corrosion is present, either
internally or on the opposite side of a skin being inspected.
1. Hold the eddy current probe against a part of the skin that is known to be
free of corrosion and zero the meter.
2. Move the probe over the area being inspected. If corrosion is present, the
meter will move off zero.
3. To inspect for corrosion around fastener holes, insert the small probe into
a hole known to be free of corrosion and zero the indicator. When the
probe is inserted into a hole where there is corrosion, the indicator will
move off zero.

258 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

12.6 Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic waves are vibrations at frequencies between about 200 kilohertz

(200,000 hertz) and 25 megahertz (25,000,000 hertz). In this frequency
range, these waves are not perceptible to the human ear, but in all other
ways they behave the same as vibrations we can hear.
1. A piezoelectric crystal transducer excited at the proper frequency of AC is
held against the structure being inspected.
2. The crystal vibrates and sends pulses of energy into the structure. The
pulses travel until they reach the back surface of the material or until they
strike a fault; then they reflect back to the transducer.
3. A cathode ray tube (CRT) with a horizontal base line is used as the
indicator. The pulse entering the test specimen produces a pip along the
base line representing the front surface, and a second pip representing
the back surface.
4. Any fault within the material reflects some of the energy before it reaches
the back surface and forms a third pip between the other two.

12 .7 Radiography

Radiographic inspection is useful for checking the inside of an aircraft

structure, as it does not require major disassembly. It is not recommended as
an exploratory type of inspection, but is most appropriate for examining an
area for a type of damage with known characteristics. There are two types of
radiographic inspection: X-rays and gamma rays.

X-Rays
12 .7

X-rays are a form of high-energy, short-wavelength, electromagnetic

radiation.
1. An electron is emitted from the cathode in an X-ray tube and accelerated
to a high speed. When this electron strikes a target containing many
electrons, it collides and some of its energy is converted into X-rays.
2. Because X-rays have such high frequency they are able to pass through
many materials that are opaque to visible light. As they pass through, they
are absorbed in an amount proportional to the density of the material.
(continued)

12: Nondestructive Inspection 259

3. After passing through a material, the X-rays still have enough energy to
expose a piece of photographic film.
4. The amount of current used to drive the electrons from the cathode
determines the intensity of the X-ray beam and its ability to expose the
film.
5. The voltage supplied to the anode of the X-ray tube determines the
amount of energy the beam contains. The higher the voltage, the more
energy, and the deeper the X-rays will penetrate the material being
inspected.
6. Low-powered X-rays are called soft X-rays, and those that are produced
by high voltage are called hard X-rays.
7. Soft X-rays are used to inspect for corrosion.

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are composed of high-energy photons emitted by the nucleus
of certain chemical isotopes such as those of Cobalt, Cesium, Iridium, and
Thulium that are in the process of disintegration.
1. Unlike X-rays, gamma rays cannot be shut off or controlled; therefore the
source of these rays must be kept in a radiation-proof container shielded
with lead.
2. When gamma rays are needed for an inspection, the equipment is set up
and the active isotopes are exposed.

Inspection — Steps
1. The penetrating energy of X-rays and gamma rays passing through the
material being inspected exposes a sheet of photographic film or causes
a fluorescent screen to glow.
2. Discontinuities or faults within the material alter its density and thus the
amount of radiation allowed to pass. The more dense the material, the
less radiation passes through, and the less the film is exposed. Areas of
low penetration appear on the film as light areas.
3. After a sheet of film is exposed to the radiation, it is developed and fixed
as with any other photographic film, and its indication is interpreted by an
experienced inspector. Damage and faults are detected by comparing the
image on the developed film with the indication of a sound structure.

260 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Considerations
1. Radiographic inspection:
— is more costly,
— requires more elaborate equipment, and
— requires more safety considerations than other types of nondestructive
inspection, but
— it can be used to inspect the inside of complex assemblies without
disassembling them.
2. The factors of radiographic exposure are so interdependent that it is
necessary to consider all of them for any particular inspection. These
factors include, but are not limited to:
• Material thickness and density
• Shape and size of the object
• Type of defect to be detected
• Characteristics of X-ray machine used
• The exposure distance
• The exposure angle
• Film characteristics
• Type of intensifying screen, if one is used

Safety
Radiation from X-rays and radioisotope sources produce changes in living
tissue when they pass through it. Personnel must keep outside the high
energy beam at all times.
1. When radiation strikes the molecules of the body, the effect may be
no more than to dislodge a few electrons; however, an excess of these
changes can cause irreparable harm.
2. The degree of damage depends on which body cells have been changed.
12 .7

This is determined by the amount of radiation received and by the

percentage of the total body exposed.
3. Protection for working with radiation equipment:
— wear a radiation-monitor film badge, which is developed at the end of a
given period to determine the amount of radiation absorbed
— have periodic blood-count tests.

12: Nondestructive Inspection 261

262 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 13: Aircraft Control Systems

13.1 Types of Control Systems 265

13.2 Control Cables 266

13.3 Control Cable Terminals 267

13.4 Turnbuckles 268

13. 5 Control Cable Tension 270

13

13: Aircraft Control Systems 263

13.1 Types of Control Systems

Torque Tubes
The control in the cockpit is connected to the control surface with a hollow
aluminum alloy torque tube. Rotation of the tube transmits a torque force to
the surface. Wing flaps are often moved with torque tubes.

Push-Pull Rods
Elevators, some ailerons and flaps, and helicopter rotor controls are operated
by rigid push-pull rods. These are hollow aluminum alloy tubes with rod-end
bearings or clevises at the ends.

Push-pull rod assembly

• Install rod-end bearings with Flange

the flanged side of the bearing
housing next to the structure to Anchored
which it is attached. end
• Rod-end bearings have a “witness
hole” to indicate when the rod is
screwed in far enough to supply
full strength. If the rod is screwed
in sufficiently far, the threads will
cover the hole. Peening

Proper rod-end bearing attachment

13.1

13: Aircraft Control Systems 265

13.2 Control Cables

Extra flexible Flexible Non-flexible Non-flexible

Type of Cable Strands/ Material Application

Wires

Extra flexible 7 x 19 Stainless steel Cables that pass

over pulleys
Galv. carbon
steel

Flexible 7x7 Stainless steel Straight cable runs

Galv. carbon Slight change in
steel direction allowed

Non-flexible 1 x 19 Stainless steel Straight cable runs

1x7 Galv. carbon No change in
steel direction allowed

266 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

13.3 Control Cable Terminals

Swaged terminals are made of

stainless steel and have a tubular
end into which the cable fits. The AN663 Double shank ball end
cable is slipped into the tube and
the assembly is swaged, forcing the
metal of the tube into the cable so
it grips the strands of wire. A “go-no AN664 Single shank ball end
go” gage or a micrometer caliper is
used to determine when the terminal
has been properly swaged. The
swaging process should reduce AN666 Threaded cable terminal
the diameter of the tubular end to a
dimension specified by the terminal
manufacturer. When properly
swaged, the cable will break before
it pulls out of the terminal.

Nicopress sleeves are installed on AN667 Fork end cable terminal

cables in some lighter aircraft. A
properly installed Nicopress terminal
provides the full strength of the
cable.
1. Slip a copper Nicopress sleeve
over the cable and loop the free AN668 Eye end cable terminal
end around a bushing or a thimble
eye and slip it into the opposite
side of the sleeve.
2. Make three crimps with a special
Nicopress tool. The first crimp is in
the center of the sleeve, the next
is at the end nearest the eye, and
the last crimp is near the opposite 3 1 2
13.3

end.
3. Use a “go-no go” gage to
determine that the sleeve has
been sufficiently crimped. Nicopress sleeve for terminating an
aircraft control cable. The lower illustration
shows the proper sequence for crimping
the sleeve onto the cable.

13: Aircraft Control Systems 267

13.4 Turnbuckles

• Control cable tension is adjusted with turnbuckles that are installed in at

least one cable in each run.
• A turnbuckle consists of a bronze barrel and terminals that screw into
each end. The threads in one end of the barrel are left-hand and those
in the other end are right-hand. The end having the left-hand threads is
normally identified with a groove around its end.
• A turnbuckle will produce its full strength only when the threads on the
terminal are sufficiently engaged. No more than three threads on the
terminals should be exposed. If the cable tension is too high when more
than three threads are exposed, a longer barrel should be used.

Turnbuckle Safetying
It is important that turnbuckles be properly safetied to prevent them from
becoming unscrewed and changing the control cable tension.

4 turn minimum
This applies to all
turnbuckle wrappings

Double wrap (spiral)

Double wrap

Single wrap (spiral)

Single wrap

Methods of safetying turnbuckles

268 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Turnbuckle Safetying Guide
Cable Type of Diameter of Material
size wrap safety wire (annealed)
1/16 Single 0.040 Copper, brass

3/32 Single 0.040 Copper, brass

1/8 Single 0.040 Stainless steel,

monel and K monel

1/8 Double 0.040 Copper, brass

1/8 Single 0.057 min. Copper, brass

5/32 and greater Double 0.040 Stainless steel,

monel and K monel

5/32 and greater Single 0.057 min. Stainless steel,

monel and K monel

5/32 and greater Double 0.0512 Copper, brass

Clip-Locking Turnbuckles

Turnbuckle body Locking pin

13.4

There is a slot in the threads of the terminal and one in each end of the barrel.
1. After the cable tension has been adjusted, align the slots in the turnbuckle
body and the swaged terminal.
2. Insert the straight end of the locking clips into the slots in each end of the
barrel.
3. Insert the hooked ends of the clips into the hole in the side of the barrel
and press them in until the ends of the hook seat on the edge of the hole.

13: Aircraft Control Systems 269

13.5 Control Cable Tension

1. It is important that control cable tension be within the range specified in

the aircraft maintenance manual. If the tension is too high, the controls
will be stiff and the pulleys will wear excessively. If the tension is too low,
there is danger of the cable getting out of the pulley groove and becoming
fouled.
2. Large all-metal aircraft contract as they cold-soak at high altitude where
the air is extremely cold. The control cables do not change their dimen
sions as much as the airframe does, so automatic tension adjusters are
used to maintain a constant cable tension as temperature changes.
3. Small aircraft do not have automatic adjusters but rely on the cables
being properly adjusted to the proper tension determined by the aircraft
manufacturer.

To find the correct rigging load for a 1/8 inch 7x19 cable at 90°F:
1. Follow the vertical line for 90°F upward until it intersects the curve for 1/8
inch 7x19 cable (the third curve up).
2. From this point of intersection, draw a horizontal line to the right to the
Rigging Load scale. This shows that the correct rigging load for this
temperature is 75 pounds.

270 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Values Include
10 Percent Structural Deflection Design limit rig load
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
Cable Sizes 200
1/4 7 x 19 180
3/16 7 x 19 160
5/32 7 x 19 140
1/8 7 x 19 120
3/32 7 x 7 100
1/16 7 x 7 80
60
40
20
Rigging Load in Pounds

0
-65 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit

13: Aircraft Control Systems

Control cable tension chart

271
13.5
 Anvil Pointer Riser Anvil
lock

100

0 90

10 80

20
70
30 60
40 50

Trigger

Cable tension is measured with a tensiometer:

1. Install the correct riser for the size of cable being checked, and clamp the
tensiometer over the cable.
2. Use the chart furnished with the tensiometer to relate the indication on
the tensiometer scale to the diameter of the cable, in order to find the
cable tension in pounds.

272 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Section 14: Aircraft Fluid Lines

14.1 Rigid Fluid Lines 275

14.2 Flexible Fluid Lines 277

14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose 279

14.4 Fluid Line Identification 280

14

14: Aircraft Fluid Lines 273

Fuel, hydraulic fluid, compressed air, lubricating oil, and other fluids are
carried in an aircraft and all must be routed through the proper size and type
of fluid line. There are two basic types of fluid lines: rigid and flexible.

14.1 Rigid Fluid Lines

Materials recommended for rigid fluid lines

Application Material
Low pressure 1100- and 3003-half hard aluminum alloy
High pressure 2024-T and 5052-O aluminum alloy
Oxygen systems Corrosion resistant steel
Fittings are brazed or silver soldered to lines

• Rigid fluid lines

—are measured by their outside diameter in increments of 1/16-inch. For
example, number 8 tubing has an outside diameter of 8/16- or 1/2-inch.
—are connected to fittings with either a flared or a flareless fitting. Flared
fittings have a flare angle of 37°; they must not be mixed with automotive
fittings which have a flare angle of 45°.

Minimum Maximum
14.1

When a piece of tubing is flared, the minimum diameter of the outside of the
flare should be no less than the inside diameter of the flare in the sleeve, and
the outside diameter should be no greater than the outside of the sleeve.

14: Aircraft Fluid Lines 275

• Tubing made of 5052-O and 6061-T aluminum alloy in sizes between
1/8- and 3/8-inch may be double flared.

Cone angle Sleeve

Sleeve pilot Bevel

Tube

Tube shoulder
Sleeve cutting
edge

Body
Nut

MS flareless fittings— popular for use in high-pressure hydraulic and

pneumatic lines

To assemble an MS flareless fitting:

1. Slide the nut and sleeve onto the tube.
2. Place the tube into a presetting tool and tighten the nut as specified by the
tubing manufacturer. (The pressure produced by the nut distorts the sleeve
so that it bites into the tube.)
3. Remove the tube from the presetting tool and screw it onto the fitting.
4. Tighten the nut finger tight, then turn it with a wrench for 1/6- to 1/3-turn
(one hex to two hexes).
5. Do not overtighten the fitting as it may be damaged and the joint will leak.

276 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

14.2 Flexible Fluid Lines

• Flexible fluid lines must be able to carry all of the volume of fluid without
an excessive pressure drop. They must withstand the pressure and the
vibration they will encounter.
• When a particular hose is specified in an aircraft parts list or service
manual, only that hose or an approved substitute may be used when the
hose is replaced.
• The size of a flexible hose is approximately its inside diameter in 1/16-inch
increments. This dimension refers to the outside diameter of a rigid tube
that has equivalent flow characteristics. For example, a -8 hose has flow
characteristics equivalent to the same length of -8, or 1/2-inch (8/16) rigid
tubing.
• Flexible fluid lines have a linear stripe, called a lay line, running along their
length. Its purpose is to help prevent twisting the hose during installation.
If this line spirals around the hose, the hose has been twisted.

Types of Flexible Fluid Lines

Type/Name Description and Approved for use/

Identification Suitability

Low-pressure hose • Synthetic rubber inner • Approved for

MIL-H-5593 liner, a cotton braid ribbed pressures up
synthetic rubber outer to 300 psi.
cover.
• Primarily used
• Broken yellow lay line, in instrument
letters “LP,” manufacturer’s installations.
code/date marking.

Medium-pressure • Seamless synthetic rubber • Suitable for

hose MIL-H-8794 inner liner, synthetic- carrying fluids
rubber-impregnated cotton under pressure
braid reinforcement, steel- of up to 1,500 psi.
wire braid reinforcement.
• Encased in a rough
14.2

synthetic-rubber-
impregnated cotton braid.

(continued)

14: Aircraft Fluid Lines 277

 Type/Name Description and Approved for use/
Identification Suitability

High-pressure hose • Seamless synthetic rubber • Suitable for

MIL-H-8788 inner tube, either two or operating with
three carbon-steel wire- pressures up
braid reinforcements. to 3,000 psi.
• Smooth synthetic rubber
cover.

Extra-high- • Reinforced with layers • Suitable for use

pressure hose of spiral wound stainless with pressures
steel wire. between 3,000
and 6,000 psi
• Encased in a special
and temperatures
synthetic rubber outer
up to 400°F.
layer.

Teflon hose • Chemically resistant • Unaffected

Tetrafluoethylene, TFE inner liner, braided by any fuel,
TFE stainless steel outer petroleum or
covering. synthetic base
oils, alcohol,
coolants,
or solvents
commonly used
in aircraft and
it retains these
characteristics
even at elevated
temperatures.

278 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose

Wrong Flexible hose should be

approximately 5% to 8%
longer than the distance
between the fittings. This
slack allows for contraction
as the line expands its
Right diameter and shortens its
length when pressurized.

Flexible hose should be

installed with no twists.
Wrong Right The lay line spirals around
the hose if it is twisted.

Wrong Flexible hose should be

installed on a movable
actuator in such a way that
the hose is not crimped in
any position of the
Right actuator.

Elbow fittings should be

used to keep flexible hose
Wrong Right from having to be bent at a
sharp angle.
14.3

Improper, and proper installation of flexible hose

14: Aircraft Fluid Lines 279

14.4 Fluid Line Identification

• Fluid-carrying lines in an aircraft are identified with a series of colored and

coded bands.
• One or two colors identify the fluid in the lines, and the name of the fluid is
written in the colored area.
• To aid color-blind technicians, a coded stripe also identifies the fluid.

Fluid Line Identification

LUBRICATION COOLANT
FUEL
LUBRICATION COOLANT
FUEL LUBRICATION COOLANT

FUEL LUBRICATION
COOLANT

WATER HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC

INJECTION
HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC
WATER
INJECTION HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC
WATER
HYDRAULIC
INJECTION PNEUMATIC

COMPRESSED FIRE BREATHING

GAS PROTECTION OXYGEN

COMPRESSED FIRE BREATHING

GAS PROTECTION OXYGEN

FIRE
COMPRESSED BREATHING
PROTECTION
GAS OXYGEN

280 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Fluid Line Identification

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT AIR

CONDUIT AIR CONDITION

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT AIR

CONDUIT AIR CONDITION

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT AIR

CONDUIT AIR CONDITION

ROCKET ROCKET ROCKET

FUEL OXIDIZER CATALYST

ROCKET ROCKET ROCKET

FUEL OXIDIZER CATALYST

ROCKET ROCKET ROCKET

FUEL OXIDIZER CATALYST

DEICING

DEICING

DEICING

DEICING WARNING

14.4

14: Aircraft Fluid Lines 281

282 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 15: Oxygen System Servicing

15.1 Oxygen System Servicing 285

15

15: Oxygen System Servicing 283

15.1 Oxygen System Servicing

1. Be sure to use no petroleum lubricants on oxygen system components.

2. Service aircraft oxygen systems only with oxygen approved for use in
aircraft.
3. When servicing an oxygen system from a cascade-type servicing cart,
charge the system from the cylinder having the lowest pressure first.
When the pressure stabilizes, record the pressure on the cylinder, shut
it off and open the valve on the cylinder having the next lowest pressure.
Continue this process until you have the desired pressure in the system.
Use the chart below to determine the final charging pressure, based on
the ambient temperature.
4. Do not allow installed oxygen cylinders to become completely empty.
When there is no oxygen in a cylinder, air containing water vapor
can enter.

Filling Pressure for 1,850 PSI Oxygen Cylinders

Ambient temperature and the heat of compression affect the pressure of
oxygen in a cylinder. To end up with 1,850 psi in the cylinder after the oxygen
has cooled from the filling process, the following filling pressures should be
used:

Ambient Filling
Temperature Pressure
(°F) (psi)
0 1,650
10 1,700
20 1,725
30 1,775
40 1,825
50 1,875
60 1,925
70 1,975
80 2,000
90 2,050
100 2,100
110 2,150
120 2,200
130 2,250
15.1

15: Oxygen System Servicing 285

286 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 16: Aircraft Weight and Balance

16
16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity 289

16.2 Datum Forward of the Airplane — Nose Wheel

Landing Gear 290

16.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Nose Wheel

Landing Gear 291

16.4 Datum Forward of the Main Wheels — Tail Wheel

Landing Gear 292

16.5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Tail Wheel

Landing Gear 293

16.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean

Aerodynamic Chord 294

16: Aircraft Weight and Balance 287

16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity

16.1
• Position the airplane on the scales with the parking brake off.
• Place chocks around the wheels to keep the airplane from rolling.
• Subtract the weight of the chocks (called tare weight) from the scale
reading to determine the net weight at each weighing point.

Datum

32.8

32.0 46.0

Figure 16.1. The datum is at the engine firewall.

• Determine the arm of each weighing point by measuring its distance from
the datum.
• Find the moment of each weighing point by multiplying its net weight by
its arm.

Nose wheel net weight = 340 pounds

Arm of the nose wheel = -32 inches
Moment of the nose wheel = -10,880 pound-inches

Main wheel net weight = 1,666 pounds

Arm of the main wheels = 46 inches
Moment of the main wheels = 76,636 pound-inches

Total weight = 2,006 pounds

Total moment = 65,756 pound-inches

16: Aircraft Weight and Balance 289

 Find the CG by adding the weight and moment of each weighing point to
find the total weight and total moment. Then divide the total moment by the
total weight to find the CG relative to the weighing points.

CG = Total Moment
Total Weight
65,756
=
2,006
= 32.8 inches aft of the datum

The CG is 32.8 inches aft of the datum or 13.2 inches ahead of the
main-wheel weighing points.

16.2 Datum Forward of the Airplane—

Nose Wheel Landing Gear

In Figure 16.2, the datum is considered to be 100 inches ahead of the

leading edge of the wing. The distance (D) between the main-wheel weighing
points and the datum is +128 inches. The weight of the nose wheel (F) is
340 pounds, the distance (L) between the main wheel and the nose-wheel
weighing points is 78.0 inches, and the total weight (W) is 2,006 pounds.

Datum

D = 128.0
114.8 13.2
100.0
50.0

L = 78.0

Figure 16.2. The datum is ahead of the airplane.

290 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

To locate the CG of an airplane relative to the datum that is 100 inches

16.3
ahead of the wing leading edge, use the formula:

FxL
CG = D –
W
340 x 78
= 128.0 –
2,006
= 114.8 inches aft of datum

The CG is 114.8 inches aft of the datum, which is 13.2 inches ahead of the
main-wheel weighing points. This proves that the location of the datum has
no effect on the location of the CG, as long as all measurements are made
from the same location.

16.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels—

Nose Wheel Landing Gear

In Figure 16.3, the datum is at the trailing edge of the wing at the wing root.
The distance (D) between the main-wheel weighing points and the datum is
+75 inches. The weight of the nose-wheel (F) is 340 pounds, the distance (L)
between the main wheel and the nose-wheel weighing points is 78.0 inches,
and the total weight (W) is 2,006 pounds.

Datum

153.0
88.2
D = 75.0

L = 78.0
Figure 16.3. The datum is aft of the main wheels at the intersection of the
wing trailing edge and the fuselage.

16: Aircraft Weight and Balance 291

 FxL
CG = – D +
W
340 x 78
= – 75 +
2,006
= –88.2 inches ahead of the datum

The CG is 88.2 inches ahead of the datum, which is 13.2 inches ahead of
the main-wheel weighing points.

16.4 Datum Forward of the Main Wheels —

Tail Wheel Landing Gear

In Figure 16.4, the datum is at the leading edge of the wing at the wing root.
The distance (D) between the main-wheel weighing points and the datum is
+7.5 inches. The weight of the tail wheel (R) is 67 pounds, the distance (L)
between the main wheel and the tail-wheel weighing points is 222.0 inches,
and the total weight (W) is 1,218 pounds.

Datum
19.7
D = 7.5

L = 222.0
229.5

Figure 16.4. The datum is the leading edge of the wing at the wing root.

292 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 RxL
CG = D +

16.5
W
67 x 222
= 7.5 +
1,218
= 19.7 inches aft of the datum

The CG is 19.7 inches behind the datum, which places it 12.2 inches behind
the main-wheel weighing points.

16.5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels —

Tail Wheel Landing Gear

In Figure 16.5, the datum is at the trailing edge of the wing at the wing root.
The distance (D) between the main-wheel weighing points and the datum
is 80 inches. The weight of the tail wheel (R) is 67 pounds, the distance (L)
between the main wheel and the tail-wheel weighing points is 222.0 inches,
and the total weight (W) is 1,218 pounds.

Datum
67.8

D = – 80 142
L = 222.0

Figure 16.5. The datum is the trailing edge of the wing at the wing root.

16: Aircraft Weight and Balance 293

 RxL
CG = –D +
W
67 x 222
= – 80 +
1,218
= 67.8 inches ahead of the datum

The CG is 67.8 inches ahead of the datum, which is 80 inches behind the
main-wheel weighing points. The CG is 12.2 inches behind the main-wheel
weighing point.

16.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean

Aerodynamic Chord

Knowing the location of the CG relative to the datum is important to the

technician, because it is easy to locate physically. But the pilot and flight
engineer are more concerned with location of the CG relative to the
aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. The reference for this location is in
percentage of the wing chord.
The chord of a tapered wing airplane is not easy to determine; therefore
the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is used, and the allowable CG range is
expressed as percentages of the MAC.
The MAC is the chord of an imaginary airfoil that has all of the
aerodynamic characteristics of the actual airfoil. It can also be thought of as
the chord drawn through the geographic center of the plan area of the wing
(see Figure 16.6).
For example, the aircraft weight and balance data states that the leading
edge of MAC (LEMAC) is at station 1022, and the trailing edge of MAC
(TEMAC) is at station 1198. A weight and balance computation determines
that the CG is located at station 1070, the location expressed in percentage
of MAC is found using this formula:

Distance aft of LEMAC x 100

CG in %MAC =
MAC
48 x 100
=
176
= 27.3% MAC

The CG of the airplane is located at 27.3% MAC.

294 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Datum

16.6
LEMAC
CG MAC
TEMAC

Figure 16.6. The MAC is the chord drawn through the geographic center of
the plan area of the wing.

16: Aircraft Weight and Balance 295

296 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Section 17: Composites

17
17.1 Resin Systems — Typical Properties 299

17.2 Resin Mix Ratios 300

17.3 Fiber/Resin Ratio Formulas 301

17.4 Reinforcing Fibers 302

17.5 Textile and Fiber Terminology 303

17.6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems 304

17.7 Fabric Weave Styles 305

17.8 Common Weave Style Numbers and Features 307

17.9 Ply Orientation Conventions 308

17.10 Damage Removal — Scarfing and Stepping 308

17.11 Core Materials 310

17.12 Bleeder Schedules 311

17: Composites 297

17.1 Resin Systems — Typical Properties

17.1
Each resin system has its own combination of features or properties, which
determine their suitability for a given purpose, e.g., maximum service
temperature, smoke properties, adhesive properties, etc. The following is a
list of the major resin families and general description of their properties.

Polyester resin Cured by polymerization

Environmentally resistant
Inexpensive
Poor adhesive properties
High styrene emissions
Poor smoke properties

Vinyl ester resin Cured by polymerization

Modified polyester resin
Better adhesive properties than polyester
High styrene emissions
Poor smoke properties

Epoxy resin Cured by cross-linking

Excellent strength and adhesive properties
Good environmental resistance
Wide variety of formulations and properties
Most common in aerospace applications
Poor smoke properties

Phenolic resin Cured by cross-linking

Good chemical and electrical properties
Poor adhesive properties
Good smoke properties
Fairly brittle

Bismaleimide Cured by cross-linking

resin Often referred to as BMI
Good hot/wet performance
High service temperature
Process similar to epoxy

(continued)

17: Composites 299

 Cyanate ester resin Cured by cross-linking
High service temperature (after post-cure)
Minimal micro cracking
Expensive

Polyimide resin Cured by cross-linking

High service temperature
Good smoke properties
Difficult to process
Expensive

Polymerization begins in polyester and vinyl ester resins at the time of

manufacture. An inhibitor is added to the material to keep it in a liquid state
until it is ready for use. When the user adds a small quantity of an initiator
(catalyst) such as MEKP, it counteracts the effect of the inhibitor and allows
the resin to cure and become solid.

Cross-linking occurs in most other thermoset resin systems. It is a one-time

chemical reaction in which liquid resin molecules (component A) form links
to hardener molecules (component B). As these links form, the resin gels,
cures, and ultimately becomes a solid.

WARNING: These curing processes generate heat. If sufficient amounts

are left in a container for too long there is a substantial risk of an uncontrolled
exothermic reaction. Such reactions can generate large amounts of toxic
smoke or possibly start a fire. Always consult the manufacturer’s data sheet
and material safety data sheet (MSDS) for details.

17.2 Resin Mix Ratios

In order for any resin system to develop its full strength after it is cured it
must first be mixed properly. The amount of hardener that should be added to
a resin system is usually measured by weight, not volume, and is expressed
as a ratio (e.g., 100:30). Assuming the unit of measurement is grams, this
means to 100 grams of resin, add 30 grams of hardener for a total of 130
grams of mixed material.

300 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 For example, if a total of 210 grams of mixed resin is needed and the mix
ratio is 100:42, the amount of components A and B to be weighed out may
be determined using the following formula:

17.3
210 grams
Part A = X 100 = 148 grams
100 + 42

210 grams
Part B = X 42 = 62 grams
100 + 42

Therefore, 148 grams of component A added to 62 grams of component

B will result in 210 grams of mixed resin with the proper mix ratio.
The importance of understanding mix ratios cannot be stressed enough.
Most high performance resin systems will tolerate mix ratio errors up to 3
percent. Errors beyond 3 percent may dramatically reduce a resin’s ability
to perform properly in service.

17.3 Fiber / Resin Ratio Formulas

Optimum strengths are derived from composite materials when fiber

reinforcements (glass, aramid, carbon, etc.) are combined with a particular
amount of matrix material (resin). Too much resin makes the laminate heavier
and stiffer than it should be; not enough resin causes its physical properties
to suffer tremendously. When designing composite parts, engineers often use
“fiber volume” as a means to express how much fiber and resin make up a
component. This works fine for engineering, but is of little use to mechanics
conducting repairs in the field.
Since most mechanics have access to a scale, a more practical method
is to use the relative weight of the fiber and its associated resin. The
relationship of the weight of the fibers to the weight of the resin can then be
expressed as a ratio. For example, a 60:40 fiber/ resin ratio indicates that
60% of the weight of the laminate is attributed to the reinforcing fibers and
40% is attributed to the resin. Understanding the relationship between fiber
and resin weights can aid in developing optimum strength properties in wet
lay-up repairs. Below are common fiber/ resin ratio ranges for various fiber
types.
(continued)

17: Composites 301

 Fiberglass Carbon/ Graphite Aramid

Resin lean 70:30 48:52 39:61

Resin rich 60:40 42:58 33:67

17.4 Reinforcing Fibers

The most common advanced composite fibers used in the aerospace

industry today are carbon and graphite fibers, fiberglass, and aramid, or
Kevlar ® fiber. Each of these has certain properties that make the material
unique and particularly well-suited for certain applications.

Carbon/ Graphite High modulus (stiffness)

Broad range of strength and modulus
combinations
Electrically conductive

Aramid (Kevlar ®) Light weight

High tensile strength
Impact / abrasion resistant

Fiberglass Excellent physical properties

Readily available
Inexpensive
Variety of chemistries available for
different purposes

302 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

17.5 Textile and Fiber Terminology

17.5
Roll of Fabric or Prepreg

Selvage Edge
Fill Yarns

Filaments
The smallest element of composite fibers, typically 3 to 25 microns in
diameter depending on the type of fiber.

Strands
An intermediate step used in the production of fiberglass yarns only.
Filaments are twisted into strands, which are then twisted into yarns.

Yarns / tows
Bundles of filaments numbering from 25 to 24,000. Yarns are twisted to
aid in the manufacture of woven cloth (see 17.6 “Yarn Part Numbering
Systems”). Tows are often laid flat and parallel to manufacture carbon,
aramid, or fiberglass unidirectional tape.

Warp yarns
Yarns running the length of a roll of fabric. Always used when referencing
ply orientation.

Fill yarns
Transverse yarns on a roll of fabric.

17: Composites 303

Selvage edge
Stitching along the long edge of a roll of fabric to keep it from fraying.

Warp face
Harness satin weaves only. The face of a fabric on which one sees primarily
warp yarns.

Fill face
Harness satin weaves only. The face of a fabric on which one sees primarily
fill yarns.

17.6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems

Composite structures rely on reinforcing fibers to carry the majority of the

loads imposed on them. In structures made from woven materials, the fibers
are usually gathered into yarns. Since the size, construction, and number of
the yarns is critical to the structure’s ability to conduct a load properly, it is
important to understand how these yarns are described. Each of the major
fiber types — fiberglass, carbon, and aramid (Kevlar®) — have their own part
numbering system for yarns.

Carbon
A number suffixed by the letter “K” (thousand) is used to indicate how many
thousands of filaments make up the yarn. For instance, a 6K yarn is made up
of six thousand filaments.

Aramid (Kevlar®)
Aramid yarns are described by their denier weight, which appears as a
number suffixed by “de.” The denier weight is the weight, in grams, of nine
thousand meters of the yarn, the lower the denier, the finer the yarn. For
example, a yarn designated as 1140 de indicates that nine thousand meters
of that yarn weighs 1,140 grams.

Fiberglass
Given the wide variety of fiberglass materials produced, a more exact system
for identifying yarns is required. An example of a fiberglass yarn part number
is given below followed by descriptions of each of its components.

For example, ECG 150 2/3

304 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

First letter — Characterizes the chemical composition of the glass, e.g.,
E-glass (electrical), C-glass (chemical resistant), S-glass (structural), etc.

Second letter — Describes the filament type. “C” indicates a continuous

17.7
filament as opposed to a staple filament (S), or a texturized continuous
filament (T).

Third letter — A letter code representing the individual filament diameter. “G”
indicates an individual filament diameter range of .00035 to .000399 inches.
Contact fiberglass manufacturer for additional letter codes.

First number — The number of yards, divided by one hundred, required to net
one pound of the basic yarn strand. In the example, multiplying 150 by one
hundred equals 15,000 yards of strand in one pound.

Second number — The “2/3” shows the number of basic strands in the yarn.
The first digit represents the original number of twisted strands. The second
digit shows how many of these are twisted together to make one yarn. To find
the total number of strands in a yarn, multiply the two digits together (a zero
is always multiplied as a one).

17.7 Fabric Weave Styles

Plain weave
The simplest, most basic of the
weave styles. Warp and fill yarns
are interlaced over and under
each other in an alternating
pattern. These fabrics are stable
and lightweight, but typically have
poor drape properties.

Plain weave

17: Composites 305

Four-harness Five-harness

Harness satin weaves

A warp or fill yarn “floats” over a number
of yarn intersections before interlacing
under just one yarn. This creates the
appearance of all the yarns on one
side of the fabric “traveling” in a single
direction, and the yarns on the opposite
side “traveling” 90 degrees out (see
17.4, “warp face” and “fill face”). Harness
satins have excellent drape and are
characterized by the number of yarns a
yarn “floats” over, plus the yarn it goes Eight-harness satin
under. Common weave styles include
four-harness satin (over three yarns,
under one), five-harness satin (over four
yarns, under one), and eight-harness
satin (over seven yarns, under one).

Twill weave
These relatively stable fabrics offer
increased drape properties over
plain weaves. The weave pattern is
characterized by the appearance of
a diagonal rib caused by warp yarns
floating over two fill yarns (2 x 2 twill) and
then, under two. A 4 x 4 twill has a similar
appearance and better drape properties. Twill weave

306 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

17.8 Common Weave Style Numbers
and Features

17.8
It is important to remember that the weave style number is meaningless
without knowing the fiber type. For instance, 120 style aramid is in no way
similar to 120 style fiberglass. The aramid is a plain weave and the fiberglass
is a four harness satin.

Fiberglass Characteristics
Style number Weave style - Weight - Yarn count (W x F)

120 4 harness satin - 3.1 oz. - 60 x 58

1581 8 harness satin - 8.7 oz. - 57 x 54
7500 plain weave - 9.3 oz. - 56 x 54
7781 8 harness satin - 8.7 oz. - 16 x 14

Aramid Characteristics
Style number* Weave style - Weight - Yarn count (W x F)

348 (181) 8 harness satin - 4.9 oz. - 50 x 50

350 (120) plain weave - 1.7 oz. - 34 x 34
352 (281) plain weave - 5.0 oz. - 17 x 17
353 (285) 4 harness satin - 5.0 oz. - 17 x 17

Carbon Characteristics
Style number Weave style - Weight - Yarn count (W x F)

130 plain weave - 3.74 oz. - 24 x 24

282 plain weave - 5.8 oz. - 12 x 12
286 4 harness satin - 5.8 oz. - 12 x 12
433 5 harness satin - 8.4 oz. - 18 x 18
584 8 harness satin - 11.0 oz. - 24 x 24
IM7 Graphite
SGP193-P plain weave - 5.7 oz. - 11 x 11
SGP203-CS 4 harness satin - 6.0 oz. - 12 x 12
SGP370-8H 8 harness satin - 11.0 oz. - 21 x 21

* Numbers in parentheses are older style numbers

17: Composites 307

17.9 Ply Orientation Conventions

Ply orientation convention symbols are used in manufacturers’ structural

repair manuals to coordinate the drawing of the component to the ply tables,
which list ply orientations.
There are two types of convention symbols, clockwise and counter-
clockwise. The counterclockwise warp clock is drawn from the manufacturer’s
standpoint where the plies are viewed from the inside looking out, toward the
tool surface. The clockwise warp clock is drawn from the repair standpoint
where the plies are viewed from the outside, or tool surface, looking in.

Counterclockwise Clockwise

90 90
+45 -45

0 0

-45 +45

Inside looking out Outside looking in

17.10 Damage Removal – Scarfing and Stepping

Once the damaged area of a laminate has been removed, it must be pre-
pared in such a way that allows the repair plies to conduct loads much like
the original structure did. Like sheet metal repairs, composite repairs rarely
restore a structure to 100% of its original strength, but poorly prepared areas
can yield composite repairs that perform well below acceptable standards.
Always consult the manufacturer’s SRM or other acceptable data for repair
specifics.
While scarfed, or taper-sanded repairs have been demonstrated to
conduct loads more effectively, step-sanded repairs are still found in many
aircraft SRMs. Usually, they are both expressed as a specific dimension
per ply, e.g., scarf 1/2 inch per ply. On some newer aircraft taper sanding is
expressed as a scarf ratio.

308 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 In a scarf ratio of 40:1 for example, the “1” represents the thickness of the
laminate and the “40” represents the distance the scarf will cover, in this case
40 times the thickness of the laminate.

17.10
Repair plies
Filler ply

/"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12

Typical scarf repair

Repair plies
Filler ply

/"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12 /"
12

Typical step repair

17: Composites 309

17.11 Core Materials

Core materials for composite Core Cell Configurations

applications can generally be
divided into two categories, foam
Hex core
core and honeycomb core. Foam
Core
core materials generally have thickness
good properties at a relatively low Cell
cost, they are easy to machine, width
and their closed cell construction
offers excellent resistance to
water and fluid ingress. While
there are many foam chemistries, Cell length
the three most common are (Ribbon direction)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polyure-
thane, and Polymethacrylimide
(PMI). Available densities range
O.X. core
from less than 2 pounds per cubic
Core
foot (pcf) to 60 pcf. thickness

Honeycomb core is used Cell

width
extensively on modern aircraft
due to its exceptional physical
properties and light weight.
Fabrics are used to make carbon
and fiberglass honeycomb, while Cell length
Nomex ® and Kevlar® cores are (Ribbon direction)
made from a pressed, paper-like
form of the materials. The three
most common core cell configura- Flex-core
tions are; hex core (hexagonal), Core
for flat or nearly flat panels; O.X. thickness
core (over-expanded) for simple
Cell
curves; and flex-core for complex width
geometries. When honeycomb is
specified, the following informa-
tion needs to be provided:
Cell length
• Material (Ribbon direction)
Core illustrations courtesy of Hexcel
• Cell shape (Hex-core, O.X.
core, Flex-core, etc.)
• Cell size

310 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

• Density
• Wall thickness and alloy (for aluminum core)

Cell sizes range from 1/16" to 1", with 1/8", 3/16", 1/4", with 3/8" being the

17.12
most common. Honeycomb densities range from 1.0 lb/ft 3 to 55 lb/ft3.

17.12 Bleeder Schedules

Bleeder schedules are used in conjunction with vacuum bag processing to

remove resin that is in excess of the desired fiber/ resin ratio (see 17.3) and
to remove air and volatiles from the resin system as it cures. There are many
types of materials available to perform the various functions in a bleeder
schedule, so the potential combinations are infinite. However, a typical
bleeder schedule might contain the following elements:

• Release layer — Allows resin and gasses to pass through and releases
from the cured part/ repair.
• Bleeder material — Absorbent material to hold resin.
• Separator layer — Prevents resin from saturating breather materials. A
separator may not be necessary depending on resin quantity and flow
characteristics.
• Breather material — Provides gas path for extraction of air and volatiles.
• Vacuum bag — Used with sealant tape to achieve vacuum.

17: Composites 311

312 Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Appendices

Appendix
Appendix 1 Hydraulic Fittings 315

Appendix 2 Engines 319

Appendix 3 Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 321

Appendix 4 Aircraft Tires 349

Appendices 313
Appendix 1: Hydraulic Fittings

AN804 AN824
Bulkhead Tee, Tee

Appendix
Bulkhead on run

AN827
Cross

AN806
Pressure Plug
AN832
Bulkhead
Straight

AN814
Bleeder Plug

AN833
AN815 Bulkhead 90°
Union

AN816
Pipe to 37° Flare,
Straight AN834
Bulkhead Tee,
Bulkhead on
side
AN818
Tube Nut

AN821
90° Elbow

Appendix 1: Hydraulic Fittings 315

 AN837 AN911
Bulkhead 45° Male Straight

AN912
Pipe to Pipe
AN840
Bushing
Straight Nipple

AN914
Male to Female 90°

AN842
90° Nipple AN915
Male to Female 45°

AN916
AN844 Female 90°
45° Nipple

AN893 AN917
Female Straight Female Tee
to Male Straight

AN894 AN918
Female Female Cross
Straight
to Male 37°

AN910
Female Straight

316 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

AN919 AN941
Male to Male, Straight Thread
37° Flare 45° Elbow

AN924
Bulkhead Nut

Appendix
AN929 AN6289
Pressure Cap Bulkhead Nut

MS20819
Sleeve

AN933
External Hex Plug MS20822
Pipe to 37°
Flare, 90°

MS20823
AN937 Pipe to 37°
Straight Thread Flare, 45°
Cross

MS20825
AN938 Tee, Pipe on Side
Straight Thread
Tee

MS20826
AN939 Tee, Pipe on Run
Straight Thread
90° Elbow

Appendix 1: Hydraulic Fittings 317

 MS20913 MS21921
Square Plug, Flareless Nut
replaces AN913

MS21922
Flareless Sleeve
MS21900
37° Flare to Flareless

MS27769
Hex Plug,
replaces AN932
MS21902
Flarelelss Union

NAS1564
Female 37°
to Male 37°

318 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Appendix 2: Engines

Fine-Wire Spark Plugs Massive Electrode Plugs

Normal: Indicates short Normal: Indicates short

service time and correct

Appendix
service time and correct
heat range. Clean, heat range. Clean,
regap and test before regap and test before
reinstalling. reinstalling.

Worn Out — Normal: Worn Out — Normal:

Indicates normal service Indicates normal service
life, electrodes show life, electrodes show
normal erosion, ground normal erosion, ground
electrodes about half electrodes about half
original thickness. Install original thickness. Install
new spark plugs. new spark plugs.

Worn Out — Severe: Worn Out — Severe:

Extensively eroded center Excessively eroded center
and ground electrodes and ground electrodes
indicate abnormal engine indicate abnormal engine
power operation or power operation. Check
plugs long overdue for fuel metering. Install new
replacement. Install new spark plugs.
spark plugs.

Lead Fouled: Hard, Lead Fouled: Hard,

cinder-like deposits from cinder-like deposits from
poor fuel vaporization, poor fuel vaporization,
high T.E.L. content in fuel high T.E.L. content in fuel
or engine operating too or engine operating too
cold. Clean, regap, test cold. Install new spark
and reinstall. plugs.

Carbon Fouled: Black, Carbon Fouled: Black,

sooty deposits from sooty deposits from
excessive ground idling, excessive ground idling,
idle mixture too rich or idle mixture too rich or
plug type too cold. If heat plug type too cold. If heat
range is correct, clean, range is correct, clean,
regap, test and reinstall. regap, test and reinstall.

Oil Fouled: Wet, oily Oil Fouled: Wet, oily

deposits may be caused deposits may be caused
by broken or worn piston by broken or worn piston
rings, excessive valve rings, excessive valve
guide clearances, leaking guide clearances, leaking
impeller seal or engine impeller seal or engine
still in break-in period. still in break-in period.
Repair engine as Repair engine as required.
required. Clean, regap, Clean, regap, test and
test and reinstall plugs. reinstall plugs.
Courtesy Champion Aviation Products

Appendix 2: Engines 319

 Spark Plug Color Identifier
Painted between spark plug hole and rocker box.
Gray or unpainted .................................. Short reach spark plug
Yellow ...................................................... Long reach spark plug

Cylinder Color Code Identifiers

Painted around cylinder base by the hold down nuts or on fins
between push rods:

Gray or unpainted Standard steel barrels

Orange Chrome plated cylinder barrels
Blue Nitride hardened cylinder barrels
Green Steel cylinder 0.010 oversize
Yellow Steel cylinder 0.020 oversize
White Rebarreled cylinder
Platinum CermiNil® cylinder barrels
Two orange bands CermiChrome® cylinder barrels

320 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries
Adapted from “Concorde Aircraft Battery Owner/Operator Manual,” courtesy Concorde
Battery Corporation

Appendix
Safety Summary for Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 323

Valve Regulated Lead Acid — Absorbent Glass Mat

(VRLA-AGM) Batteries 324
Battery Description 324
Storage 325
Transportation 326
Preparation for Installation 326
Installation 327
Operation 328
Servicing 332
Disposal 334

Dry Charged (Vented) Lead Acid Batteries 334

Battery Description 334
Storage 335
Transportation 336
Preparation for Installation 336
Installation 338
Operation 339
Servicing 343
Disposal 344

Glossary — Lead Acid Aircraft Battery Terms 345

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 321

Safety Summary for Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries

Warning: Low Capacity Hazard

Aircraft batteries are certified to have a certain minimum capacity for

Appendix
emergency operations in the event of a electrical generator system failure.
Never use a battery that has less than 80% of rated capacity.

Warning: Electric Burn Hazard

Lead acid batteries are capable of delivering high currents if the terminals
are shorted. The resulting heat can cause severe burns and is a potential fire
hazard. Take the following precautions:
a. Do not place tools or metal objects across battery terminals.
b. Do not wear conductive rings, belt buckles, watches or other jewelry when
servicing batteries.
c. Wear insulated gloves and use insulated tools when servicing batteries.
d. Install battery terminal protectors whenever the battery is not connected
in the aircraft or to the test equipment.

Warning: Danger of Exploding Batteries

Lead acid batteries can produce explosive mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen
while on charge or discharge, which can explode if ignited. Take the following
precautions:
a. Never install batteries in an airtight or sealed enclosure and make sure
installation is adequately ventilated.
b. Do not smoke, use an open flame, or cause sparking near a battery.
c. Wear proper eye and face protection when servicing batteries.
d. Make sure work area is well ventilated.
e. Do not constant-current charge a battery when it is installed in an aircraft.
f. Connect cables securely to the battery terminals to avoid arcing.

Warning: Danger of Chemical Burns

Lead acid batteries contain sulfuric acid which can cause severe burns to
body tissue. Take the following precautions:
a. Never remove or damage vent valves.
b. Avoid contact of the electrolyte with skin, eyes or clothing.
c. Do not touch eyes after touching a battery.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 323

d. In the event of acid in the eyes, flush thoroughly with clean cool water for
several minutes and get professional medical attention immediately.
e. Refer to battery material safety data sheet (MSDS) for additional
information.

Caution: Danger of Equipment Damage

To prevent damage to the connector, arc burns, or explosion, batteries
should never be connected or disconnected while being charged or
discharged. Batteries must be connected or disconnected only when the
circuit is open.
Ensure the aircraft battery switch, external power source, or the charger/
analyzer is in the “OFF” position before connecting or disconnecting the
battery. Battery terminal protectors should be installed whenever the battery
is not connected in the aircraft or to the test equipment.

Valve Regulated Lead Acid—Absorbent Glass Mat

(VRLA-AGM) Batteries
Adapted from “Concorde RG® Series Aircraft Battery Owner/Operator Manual”

Battery Description
Concorde RG® Series aircraft batteries are made using valve regulated
lead acid cells. Each cell is sealed with a pressure relief valve that regulates
the internal pressure and prevents gases from escaping. The positive and
negative plates are sandwiched between layers of glass mat consisting of
glass microfibers of varying length and diameter. This blend features superior
wicking characteristics and promotes maximum retention of the electrolyte.
Electrolyte is absorbed and held in place by the capillary action between the
fluid and the absorptive glass mat (AGM) fibers.
By design, the AGM separator is only about 90–95% saturated with
electrolyte. The void space provides the channels by which oxygen travels
from the positive to the negative plates during charging. When the oxygen
gas reaches the negative plate, it reacts with lead to form lead oxide and
water. This reaction at the negative plate suppresses the generation of
hydrogen that otherwise would come off the negative plate. In this manner,
virtually all of the gas is recombined inside the cell, eliminating the need to
add water, resulting in “maintenance free” operation.

324 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Pressure Relief Valve
The pressure relief valve (PRV) is designed to open when the internal
pressure of a cell is approximately 1.5 psi above the external pressure. The
PRV prevents excessive pressure buildup when the battery is being charged,
and automatically reseals once the pressure is released.
A slight bulge in the battery container can occur when the internal
pressure increases slightly, but not enough to open the PRV. Alternately, if

Appendix
the PRV opens at altitude and the battery is then returned to the ground, the
external pressure can be greater than the internal pressure, resulting in a
concave battery container. Both of these conditions are normal and do not
affect the battery’s operation.

CAUTION: Do not remove the pressure relief valves on an RG® battery

and do not add water or electrolyte. The recombinant gas design
eliminates the need to replenish water and electrolyte. Removing the
pressure relief valve voids the warranty.

Valve-Regulated Cells
The RG® Series of aircraft batteries consist of 6 or 12 valve-regulated lead
acid cells connected in series to make a nominal 12-volt or 24-volt battery,
respectively. The cells are contained in a plastic or metallic container
equipped with an electrical receptacle for mating to the aircraft. In some
models, externally mounted temperature sensors are present that interface
to the aircraft charging and/or electrical system. Some models also include
heaters to warm the battery for operation in extreme cold temperature
environments.
Technical characteristics of the various battery models are detailed on
Concorde’s website at www.concordebattery.com. If internet access is not
available, contact Concorde for assistance.

Storage
1. Batteries are serviced and charged at the factory prior to shipment.
2. To prolong shelf life, batteries should be stored in a cool location, ideally
below 20°C (68°F).
3. The open circuit voltage (OCV) of a fully charged battery is approximately
26.0 volts (13.0 volts for 12-volt batteries). As the battery state of charge
drops due to self discharge, its OCV also declines.
4. Batteries should be boost-charged when the OCV declines to 25.0 volts
(12.5 volts for 12-volt batteries).

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 325

5. Batteries with an OCV below 25.0 volts (12.5 volts for 12-volt batteries)
due to improper or inadequate boost-charging must be capacity tested
before being placed in service.
6. Refer to the applicable component maintenance manual (CMM) for
detailed instructions on boost-charging and capacity testing.

Transportation
The battery should be packaged in its original container. If the original
container is not available, follow local packaging regulations applicable to the
mode of transport.
Concorde RG® Series batteries are exempt from U.S. DOT hazardous
materials regulations (“Hazmat,” in 49 CFR Parts 105 through 180), IATA
Dangerous Goods regulations, and IMDG (International Maritime Dangerous
Goods) Code. When properly packaged, they can be shipped as non-
hazardous via any method. For more details, refer to the battery MSDS and the
transportation information on Concorde’s website (www.concordebattery.com).
If internet access is not available, contact Concorde for assistance.

Preparation For Installation

1. Remove battery from the shipping carton and visually inspect the battery
for signs of damage. Do not use the battery if it appears to be damaged.
Contact Concorde for assistance.
2. Measure the battery’s open circuit voltage (OCV) with a calibrated digital
multimeter (DMM).
3. If the OCV equals or exceeds 25.5 volts (12.75 volts for 12-volt batteries),
the battery can be installed in the aircraft without charging.
4. If the OCV equals or exceeds 25.0 volts and is less than 25.5 volts
(12.5 and 12.75 volts for 12-volt batteries), apply a boost charge before
installation. The battery can then be installed in the aircraft.
5. If the OCV is below 25.0 volts (12.5 volts for a 12-volt battery), perform a
capacity test before installing in the aircraft.
6. Refer to the applicable CMM for detailed instructions on boost-charging
and capacity testing.

326 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Installation
Note: The following instructions are generic. See aircraft maintenance
manual or STC (Supplemental Type Certificate) for instructions specific to a
particular aircraft model.

WARNING: Lead acid batteries are heavy, with some models

Appendix
exceeding 50 pounds. Use appropriate lifting devices or equipment.
Use battery handles where provided.

1. Remove existing battery (if present):

• Set master switch to the OFF position.
• Disconnect any external power supply.
• Open battery compartment access panel(s).
• Disconnect battery quick disconnect plug or remove terminal bolts and
disconnect battery cables from battery terminals. Always disconnect the
ground cable first and install the ground cable last.
• Disconnect battery ventilation tubes, if any.
• Unlock battery hold-down clamps or remove battery hold-down bars.
• Disengage battery and install terminal protection to prevent accidental
shorting of terminals.
• Carefully remove from battery compartment.

2. Install replacement battery:

• Inspect the battery for damage. Cracks in metal or plastic containers
are not permitted. Dents in metal containers that impinge on the interior
plastic container are not acceptable. If defects are found, contact an
authorized service center or contact Concorde for assistance.
• Verify battery terminals are protected from shorting.
• Set master switch to the OFF position.
• Disconnect any external power supply.
• Open battery compartment access panels.
• Ensure the battery container or tray is clean and dry.
• Install battery in battery container or tray.
• Engage battery hold-down hardware, torque and safety wire, per aircraft
maintenance manual.
• Connect battery vent tubes to aircraft ventilation system, if present.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 327

 • Remove battery terminal protection.
• Connect battery quick disconnect plug and any auxiliary connectors.
• For ring terminals, install with bolt and bevel lock washer provided with
the battery. Torque terminal bolts as noted on the battery label. Always
disconnect the ground cable first and install the ground cable last.

CAUTION: On batteries with internally threaded terminals, use an

open-end wrench on the flat portion of the terminals while torquing the
terminal bolts. Failure to do so may result in the rupture of the battery
seal at the terminal and premature failure of the battery.

Use only the hardware provided with the battery. Do not use stainless
steel or steel washers between the ring terminal and the battery
terminal.

• Replace electrical compartment access panel.

• Update aircraft weight and balance data, if necessary.
• Perform an operational test.
• Annotate battery logbook with battery serial number, date of installation
and aircraft hours.

Operation
Applications
Aircraft batteries are used to start engines and auxiliary power units (APUs),
to provide emergency backup power for essential avionics equipment and
lighting systems, to ensure no-break power for navigation units and fly-by-
wire computers, and to provide ground power capability for maintenance and
preflight checkouts. Most of these functions are critical to safe operation of
the aircraft, so the state of health (SOH) of an aircraft battery is of utmost
importance.
Aircraft batteries are certified to have a particular minimum capacity for
emergency operations in the event of an electrical generator system failure.
If the battery is used to satisfy essential or emergency power requirements,
its capacity must be tested periodically to ensure airworthiness. See the
“Servicing” section below (page 332) for capacity test instructions.

Battery Charging
The aircraft’s electrical system automatically charges the battery when the
engine(s) are running. Most aircraft allow charging using external power as
well.

328 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 The battery charging system in most aircraft is of the constant voltage
type. With constant voltage charging, the battery will accept charging current
inversely proportional to its state of charge (that is, the lower the state of
charge, the higher the charging current). When the battery reaches full
charge, the charging current tapers off to a very low value (typically 0.5%
of the C1 capacity), and remains at that level to keep the battery on a “float
charge.” Therefore, an ammeter reading of the charging current (if present) is

Appendix
useful in determining the approximate state of charge of the battery.

Temperature Compensation
Battery service life can be prolonged by compensating the charging voltage
based on the battery temperature. For aircraft that have an adjustable voltage
regulator, Table 1 provides recommended settings.

Table 1. Recommended Voltage Regulator Settings

Voltage regulator setting (volts DC)

Battery temperature 12V system 24V system
Below 0°C (32°F) 14.5–14.75 29.0–29.5
0 to 15°C (32 to 59°F) 14.25–14.5 28.5–29.0
16 to 30°C (60 to 86°F) 14.0–14.25 28.0–28.5
31 to 45°C (87 to 113°F) 13.75–14.0 27.5–28.0
Above 45°C (113°F) 13.5–13.75 27.0–27.5

Ground Power Units

When aircraft are powered by ground power units, be sure that the DC output
voltage is adjusted to the range shown in Table 1. Through the years there
have been many reports of overcharged batteries due to ground power units
being set too high. High charging voltages will shorten the battery service life
significantly.

Open Circuit Voltage

The battery state of charge (SOC) can be determined (approximately) from
reading the battery’s open circuit voltage (OCV). To get an accurate OCV,
the battery needs to be stabilized on open circuit (no charging or discharging
current) for at least 4 hours. Once the stabilized OCV is measured, the SOC
can be determined from Table 2.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 329

Table 2. State of Charge versus Open Circuit Voltage

Open circuit voltage

12V battery 24V battery State of charge (%)
12.9 or above 25.8 or above 100%
12.6 25.2 75%
12.3 24.6 50%
12.0 24.0 25%
11.7 or below 23.4 or below 0%

Note: The battery state of charge should not be confused with state of health
(see Glossary, page 348). A battery at 100% state of charge may or may
not have good state of health (that is, the actual capacity may or may not be
considered airworthy). The only reliable method to determine battery state of
health is by capacity test (see “Servicing,” page 332).

Aircraft Storage
When an aircraft is placed in storage or remains dormant for an extended
time, it is best to disconnect the battery connector. This practice will eliminate
unnecessary drain on the battery if parasitic loads are present. Parasitic
loads can deplete battery capacity and result in battery sulfation (see next
section).

Sulfated Batteries
Lead acid batteries become sulfated when they remain in a discharged state
for extended periods of time. The longer the time period and the greater
the depth of discharge, the worse the sulfation becomes. Sulfation may be
reversible or irreversible, depending on the severity.
Sulfation is evidenced by a low open circuit voltage (below 12.5 volts
for a 12-volt battery or 25.0 volts for a 24-volt battery) after the battery has
been subjected to a full recharge using normal (constant voltage) charging
conditions.
To prolong the battery service life, conditions leading to sulfation should
be prevented as much as possible. For example, if the master switch is
inadvertently left on and the battery becomes deeply discharged, it should
be charged as soon as possible. Another example is parasitic loads that
drain the battery capacity during extended dormant periods as described
under “Storage” (above). Whichever is the cause, if the battery appears to be
sulfated, it should be removed from the aircraft and subjected to a capacity
test.

330 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Cold Weather Operation
In cold climates, the state of charge in a storage battery should be kept at a
maximum. A fully charged battery will not freeze even under the most severe
weather conditions, but a discharged battery will freeze very easily. Table 3
gives the freezing point of electrolyte at various states of charge.

Table 3. Electrolyte Freezing Point versus Battery State of Charge

Appendix
Battery state of charge (%) Approximate electrolyte
freezing temperature
100% -70°C (-94°F)
75% -47°C (-53°F)
50% -25°C (-13°F)
25% -13°C (9°F)
0% -6°C (21°F)

Unlike flooded batteries, Concorde RG® Series batteries will not be

damaged when frozen. However, frozen batteries are not capable of
charging or discharge except at very low rates. The battery must first
be warmed above the freezing point, and then fully charged to prevent
refreezing.
Operating an aircraft battery in cold weather is equivalent to using
a battery of lower capacity. For example, a fully charged battery at 25°C
(77°F) may be capable of starting an engine twenty times. At -18°C (0°F) the
same battery may start the engine only three times. Low temperatures also
increase the time necessary for charging a battery. A battery which could
be recharged in an hour at 25°C (77°F) while flying may require 5 hours for
charging when the temperature is -18°C (0°F).

CAUTION: When the ambient temperature is below 0°C (32°F), the

engine(s) should be started using battery power instead of a ground
power unit. This procedure warms the battery and improves its charge
acceptance. If the battery is not used to start the engine(s) in cold
temperatures, the battery might not have sufficient emergency power
during flight.

Note: Some RG® series batteries contain internal heaters that are powered
by the aircraft electrical system. Once the aircraft is powered up, the heaters
warm the battery to improve its charge acceptance in cold weather. If the
main battery contains a heater, it is not necessary to use battery power to
start the engine(s) if a ground power unit is available.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 331

In summary, during cold weather, keep batteries fully charged. Make every
effort to conserve battery power. Consider using a heated battery to improve
charge acceptance.

Ventilation Systems
Airplanes are often equipped with a battery ventilation system. The
ventilation system provides for removal of gasses and acid fumes from the
battery via vent tubes on the battery case. Ventilation systems are usually a
necessity when flooded type batteries are used, but the amount of gas and
acid fume generation is minimal from Concorde RG® Series valve regulated
batteries. In some installations, the venting system is eliminated as part of
the aircraft modification when changing from a flooded battery to a valve-
regulated battery. However, if the venting system is present, it should be
connected when installing Concorde RG® Series batteries.

CAUTION: Never install an RG® series battery in a sealed or airtight

enclosure. Combustible gases are emitted during charge and must be
permitted to escape.

Servicing
Charging Battery While Installed
Batteries may be charged while installed on the aircraft with the following
restrictions:
1. Battery charger meets the requirements specified in the CMM, or it is
specifically approved by Concorde.
2. The battery compartment is well ventilated.
As an extra precaution, the battery should be disconnected from the
aircraft electrical system if there is any possibility the charging source might
put out excessive voltage that could damage equipment connected to the
battery bus.

Scheduled Inspections
If the battery is used to satisfy essential or emergency power requirements,
its capacity must be tested periodically to ensure airworthiness. In general,
a battery is considered airworthy if it has at least 80% of rated capacity.
Concorde and the FAA recommend 85% as the pass/fail criteria to provide
a margin of safety. The battery should be removed from the aircraft to
perform a capacity test. Refer to the applicable CMM for detailed instructions
regarding frequency of inspections and capacity test procedures.

332 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Unscheduled Inspections
The battery should be subjected to a capacity test under any of the following
conditions:
1. Abnormally slow engine starting,
2. Abnormally high charging current (greater than 5% of C1 capacity) after
several hours of charging, or

Appendix
3. Battery becomes excessively hot (case temperature above 55°C/131°F).

Repairs
The cells and other internal components of most RG® Series batteries
are non-repairable. The battery assembly must be replaced when internal
components fail or wear out. If external repairs are needed to the battery
assembly (i.e., missing labels, dents, scratches, etc.), send it to an
authorized repair facility or contact Concorde for assistance.

Note: Some RG® series batteries have replaceable subassemblies, and the
CMM for these batteries include an illustrated parts list for the replaceable
components.

Temperature Sensors
Some battery models are equipped with externally mounted temperature
sensors. Instructions for inspection and testing of Concorde temperature
sensors are contained in separate maintenance manual supplements for
each type of temperature sensor. These maintenance manual supplements
are available on Concorde’s website. If internet access is not available,
contact Concorde for assistance.

Servicing Parallel Batteries

In some aircraft, two identical batteries are used in parallel for starting
engines. The recommended practice is to replace both batteries even if only
one has low capacity. The replacement batteries should be of the same or
similar age and usage history. When batteries of different ages are used in
parallel, the newer battery will work harder due to lower resistance, which
accelerates aging of the newer battery.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 333

Disposal
Concorde RG® Series batteries contain lead, sulfuric acid, and other
hazardous materials. Never discard batteries in the trash or in a landfill.
The battery materials are 100% recyclable. Dispose spent batteries and
assemblies in accordance with local ordinances and regulations.
Some RG® series batteries have outer shells made of aluminum, steel
or titanium. These outer shells must be removed before the battery is sent to
the smelter. Make sure the recycling collector is aware of this requirement.

See battery material safety data sheet (MSDS) for additional information.

Dry Charged (Vented) Lead Acid Batteries

Adapted from “Concorde CB Series Aircraft Battery Owner/Operator Manual”

Battery Description
Concorde CB Series aircraft batteries contain flooded lead acid cells. Each
cell consists of positive plates made of lead dioxide, negative plates made of
spongy lead, and a flooded electrolyte made of sulfuric acid and water. The
positive and negative plates are sandwiched between layers of microporous
polyethylene separator to prevent the plates from shorting together.
When the plates are connected to an external load, electrons flow from
the negative plate to the positive plate. The loss of electrons at the negative
plate causes an oxidation reaction that converts the spongy lead into lead
sulfate. The gain of electrons at the positive plate causes a reduction reaction
that converts the lead dioxide into lead sulfate. This process will continue
until a major portion of each plate is converted to lead sulfate and the battery
is fully discharged.
During the charging process, current is passed through the cells in the
reverse direction. The reverse current causes a reverse of the chemical
reaction, returning the positive plates to lead dioxide and the negative plates
to spongy lead. When this process is complete, the battery is fully charged.

Chemical Reaction and Battery State of Charge

In lead acid cells, the sulfuric acid participates in the chemical reaction at
each plate. When the plates are discharged, the amount of sulfuric acid in
the electrolyte decreases. Conversely, as the plates are charged, the amount
of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte increases. As the sulfuric acid concentration
changes, the specific gravity of the electrolyte changes. Therefore, the
specific gravity can be used to measure the approximate state of charge

334 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

of the battery. When the plates are fully charged, the specific gravity will be
in the range of 1.275 to 1.300. When the plates are fully discharged, the
specific gravity will be approximately 1.100.

Gas Venting and Water Replenishment

When flooded lead acid cells are being charged, oxygen gas is generated

Appendix
at the positive plates and hydrogen gas is generated at the negative plates.
These gases are released from the cell through a specially designed vent
valve. The release of these gases causes water to be lost from the cell and
the electrolyte level gradually declines.
To prevent the cell from drying out, flooded cells therefore require
periodic water replenishment. This is in contrast to valve regulated lead acid
cells, which internally recombine the gases and do not require periodic water
replenishment. (Note: For more information on valve regulated batteries,
refer to the RG® Series Owner/Operator Manual, Document No. 5-0324.)

Lead Acid Cells

The CB Series of aircraft batteries consist of 6 or 12 flooded lead acid cells
connected in series to make a nominal 12-volt or 24-volt battery, respectively.
The cells are contained in a plastic container equipped with electrical
terminals or a receptacle for mating to the aircraft.
Technical characteristics of the various battery models are detailed on
Concorde’s website. If internet access is not available, contact Concorde for
assistance.

Storage
1. Batteries are dry-charged at the factory prior to shipment and the cell
vents are sealed. Do not remove the sealing tape until you are ready to
activate the battery.
2. Dry-charged batteries may be stored indefinitely prior to activation. To
avoid extra conditioning procedures, batteries should be activated within
4 years from the date of manufacture.
3. Store batteries in a cool, dry location. High humidity and temperature
conditions increase the discharge rate of the negative plate and may
extend the time of the activation procedure.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 335

Transportation
Batteries should be packaged in their original container. If the original
container is not available, follow local packaging regulations applicable to the
mode of transport.
CB Series batteries, when furnished without electrolyte packs, are
exempt from U.S. DOT hazardous materials (Hazmat) regulations, IATA
Dangerous Goods regulations, and IMDG Code. When properly packaged,
they can be shipped as non-hazardous via any method. For more details,
refer to the battery MSDS and the transportation information on Concorde’s
website. If you are unable to access the internet, contact Concorde.
CB Series batteries, when furnished with electrolyte packs, must be
shipped as Hazmat regulated under the designation UN2796 (Corrosive).
After activation with electrolyte, batteries must be shipped as Hazmat
regulated under the designation UN2794 (Corrosive). Transport requires
proper packaging and paperwork in accordance with U.S. DOT Hazmat
regulations, IATA Dangerous Goods regulations, and IMDG Code. For more
details, refer to the battery MSDS and the transportation information on
Concorde’s website.
For transportation details not covered by IATA Dangerous Goods
Regulations or IMDG Code, refer to local transport regulations for shipping
instructions.

Preparation For Installation

Remove the battery from the shipping carton and visually inspect it for signs
of damage. Do not use the battery if it appears to be damaged; contact
Concorde for assistance.

Activation of Dry Charged Batteries

CAUTION: This activation procedure only applies to CB Series

flooded (dry-charged) batteries. Do not attempt to activate RG® Series
valve regulated batteries.

WARNING: The electrolyte contains sulfuric acid which can cause

severe burns to body tissue. Avoid contact of the electrolyte with skin,
eyes or clothing. In the event of acid in the eyes, flush thoroughly with
clean cool water for several minutes and get professional medical
attention immediately.

336 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

1. Remove the sealing tape from the vents and remove the vent caps.
2. Fill each cell with 1.285 SG electrolyte to a height just above the top of
the plates and separators.
3. Mark the activation date (month and year) on the battery with a
permanent marker or label.
4. Let the battery cool for one hour, and then add more electrolyte to bring

Appendix
the level 1/4-inch above the top of the plates and separators. Do not fill
beyond this level because some electrolyte expansion will occur during
charging.
5. Install vent caps.
6. Boost-charge the battery using a constant-current charger at 10% of the
C1 rate (e.g., 4.2 amps for 42Ah battery).
7. The battery is fully charged when the voltage stabilizes or decreases
slightly and the SG of the electrolyte stabilizes for three successive
readings taken at one-hour intervals. This will normally occur within 8 to
12 hours from the start of charging.

CAUTION: Stop the charge if the battery temperature exceeds 120°F.

Resume charging after the battery cools down. After activation,
complete charging is required for satisfactory performance.

8. After the battery is fully charged, verify the electrolyte SG of each cell is
within the range of 1.275 to 1.295. If not within the stated range, adjust
the electrolyte by diluting higher SG cells with distilled or deionized
water and by adding stronger electrolyte to the lower SG cells. These
adjustments should only be made when the battery is on charge and the
cells are gassing (bubbling) uniformly. Make sure the final electrolyte level
is no higher than the bottom of the vent well.
9. After SG and electrolyte levels have been verified/adjusted, install vent
caps.
10. Perform a capacity test to ensure the battery has been adequately
activated.
11. Wash and dry the outside of the battery before installation.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 337

Installation
Note: The following instructions are generic. See aircraft maintenance
manual or STC for instructions specific to a particular aircraft model.

WARNING: Lead acid batteries are heavy, with some models

exceeding 50 pounds. Use appropriate lifting devices or equipment.
Use battery handles where provided.

1. Remove existing battery (if present):

• Set master switch to the OFF position.
• Disconnect any external power supply.
• Open battery compartment access panel(s).
• Disconnect battery quick disconnect plug or remove terminal bolts and
disconnect battery cables from battery terminals. Always disconnect the
ground cable first and install the ground cable last.
• Disconnect battery ventilation tubes, if any.
• Unlock battery hold-down clamps or remove battery hold-down bars.
• Disengage battery and install terminal protection to prevent accidental
shorting of terminals.
• Carefully remove from battery compartment.

2. Install replacement battery:

• Inspect the battery for damage. Cracks in metal or plastic containers
are not permitted. Dents in metal containers that impinge on the interior
plastic container are not acceptable. If defects are found, contact an
authorized service center or contact Concorde for assistance.
• Verify battery terminals are protected from shorting.
• Set master switch to the OFF position.
• Disconnect any external power supply.
• Open battery compartment access panels.
• Ensure the battery container or tray is clean and dry.
• Install battery in battery container or tray.
• Engage battery hold-down hardware, torque and safety wire per aircraft
maintenance manual.
• Connect battery vent tubes to aircraft ventilation system, if present.
• Remove battery terminal protection.

338 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 • Connect battery quick disconnect plug and any auxiliary connectors.
• For ring terminals, install with bolt and bevel lock washer provided with
the battery. Torque terminal bolts as noted on the battery label. Always
disconnect the ground cable first and install the ground cable last.

CAUTION: On batteries with internally threaded terminals, use an

Appendix
open-end wrench on the flat portion of the terminals while torquing the
terminal bolts. Failure to do so may result in the rupture of the battery
seal at the terminal and premature failure of the battery.

Use only the hardware provided with the battery. Do not use stainless
steel or steel washers between ring terminals and the battery terminal.

• Replace electrical compartment access panel.

• Update aircraft weight and balance data, if necessary.
• Perform an operational test.
• Annotate battery logbook with battery serial number, date of installation
and aircraft hours.

Operation
Applications
Aircraft batteries are used to start engines and auxiliary power units (APUs),
to provide emergency backup power for essential avionics equipment and
lighting systems, to ensure uninterrupted power for navigation units and fly-
by-wire computers, and to provide ground power capability for maintenance
and preflight checks. Most of these functions are critical to safe operation
of the aircraft, so the state of health of an aircraft battery is of utmost
importance.
Aircraft batteries are certified to have a particular minimum capacity for
emergency operations in the event of an electrical generator system failure.
If the battery is used to satisfy essential or emergency power requirements,
its capacity must be tested periodically to ensure airworthiness. See the
“Servicing” section below (page 343) for capacity test instructions.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 339

Battery Charging
The aircraft’s electrical system automatically charges the battery when the
engine(s) are running. Most aircraft allow charging using external power as
well.
The battery charging system in most aircraft is of the constant voltage
type. With constant voltage charging, the battery will accept charging current
inversely proportional to its state of charge (that is, the lower the state of
charge, the higher the charging current). When the battery reaches full
charge, the charging current tails off to a very low value (typically 0.5% of the
C1 capacity), and remains at that level to keep the battery on a “float charge.”
Therefore, an ammeter reading of the charging current (if present) is useful
in determining the approximate state of charge of the battery.

Temperature Compensation
Battery service life can be prolonged by compensating the charging voltage
based on the battery temperature. For aircraft that have an adjustable voltage
regulator, Table 1 provides recommended settings.
Table 1. Recommended Voltage Regulator Settings

Voltage regulator setting (volts DC)

Battery temperature 12V system 24V system
Below 0°C (32°F) 14.5–14.75 29.0–29.5
0 to 15°C (32 to 59°F) 14.25–14.5 28.5–29.0
16 to 30°C (60 to 86°F) 14.0–14.25 28.0–28.5
31 to 45°C (87 to 113°F) 13.75–14.0 27.5–28.0
Above 45°C (113°F) 13.5–13.75 27.0–27.5

Ground Power Units

When aircraft are powered by ground power units, be sure that the DC output
voltage is adjusted to the range shown in Table 1. Through the years there
have been many reports of overcharged batteries due to ground power units
being set too high. High charging voltages will shorten the battery service life
significantly.

Open Circuit Voltage

The battery state of charge (SOC) can be determined (approximately) from
reading the battery’s open circuit voltage (OCV). To get an accurate OCV,
the battery needs to be stabilized on open circuit (no charging or discharging
current) for at least 4 hours. Once the stabilized OCV is measured, the SOC
can be determined from Table 2.

340 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Table 2. State of Charge versus Open Circuit Voltage

Open circuit voltage

State of Electrolyte
charge (%) 12V battery 24V battery specific gravity
100% 12.9 or above 25.8 or above 1.285

Appendix
75% 12.6 25.2 1.240
50% 12.3 24.6 1.190
25% 12.0 24.0 1.140
0% 11.7 or below 23.4 or below 1.090

Note: The battery state of charge should not be confused with state of
health (see Glossary, page 348). A battery at 100% state of charge may or
may not have good state of health (that is, the actual capacity may or may
not be considered airworthy). The only reliable method to determine battery
state of health is by capacity testing (see servicing section, page 343).

Aircraft Storage
When an aircraft is placed in storage or remains dormant for an extended
time, it is best to disconnect the battery connector. This practice will
eliminate unnecessary drain on the battery if parasitic loads are present.
Parasitic loads can deplete battery capacity and result in battery sulfation
(see next section).

Sulfated Batteries
Lead acid batteries become sulfated when they remain in a discharged state
for extended periods of time. The longer the time period and the greater
the depth of discharge, the worse the sulfation becomes. Sulfation may be
reversible or irreversible, depending on the severity.
Sulfation is evidenced by a low open circuit voltage (below 12.5 volts
for a 12-volt battery or 25.0 volts for a 24-volt battery) after the battery has
been subjected to a full recharge using normal (constant voltage) charging
conditions.
To prolong the battery service life, conditions leading to sulfation should
be prevented as much as possible. For example, if the master switch is
inadvertently left on and the battery becomes deeply discharged, it should
be charged as soon as possible. Another example is parasitic loads that
drain the battery capacity during extended dormant periods as described
under “Storage” (above). Whichever is the cause, if the battery appears to be
sulfated, it should be removed from the aircraft and subjected to a capacity
test.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 341

Cold Weather Operation
In cold climates, the state of charge of the battery should be kept at a
maximum. As the state of charge gets lower, the freezing point increases
as shown in Table 3. The electrolyte in a fully charged battery will not freeze
even under the coldest weather conditions on this planet, but the electrolyte
in a discharged battery is susceptible to freezing in typical cold weather
conditions. Frozen batteries are not capable of charging or discharging
except at very low rates, and may be permanently damaged after thawing.
Table 3. Electrolyte Freezing Point versus Specific Gravity

Electrolyte freezing temperature

Electrolyte
specific gravity Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F)
1.300 -70 -94
1.285 -65 -85
1.275 -61 -78
1.250 -52 -62
1.225 -37 -35
1.200 -27 -17
1.175 -20 -4
1.150 -15 +5
1.125 -10 +13
1.100 -8 +18

Operating an aircraft battery in cold weather is equivalent to using a

battery of lower capacity. For example, a fully charged battery at 25°C (77°F)
may be capable of starting an engine ten times. At -18°C (0°F) the same fully
charged battery has lower capacity available and may only be able to start
the engine three times. Low temperatures also increase the time necessary
for charging a battery. A battery that could be recharged in an hour at 25°C
(77°F) while flying may require 5 hours for charging when the temperature is
at -18°C (0°F).

CAUTION: When the ambient temperature is below 0°C (32°F), the

engine(s) should be started using battery power instead of a ground
power unit. This procedure warms the battery and improves its charge
acceptance. If the battery is not used to start the engine(s) in cold
temperatures, the battery may not have sufficient emergency power
during flight.

342 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 In summary, during cold weather, keep batteries fully charged. Make
every effort to conserve battery power.

Ventilation Systems
Airplanes should be equipped with a battery ventilation system whenever a
CB Series battery is installed. The ventilation system provides for removal of

Appendix
gases and acid fumes from the battery via vent tubes on the battery case.
Inlet air is taken from a scoop outside the airplane. After passing over the
top of the battery, the exit air is carried through another tube to the battery
sump. The sump is a glass or plastic jar containing a felt pad and a sodium
bicarbonate solution to neutralize the acid fumes.

CAUTION: Never install a CB series battery in a sealed or airtight

enclosure. Combustible gases are emitted during charge and must be
permitted to escape.

Servicing
Charging Battery While Installed
Batteries may be charged while installed on the aircraft with the following
restrictions:
1. Battery charger meets the requirements specified in the CMM, or it is
specifically approved by Concorde.
2. The battery compartment is well ventilated.
As an extra precaution, the battery should be disconnected from the
aircraft electrical system if there is any possibility the charging source might
put out excessive voltage that could damage equipment connected to the
battery bus.

Scheduled Inspections
If the battery is used to satisfy essential or emergency power requirements,
its capacity must be tested periodically to ensure airworthiness. In general,
a battery is considered airworthy if it has at least 80% of rated capacity.
Concorde and the FAA recommend 85% as the pass/fail criteria to provide
a margin of safety. Refer to the applicable CMM for detailed instructions
regarding frequency of inspections and capacity test procedures.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 343

Unscheduled Inspections
The battery should be subjected to a capacity test under any of the following
conditions:
1. Abnormally slow engine starting,
2. Abnormally high charging current (greater than 5% of C1 capacity) after
several hours of charging, or
3. Battery becomes excessively hot (case temperature above 55°C/131°F).

Repairs
The cells and other internal components of CB Series batteries are
non-repairable. The battery assembly must be replaced when internal
components fail or wear out. If external repairs are needed to the battery
assembly (i.e., missing labels, dents, scratches, etc.), have it serviced in an
authorized repair facility or contact Concorde for assistance.

Servicing Parallel Batteries

In some aircraft, two identical batteries are used in parallel for starting
engines. The recommended practice is to replace both batteries even if only
one has low capacity. The replacement batteries should be of the same or
similar age and usage history. When batteries of different ages are used in
parallel, the newer battery will work harder due to lower resistance, which
accelerates aging of the newer battery.

Disposal
Concorde CB Series batteries contain lead, sulfuric acid, and other
hazardous materials. Never discard batteries in the trash or in a landfill.
The battery materials are 100% recyclable. Dispose spent batteries and
assemblies in accordance with local ordinances and regulations.
Some CB series batteries have covers or outer shells made of aluminum,
which must be removed before the rest of the battery is sent to the smelter.
Make sure the recycling collector is aware of this requirement.

See battery material safety data sheet (MSDS) for additional information.

344 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

GLOSSARY— Lead Acid Aircraft Battery Terms

activation: The process of filling and charging a dry charged battery to make
it ready for service. After activation, the battery is designated as a flooded

Appendix
lead acid battery.
active material: Electrode material that produces electricity during its
chemical conversion.
AGM: Absorbent glass mat used as a separator material between positive
and negative plates. Electrolyte is absorbed and held in place by the capillary
action between the fluid and glass mat fibers.
battery: A combination of two or more chemical cells electrically connected
together to produce electric energy. Common usage permits this designation
to be applied also to a single cell used independently.
boost charge: A charge applied to a battery that is already near a state of
full charge. Usually a charge of short duration.
C1 rate: The one-hour discharge or current rate in amperes that is
numerically equal to rated capacity of a cell or battery in ampere hours (Ah).
For example, the C1 rate of a battery rated at 42 Ah is 42 amperes.
capacity: The quantity of electricity delivered by a battery under specified
conditions, usually expressed in ampere hours.
cell: An electrochemical device composed of positive and negative plates,
separator and electrolyte which is capable of storing electrical energy.
charge: The conversion of electrical energy from an external source into
chemical energy within a cell or battery.
charge rate: The rate at which current is applied to a battery to restore its
capacity.
constant potential (CP) charge: Charging method where the output voltage
of the charge source is held constant and the current is limited only by the
resistance of the battery or by the capability of the charging source.
constant-current (CC) charge: Charging method where the output current
of the charge source is held constant and the voltage is not regulated.
current: The rate of flow of electricity. The unit of measurement is an
ampere.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 345

deep discharge: Withdrawal of 50% or more of the rated capacity of a
battery.
depth of discharge: The portion of the nominal capacity from a cell or
battery taken out during each discharge cycle, expressed in a percentage.
discharge: The conversion of the chemical energy of a battery into electrical
energy and withdrawal of the electrical energy into a load.
discharge rate: The rate of current flow from a battery during discharge.
dry charged battery: A lead acid battery made with dry charged plates. The
plates are charged and dried before the battery is assembled. Before use,
the battery must be filled with acid and charged to activate it.
electrolyte: In a lead acid battery, the electrolyte is sulfuric acid diluted with
water. It is a conductor and also a supplier of hydrogen and sulfate ions for
the electrochemical reactions occurring at the plates.
end of life: The stage at which the battery or cell meets specific failure
criteria.
end point voltage (EPV): The voltage at which the discharge current is
terminated when measuring battery capacity. Sometimes called cutoff
voltage or voltage end point. Unless otherwise stated, the EPV is equal to
20.0 volts for 24 volt aircraft batteries (10.0 volts for 12 volt batteries).
float charge: A method of maintaining a cell or battery in a charged
condition by continuous, long-term constant voltage charging at a level
sufficient to balance self discharge.
flooded battery: A lead acid battery in which there is an excess of
electrolyte that extends into the headspace above the plates of each cell.
A dry charged battery becomes a flooded battery after it is activated with
electrolyte.
gassing: The evolution of gas from one or more of the plates in a cell when
the battery reaches full charge.
internal impedance: The electrical impedance inside the battery that
restricts the flow of current during high rate charging and discharging. The
internal impedance depends on the size of the battery, state of charge,
temperature and age.
IPP/IPR: The IPP is the peak power current, defined as the current that the
battery delivers at 0.3 seconds during a constant voltage discharge equal
to half of the nominal voltage. The IPR is the power rating, defined as the
current that the battery delivers at 15 seconds during a constant voltage
discharge equal to half of the nominal voltage.

346 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

lead acid: Term used in conjunction with a battery that utilizes lead and lead
dioxide as the active plate materials in a diluted electrolyte solution of sulfuric
acid and water. Nominal cell voltage is 2 volts.

lead dioxide: The oxide of lead present in charge positive plates (PbO2) and
is sometimes referred to as lead peroxide.

Appendix
lead sulfate: A lead salt formed by the action of sulfuric acid on lead oxide
during paste mixing and formation. It is also formed electrochemically when a
battery is discharged.
load tester: An instrument which measures the battery voltage with an
electrical load on the battery to determine its overall condition.
nominal voltage: Approximate voltage of a fully charged cell or battery. For
lead acid cells, the nominal voltage is 2 volts. The nominal voltage of a 6-cell
battery is 12 volts and that of a 12-cell battery is 24 volts.
open circuit voltage (OCV): The voltage of the battery at rest (no charging
or discharging current present). A stable OCV requires a rest of at least four
hours.
overcharge: Applying excessive voltage to force current through a cell after
all the active material has been converted to the charged state. The result is
decomposition of water in the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen gas and
accelerated grid corrosion.
oxygen recombination: The process by which oxygen generated at the
positive plate during charge reacts with the pure lead material of the negative
plate to reform water.
parallel connection: A circuit in which battery terminals of like polarity are
connected together. The capacity of each battery adds together while voltage
remains the same.
rated C1 capacity: The nominal capacity, expressed in ampere hours (Ah),
obtained from a fully charged battery when discharged at the one-hour rate
to the specified end point voltage at a temperature of 21–25°C (70–77°F).
self discharge: The decrease in the state of charge of a battery, over a
period of time, due to internal electrochemical losses. The self-discharge rate
accelerates as the temperature increases and as the battery ages.
separator: A porous, insulating material placed between plates of opposite
polarities to prevent internal short circuits.
series connection: A circuit in which battery terminals of opposite polarity
are connected together. The voltage of each battery adds together while
capacity remains the same.

Appendix 3: Lead Acid Aircraft Batteries 347

specific gravity (SG): The weight of the electrolyte as compared to the
weight of an equal volume of pure water, used to measure the strength or
percentage of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.
state of charge (SOC): The percentage of available capacity in a battery
compared to its fully charged capacity. Example: Battery A is discharged
and gives 32 Ah of capacity to its EPV. After a full charge, it is discharged
again and gives 40 Ah. The SOC of Battery A before the first discharge was
32/40 = 80%. Note that the SOC does not represent the battery’s capacity
as a percentage of its rated capacity and should not be used to determine
airworthiness (see state of health).
state of health (SOH): The percentage of available capacity in a battery
when fully charged compared to its rated capacity. Example: Battery B is fully
charged and gives 38 Ah capacity to its EPV. Battery B is rated at 42 Ah. The
SOH of battery B is 38/42 = 90%.
sulfation: Refers to the formation of lead sulfate within the battery plates
when a battery is discharged. If the battery remains discharged, the lead
sulfate becomes more resistive which can limit or prevent the recharging of
the battery. Sulfated batteries may sometimes be recovered with a special
conditioning charge.
valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery: A lead acid battery in which
there is no free electrolyte and the internal pressure is regulated by a
pressure relief valve. This type of battery requires no maintenance of the
liquid level and recombines the gases formed on charge within the battery
to reform water. The battery may be used in any attitude without danger of
leakage or spilling of electrolyte.

348 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires

Appendix
Aircraft Tire Construction 351

Safety 352

Tire Care Basics 353

Mounting 354

On-Aircraft Tire Inspection 355

Wear 356

Limits for Tire Damages 356

Dismounting 359

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 349

Aircraft Tire Construction

Tread
The area of the tire that is actually in contact with the ground. The tread of

Appendix
most modern aircraft tires contain circumferential grooves to channel water
from between the tire and the runway surface.

Undertread
The layer of rubber designed to enhance the bonding between the carcass
body and the tread reinforcing plies in bias tires or the protector plies in radial
tires.

Carcass Ply
Fabric cords (generally nylon), sandwiched between two layers of rubber and
anchored by wrapping them around the bead wires.

Bead
A bundle of steel wires embedded in rubber and wrapped with rubber-coated
fabric, used to anchor the tire to the wheel.

Chafer Strips
Strips of protective fabric or rubber laid over the outer carcass plies in
the bead area of the tire to protect the carcass plies from damage when
mounting or demounting the tire, and to reduce the effects of wear and
chafing between the wheel and the tire bead.

Liner
In a tubeless tire, this is a layer of specially compounded rubber extending
from bead to bead to resist the permeation of nitrogen and moisture through
to the carcass. With a tube-type tire, a thinner liner material is used to protect
the carcass plies from moisture and the tube from chafing. The liner of a
tube-type tire is generally insufficient for air retention.

Sidewall
A layer of rubber covering the outside of the carcass plies.

Bias-Ply Tires
The carcass plies laid at angles between 30° and 60° to the centerline of the
tire. The succeeding plies are laid with the cord at angles that are opposite to
each other. Most modern aircraft tires are bias-ply tires.

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 351

Tread Reinforcing Ply
This consists of single or multiple layers of a special nylon fabric and rubber
laid midway beneath the tread grooves and top carcass ply to help reduce
tread distortion under load.

Radial Tires
Each carcass ply is laid at an angle of approximately 90° to the centerline of
the tire. Radial tires have fewer plies than bias tires of the same size because
the cord direction is aligned with the burst pressure radial force.

Protector Ply
A ply found in retreadable tires in the crown area just under the tread rubber
that provides cut resistance to the underlying belts and carcass plies.

Belt Plies
Plies laid between the tread area and the top carcass ply to restrain the outer
diameter of the tire giving the tread surface greater resistance to squirm and
wear.

Chine
A deflector molded into the sidewall of a nose-wheel tire to deflect water and
slush to the side and away from aft-fuselage mounted engines.

Safety

Aircraft tire and wheel assemblies contain high pressures to support the
loads placed on them. All maintenance should be conducted according to the
recommendations of the tire, wheel, and aircraft manufacturers.
Before mounting any tire, visually examine the tire and the wheel for any
indication of damage.
After a tire has been mounted, inflate it to the recommended inflation
pressure. Most aircraft tires rated for over 190 MPH are inflated with nitrogen.
• When inflating tires, be sure to use a suitable inflation cage.
• Keep pressure hose and fittings used for inflation in good condition.
• Allow the tire to remain in the inflation cage for several minutes after
reaching its full inflation pressure.

In service, tires should also be treated with care so as to avoid conditions

that would damage the tire and wheel assembly or create a dangerous
situation for those around the assembly or aircraft.

352 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

• Never approach, or allow anyone else to approach, a tire and wheel
assembly mounted on an aircraft that has obvious damage until that
assembly has been allowed to cool to ambient temperature. This generally
takes at least three hours.
• Always approach a tire and wheel assembly from an oblique angle, in the
direction of the tire’s shoulder.

Appendix
• Deflate tires before removing the assembly from the aircraft unless it will be
immediately remounted (for example, in the case of a brake inspection).
• Always deflate the tires before attempting to dismount the tire from the
wheel or disassembling any wheel component.
• Use extreme caution when removing valve cores as they can be propelled
from the valve stem at a high rate of speed.
• When tire and wheel assemblies are found with one or more tie bolt nuts
damaged or missing, remove the assembly from service.
• While serviceable tires may be shipped fully pressurized in the cargo area
of an aircraft, it is preferred to reduce pressure to 25% of their operating
pressure.

Tire Care Basics

Storage
Aircraft tires and tubes should always be stored in a dry environment, free
from sunlight and ozone-producing appliances such as air compressors and
florescent or mercury vapor lights. Tires should always be stored vertically,
on their tread. Stacking tires on their sidewall can cause the beads to
collapse, making the mounting process difficult.

Inflation Pressure
It is most important that the aircraft’s tires be properly inflated at all
times. Tire pressure should be checked before each day of flying, always
maintaining the operating pressure specified by the airframe manufacturer.

Properly Inflating Tube-Type Tires

Air is usually trapped between the tire and the tube during mounting.
Although initial readings show proper pressure, the trapped air will seep out
around the valve stem hole in the wheel, and under the tire beads. Within a
few days the tube will expand to fill the void left by the trapped air, and the
tire may become severely underinflated. Check tire pressure before each

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 353

flight for several days after installation, adjusting as necessary, until the tire
maintains proper pressure.

Tire Growth
During the first 12 hours after mounting and initial inflation, the nylon plies of
aircraft tires will generally grow and the inflation pressure of the tire will drop
about 6–10%. Adjust as necessary.

Mounting

Wheels
When mounting a tire on a wheel, follow the recommendations and
procedures of the wheel manufacturer.

Special care should be given to the following:

• Ensure that the bead seating area of the wheel is clean.
• Mating surfaces of the wheel halves should be free of nicks, burrs, small
dents, or other damage. Painted or coated surfaces should be in good
condition.
• Be sure fuse plugs, inflation valves, and wheel plugs are in good condition
and properly sealed against pressure loss.
• Check O-ring grooves in the wheel halves for damage or debris.
• Check to see that the O-rings have the proper part number.

Tires
Before mounting any tire, check that the tire markings are correct for the
required application (size, ply rating, speed rating, part number, and TSO
marking).

Visually inspect the outside of the tire for:

• Damage caused by improper shipping or handling.
• Cuts, tears, or other foreign objects penetrating the rubber.
• Permanent deformations.
• Debris or cuts on the bead seating surfaces.
• Bead distortions.
• Cracking that reaches the cords.
• Contamination from foreign substances (oil, grease, brake fluid, etc.)
which can cause surface damage.

354 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Inspect the inside of the tire for:
• Foreign material.
• Wrinkles in or damage to the inner liner.

Initial Pressure Retention Check

The initial pressure retention check requires about 15 hours and it should be

Appendix
conducted as follows:
• Inflate the newly mounted tire to specified operating pressure and store it
for 3 hours.
• Check the inflation pressure (be sure that the ambient temperature has
not changed more than 5°F — a drop of 5°F will reduce inflation pressure
by 1%). If the inflation pressure has dropped to less than 90% of the
original value, use a soap solution on tire beads, valves, fuse plugs, etc.,
to find the leakage. Make appropriate repairs and repeat the test.
• After a 12-hour storage period, check the inflation pressure. If the inflation
pressure has dropped to less than 95% of the original value, the tire is
defective and it must be rejected.

On-Aircraft Tire Inspection

Inflation Pressure
Tire pressure should be checked before the first flight of the day. If this is not
possible, wait at least 3 hours after landing to allow the tire to cool to ambient
temperature. Never bleed pressure from a hot tire.

Effects of Underinflation
Underinflated tires can creep or slip on the wheel under stress or when
brakes are applied. Valve stems can be damaged or sheared off and the tire,
tube, or complete wheel assembly can be damaged. Excessive shoulder
wear may also be seen. Underinflation can allow the sidewalls of the tire to
be crushed, causing bead damage. Severe underinflation may cause ply
separation and carcass degradation. This can also cause inner-tube chafing
and a resultant blowout.

Effects of Overinflation
Overinflated tires are more susceptible to bruising, cuts, and shock damage,
and the ride quality and operating life are reduced. Extremely high inflation
pressures may cause the aircraft wheel or tire to explode, or burst. Never
operate aircraft tires above rated inflation pressure.

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 355

Wear

Removal Criteria
In the absence of specific instructions from the airframe manufacturer, a tire
should be removed from service for wear using this criteria based on the
fastest wearing location. (See illustration at right.)
• When the wear level reaches the bottom of any groove along more than
1/8 of the circumference on any part of the tread, or
• If either the protector ply (radial) or the reinforcing ply (bias) is exposed for
more than 1/8 of the circumference at a given location.
• Operating a tire at a higher pressure than required will cause increased
wear at the center of the tread. This will make the tire more susceptible to
bruises, cutting, and shock damage.
• When a tire is consistently operated underinflated, shoulder wear will
result. Severe underinflation may cause ply separations and carcass heat
build-up, which can lead to thrown treads and sidewall fatigue.
• If a tire is worn into the carcass/body plies, the strength of the tire will be
reduced. This may cause the tire to burst or explode.
• Flat spotting is a result of the tire skidding without rotating, and is usually
caused by brake lock-up or a large steer angle.
• Asymmetrical wear is a result of the tire operating under prolonged yaw
and/or camber.
• Any time an aircraft has made a particularly rough landing or an aborted
takeoff, the tire, tube, and wheel should be checked.

Limits for Tire Damages

Tread Cuts
In the absence of specific cut-removal instructions from the airframe
manufacturer, tires should be removed when:
• Cuts, embedded objects, or other injuries expose or penetrate the carcass
plies (bias) or tread belt layers (radial).
• A cut or injury severs or extends across a tread rib.
• Undercutting at the base of any tread rib cut.
• Round foreign object damage greater than .375" in diameter.

356 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 Overinflation

Bias
Tread Reinforcing Plies
Casing Outer Ply

Appendix
Radial
Belt Plies
Protector Ply Casing Outer Ply

Underinflation

Bias
Tread Reinforcing Plies
Casing Outer Ply

Belt Plies
Protector Ply Casing Outer Ply

Worn beyond
recommended
limits

Radial
Belt Plies
Protector Ply Casing Outer Ply

Bias
Flat spotting Tread Reinforcing Plies
Casing Outer Ply

Asymmetrical
wear

Radial
Belt Plies
Protector Ply Casing Outer Ply

Common tire wear conditions

Courtesy Michelin Aircraft Tire

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 357

Bulges or Separations B
Any bulge or separation is cause for
immediate removal of the tire from C A
service.
Bias
Chevron Cutting Tread Reinforcing Plies
Casing Outer Ply
Remove a tire from service if
chevron cutting or any other
B
action results in tread chunking
which extends to and exposes
C A
the reinforcing or protector ply
more than one square inch. Radial
Belt Plies
Peeled Rib Protector Ply Casing Outer Ply

Remove the tire from service if

Remove tire from service when:
the reinforcing ply or protector A. Depth of cut exposes the casing outer
ply is exposed. ply (bias) or outer belt layer (radial).
B. A tread rib has been severed.
Groove Cracking C. Undercutting occurs at the base
Remove the tire from service of any cut.
if groove cracking exposes the
reinforcing ply or protector ply
for more than 1/4" in length.

Contamination From Hydrocarbons

Oil, grease, brake fluids, solvents, etc., can soften or deteriorate rubber
components. If a tire comes in contact with any of these, immediately
wash the contaminated area with denatured alcohol, then with a soap and
water solution. If the contaminated area is soft and spongy compared to an
unaffected area of the tire, remove the tire from service.

Sidewall Cuts
If sidewall cords are exposed or damaged, remove the tire from service.
Cuts in the rubber that do not reach the cord plies are not detrimental to tire
performance and the tire may remain in service.

Weather / Ozone Cracking

Remove the tire from service only if weather or ozone cracks extend to the
cord plies.

358 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 A B C

A. Bulge
B. Chevron cutting

Appendix
C. Tread chipping/chunking
D. Peeled rib
E. Cracking and contamination D E

Common damage conditions

Courtesy Michelin Aircraft Tire

Dismounting

Be sure to follow the instructions and precautions published by the wheel

manufacturer.
• Before deflating, use colored chalk to mark any damaged or bulge areas.
• Completely deflate the tire or tube before dismounting.
• Use a bead breaker to loosen tire beads from both wheel-half flanges.
1. Apply bead breaker pressure slowly, or in a series of jogs, to allow time
for the tire’s beads to slide on the wheel.
2. If the tire has become fixed to the wheel:
a. Release bead-breaker pressure and apply a soap solution to the
tire/wheel interface.
b. Allow several minutes for the solution to penetrate between the tire
and wheel.
c. Reapply a reduced breaker pressure to the tire.
d. Repeat several times if necessary.
3. If the tire still remains stuck:
a. Remove the tire/wheel assembly from the bead breaker.
b. Reinflate the tire in a cage until the bead moves back to its correct
position.
c. Deflate the tire.
4. Continue the dismounting procedure:
• Remove tie bolts and slide out both parts of the wheel from the tire.
• For tube-type tires, remove the tube.

Appendix 4: Aircraft Tires 359

Off-Aircraft Inspection with Tire Dismounted
Follow this procedure:
• Inspect the tread area.
• Inspect both sidewall areas.
• Inspect the bead areas for chafing or damage.
• Inspect the innerliner. Tires with loose, frayed or broken cords or wrinkles
should be discarded. Liner blisters, especially in tubeless tires, should be
left undisturbed.
• Inspect the inner tube, if applicable. Tubes with leaks, severe wrinkles or
creases, or chafing should be discarded.
• Inspect for wheel damage according to the wheel manufacturer’s
recommendations.

Vibration and Balance

Vibration, shimmy, and other similar conditions are usually caused by
improper tire balance but there are a number of other conditions that can
cause or contribute to aircraft vibration.

The following inspections will help identify and/or prevent vibration problems:
• Check the tire for proper inflation pressure.
• Ensure that the tire has reached full growth before it is installed on the
aircraft.
• Check to see that the tire beads are properly seated.
• Check the tire for flat spotting or uneven wear.
• Verify that the tires are properly mounted.
• Check for air trapped between the tire and tube.
• Check for wrinkles in the tube.
• Check the wheel for an imbalance due to improper assembly.
• Check to see that the wheel has not been bent.
• Check for a loose wheel bearing caused by an improperly torqued axle nut.
• Check for poor gear alignment as evidenced by uneven wear.
• Check for worn or loose landing gear components.

Adapted from the Michelin Aircraft Tire Care and Service Guide, courtesy Michelin Aircraft Tire.

360 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Index

A
aircraft batteries ..................................................................................323–348

Index
aircraft drawings, types of ............................................................................. 81
aircraft hardware standards ........................................................................ 183
aircraft nationality identification .................................................................... 28
aircraft nomenclature .................................................................................... 13
axes of an airplane ................................................................................... 13
types of aircraft structure .......................................................................... 14
monocoque ........................................................................................... 14
semimonocoque ................................................................................... 15
truss...................................................................................................... 14
aircraft storage batteries ............................................................................. 122
lead-acid batteries .................................................................................. 122
nickel-cadmium batteries ........................................................................ 122
alternating current ........................................................................................ 97
aluminum alloys
composition of ........................................................................................ 127
mechanical properties of ........................................................................ 129
minimum bend radii for 90° bends .......................................................... 217
aramid......................................................................................................... 302
area of a circle .............................................................................................. 61
ATA-100 specifications.................................................................................. 16
ATA-100 system ............................................................................................ 16
ATA-2200 system .......................................................................................... 16

B
ball peen hammer ....................................................................................... 172
batteries, cold weather operation ....................................................... 331, 342
batteries, dry-charged ................................................................................ 334
batteries, VRLA-AGM ................................................................................. 324
battery inspections ............................................................................. 332, 343
bearing strength, aluminum alloy sheet ...................................................... 132
bend allowance chart.................................................................................. 221

Index 361
bending and forming tools .......................................................................... 151
box brake ................................................................................................ 150
cornice brake .......................................................................................... 150
English wheel ......................................................................................... 151
press brake ............................................................................................. 150
slip roll former ......................................................................................... 151
bleeder schedules ...................................................................................... 311
blind rivets .................................................................................................. 201
CherryMax rivets, Olympic-Lok rivets, huck rivets .................................. 204
friction-lock rivets .................................................................................... 202
mechanical-lock rivets ............................................................................ 203

C
carbon and graphite fibers .......................................................................... 302
carpenter’s claw hammer............................................................................ 172
center of gravity locating ............................................................................. 289
CG datum aft of the main wheels
nose wheel landing gear......................................................................... 291
tail wheel landing gear ............................................................................ 293
CG datum forward of the airplane
nose wheel landing gear......................................................................... 290
CG datum forward of the main wheels
tail wheel landing gear ............................................................................ 292
chemical elements, electron distribution....................................................... 44
chisels......................................................................................................... 155
cape chisel.............................................................................................. 155
diamond point chisel ............................................................................... 155
flat chisel................................................................................................. 155
round nose chisel ................................................................................... 155
circumference of a circle ............................................................................... 61
combination set .......................................................................................... 141
compound curves, forming ......................................................................... 151
control cables ............................................................................................. 266
control cable tension................................................................................... 270
control cable terminals................................................................................ 267
control systems, types of ............................................................................ 265
push-pull rods ......................................................................................... 265
torque tubes............................................................................................ 265
conversions..................................................................................................... 4
core materials for composite applications .................................................. 310
corrosion ..................................................................................................... 247
exfoliation................................................................................................ 245
filiform ..................................................................................................... 248
fretting..................................................................................................... 248
galvanic .................................................................................................. 246

362 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 intergranular ........................................................................................... 245
stress ...................................................................................................... 246
surface and pitting .................................................................................. 244
types of ................................................................................................... 241
corrosion control ......................................................................................... 249
countersink ................................................................................................. 162
cowling fasteners ........................................................................................ 208
cross-linking, resin systems........................................................................ 300
cube roots of numbers .................................................................................. 58

Index
decimal equivalents ........................................................................................ 3
dial indicator ............................................................................................... 146
diameter of a circle ....................................................................................... 61
dividers ....................................................................................................... 142
drill gage ..................................................................................................... 160
drills for wood and composite materials ..................................................... 163
auger bits ................................................................................................ 163
brad-point drills ....................................................................................... 164
flat wood-boring bits ............................................................................... 164
forstner bits ............................................................................................. 164
spade drill ............................................................................................... 164
drill size, body and tap ................................................................................ 166

E
eddy current inspection .............................................................................. 257
electrical formulas....................................................................................... 100
both capacitance and inductance ........................................................... 106
capacitance ............................................................................................ 101
inductance .............................................................................................. 103
resistance ............................................................................................... 100
electrical symbols ......................................................................................... 89
capacitors ................................................................................................. 91
conductors ................................................................................................ 89
connectors ................................................................................................ 96
indicators .................................................................................................. 93
inductors ................................................................................................... 92
logic devices ............................................................................................. 95
power sources .......................................................................................... 91
resistors .................................................................................................... 92
semiconductor devices ............................................................................. 94
switches .................................................................................................... 90
electrical system installation ....................................................................... 107

Index 363
F
fabric weave styles ..................................................................................... 305
Federal Regulations, Title 14 Code of .......................................................... 31
feeler gages ................................................................................................ 146
fiberglass .................................................................................................... 302
fiberglass yarns .......................................................................................... 303
fiber/resin ratio ............................................................................................ 301
fiber volume ................................................................................................ 301
files ............................................................................................................. 156
fill face ........................................................................................................ 304
fill yarns ...................................................................................................... 303
flexible fluid lines......................................................................................... 277
fluid line identification ................................................................................. 280
fraction equivalents ......................................................................................... 3

G
geometric formulas ........................................................................... 64, 65, 66

H
hand shears ................................................................................................ 152
compound shears ................................................................................... 153
tin snips .................................................................................................. 152
harness satin weaves ................................................................................. 306
heat treatment temperatures—aluminum alloys ........................................ 131
hermaphrodite calipers ............................................................................... 142
high-strength pin rivets ............................................................................... 204
Hi-Lok fasteners ..................................................................................... 206
Hi-Shear rivet.......................................................................................... 204
Hi-Tigue fasteners .................................................................................. 207
holding tools ............................................................................................... 147
hole cutting tools......................................................................................... 157
large hole cutters .................................................................................... 162
fly cutter .............................................................................................. 162
hole saws............................................................................................ 162
hook rule ..................................................................................................... 141
hydraulic relationships .................................................................................. 48

I
ICAO standard atmosphere .......................................................................... 43
inside calipers ............................................................................................. 142

J
Joint Aircraft System/Component (JASC) Code ........................................... 16

364 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

K
Kevlar ® fiber ................................................................................................ 302

L
lead acid aircraft batteries ..................................................................323–348
lines, meaning of .......................................................................................... 83
liquids, density of .......................................................................................... 47
location identification .................................................................................... 85
butt lines ................................................................................................... 85
fuselage stations....................................................................................... 85

Index
water lines ................................................................................................ 85
wing and horizontal stabilizer stations ...................................................... 85

M
magnetic particle inspection ....................................................................... 256
material symbols........................................................................................... 84
mathematical constants ................................................................................ 56
mathematical symbols .................................................................................. 57
mean aerodynamic chord ........................................................................... 294
measurement systems ................................................................................. 53
international system of units (SI) .............................................................. 53
metric system ........................................................................................... 54
U.S.–metric conversion ............................................................................ 55
length .................................................................................................... 54
volume .................................................................................................. 55
weight ................................................................................................... 55
measuring and layout tools ......................................................................... 141
metalworking hammers .............................................................................. 172
body, or planishing hammer ................................................................... 172
mallets and soft-face hammers .............................................................. 173
sledge hammers ..................................................................................... 173
straight peen and cross peen hammers ................................................. 172
metric equivalents........................................................................................... 3
micrometer caliper ...................................................................................... 144
monocoque structure .................................................................................... 14

N
nondestructive inspection ........................................................................... 253
number systems ........................................................................................... 74

Index 365
O
Ohm’s law relationships ................................................................................ 98
outside calipers........................................................................................... 142
oxidation ..................................................................................................... 243
oxygen system servicing ............................................................................ 285

P
penetrant inspection ................................................................................... 255
plain weave ................................................................................................. 305
pliers ........................................................................................................... 147
combination/slip joint pliers..................................................................... 147
needle-nose pliers .................................................................................. 148
vise-grip pliers ........................................................................................ 148
water pump pliers ................................................................................... 148
ply orientation convention ........................................................................... 308
polymerization ............................................................................................ 300
pounding tools ............................................................................................ 172
powers of ten ................................................................................................ 71
punches ...................................................................................................... 173
automatic center punch .......................................................................... 174
center punch ........................................................................................... 173
drift, or starting punch............................................................................. 173
pin punch ................................................................................................ 174
prick punch ............................................................................................. 173
transfer punch......................................................................................... 174

Q
quantity of liquid in a drum............................................................................ 50

R
radiography ................................................................................................. 259
gamma rays ............................................................................................ 260
x-rays ...................................................................................................... 259
reamers ...................................................................................................... 163
resin mix ratios ........................................................................................... 300
resin system ............................................................................................... 299
resistor color codes .................................................................................... 120
rib stitch knots............................................................................................. 236
rib stitch spacing ......................................................................................... 235
rigid fluid lines ............................................................................................. 275
rivet head identification ............................................................................... 226

366 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

rivets and riveting ....................................................................................... 224
aircraft solid rivets................................................................................... 224
examples of rivet selection ................................................................. 229
rivet diameter ...................................................................................... 225
rivet length .......................................................................................... 229
rivet material ....................................................................................... 225
alternatives to riveting............................................................................. 224
blind rivet code ....................................................................................... 231
installing flush rivets ............................................................................... 231
riveting tools ........................................................................................... 230
bucking bars ....................................................................................... 230

Index
rivet sets ............................................................................................. 230
rivets or bolts required 2017, 2024 ............................................................. 227
rivets or bolts required 5052 ....................................................................... 228

S
SAE classification of steel .......................................................................... 134
safety wiring tools ....................................................................................... 149
diagonal cutting pliers ............................................................................. 149
duckbill pliers .......................................................................................... 149
safety wire twisting tool........................................................................... 149
saws ........................................................................................................... 153
band saw ................................................................................................ 153
hacksaw.................................................................................................. 154
wood saws .............................................................................................. 154
backsaw.............................................................................................. 155
compass, or keyhole saw ................................................................... 154
crosscut saw ....................................................................................... 154
ripsaw ................................................................................................. 154
scarfing ....................................................................................................... 308
screwdrivers ............................................................................................... 179
offset screwdriver ................................................................................... 179
recessed-head screwdrivers................................................................... 179
screw heads for special structural screws .............................................. 180
slot screwdrivers ..................................................................................... 179
screw pitch gage......................................................................................... 167
screws ........................................................................................................ 187
aircraft screw heads ............................................................................... 188
self-tapping sheet-metal screws ............................................................. 189
set screws............................................................................................... 189
scriber ......................................................................................................... 142
selvage edge .............................................................................................. 304
setback ....................................................................................................... 218
setback (K) chart ........................................................................................ 218

Index 367
shears ......................................................................................................... 151
scroll shears ........................................................................................... 152
squaring shears ...................................................................................... 152
throatless shears .................................................................................... 151
shear strength of aluminum alloy rivets ...................................................... 133
sheet metal layout and forming................................................................... 213
definitions ............................................................................................... 213
forming.................................................................................................... 216
layout procedure ..................................................................................... 214
small-hole gages ........................................................................................ 146
socket wrenches ......................................................................................... 177
extension and adaptors .......................................................................... 178
hand impact tool ..................................................................................... 177
socket wrench handles ........................................................................... 177
typical socket-wrenches ......................................................................... 178
solids, density of ........................................................................................... 47
square roots of numbers............................................................................... 58
standards, aircraft hardware ....................................................................... 183
standard taxi signals ..................................................................................... 34
steel rule ..................................................................................................... 141
stepping ...................................................................................................... 308
strength of steel related to its hardness...................................................... 135
sulfated batteries ................................................................................ 330, 341
switch derating factors ................................................................................ 114

T
taps ............................................................................................................. 166
bottoming tap .......................................................................................... 166
plug tap ................................................................................................... 166
taper tap ................................................................................................. 166
tap test ........................................................................................................ 254
telescoping gages....................................................................................... 146
temperature conversion ................................................................................ 37
absolute temperature................................................................................ 42
temper designations for aluminum alloys ................................................... 130
heat-treatable alloys ............................................................................... 130
non-heat-treatable alloys ........................................................................ 130
tempering steel
oxide color of various temperatures........................................................ 137
threaded fasteners ...................................................................................... 183
bolt fits .................................................................................................... 187
bolt installation ........................................................................................ 186
bolts ........................................................................................................ 183
nuts ......................................................................................................... 190

368 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

 threaded fastener safetying .................................................................... 195
cotter pins ........................................................................................... 195
locking washers .................................................................................. 195
safety wire and safety wire twisting .................................................... 196
thread form, Unified and American Standard ............................................. 165
thread repair hardware ............................................................................... 209
acres sleeves .......................................................................................... 210
helicoil insert........................................................................................... 209
threads and threading tools ........................................................................ 165
body and tap drill sizes ........................................................................... 166
screw pitch gage..................................................................................... 167

Index
taps ......................................................................................................... 166
thread-cutting tools ................................................................................. 165
torque and torque wrenches ....................................................................... 168
click-type torque wrench ......................................................................... 168
deflecting-beam torque wrench .............................................................. 168
recommended torque values .................................................................. 170
torque conversions ................................................................................. 170
trigonometric functions ................................................................................. 67
truss structure............................................................................................... 14
turnbuckles ................................................................................................. 268
twill weave .................................................................................................. 306
twist drills .................................................................................................... 157
twist drill sharpening ................................................................................... 160
drill point gage ........................................................................................ 161
twist drill sizes............................................................................................. 157

U
ultrasonic inspection ................................................................................... 259

V
vernier calipers ........................................................................................... 142
vises ........................................................................................................... 147
bench vise .............................................................................................. 147
drill press vise ......................................................................................... 147
visual inspection ......................................................................................... 253

W
warp face .................................................................................................... 304
warp yarns .................................................................................................. 303
washers ...................................................................................................... 199
weave style numbers .................................................................................. 307
wire and circuit protectors........................................................................... 115
wire size, selection of ................................................................................. 107

Index 369
wrenches .................................................................................................... 175
adjustable open end wrench................................................................... 175
box end wrench ...................................................................................... 176
combination wrench................................................................................ 176
flare nut wrench ...................................................................................... 176
open end wrench .................................................................................... 175
ratcheting box wrench ............................................................................ 176
ratcheting open end wrench ................................................................... 175

Y
yarn part numbering systems ..................................................................... 304
yarns/tows .................................................................................................. 303

370 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Aviation Mechanic
Handbook by Dale Crane
Sixth Edition
Handy toolbox-size reference for 
mechanics, aircraft owners, and pilots.
All the information critical to maintaining 
an aircraft. Your single source for:

• mathematics, conversions, formulas

• aircraft nomenclature, controls, system specs
• material and tool identifications
• hardware sizes and equivalents
• inspections, corrosion detection and control
• frequently used scales, charts, diagrams, and much more.
• Index included.

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