DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS:

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS:
• The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from
0 to over 1MH Z to which feedback is added to control its overall response
characteristic i.e. gain and bandwidth. The op-amp exhibits the gain down to
zero frequency.
• Such direct coupled (dc) amplifiers do not use blocking (coupling and by pass)
capacitors since these would reduce the amplification to zero at zero
frequency. Large by pass capacitors may be used but it is not possible to
fabricate large capacitors on a IC chip. The capacitors fabricated are usually
less than 20 pf. Transistor, diodes and resistors are also fabricated on the
same chip.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS:
• Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp.
The function of a differential amplifier is to amplify the
difference between two input signals.
HOW THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER IS DEVELOPED?
Let us consider two emitter-biased circuits as shown in fig. 1.

The two transistors Q1 and

Q2 have identical
characteristics. The
resistances of the circuits
are equal, i.e. RE1 = R E2,
RC1 = R C2 and the
magnitude of +VCC is
equal to the magnitude of
-VEE. These voltages are
measured with respect to
ground.
HOW THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER IS DEVELOPED?

To make a differential amplifier, the two circuits

are connected as shown in fig. 1. The two +VCC
and -VEE supply terminals are made common
because they are same. The two emitters are
also connected and the parallel combination of
RE1 and RE2 is replaced by a resistance RE. The
two input signals v1 & v2 are applied at the
base of Q1 and at the base of Q2. The output
voltage is taken between two collectors. The
collector resistances are equal and therefore
denoted by RC = RC1 = RC2.
Ideally, the output voltage is zero when the two inputs are equal.
When v1 is greater then v2 the output voltage with the polarity
shown appears. When v1 is less than v2, the output voltage has the
opposite polarity.
THE FOUR DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
CONFIGURATIONS ARE FOLLOWING:
1. Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.
2. Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
3. Single input balanced output differential amplifier.
4. Single input unbalanced output differential amplifier.
These configurations are shown in fig. 2 A multistage amplifier with a desired
gain can be obtained using direct connection between successive stages of
differential amplifiers. The advantage of direct coupling is that it removes the
lower cut off frequency imposed by the coupling capacitors, and they are
therefore, capable of amplifying dc as well as ac input signals. , and are
defined by number of input signals used and the way an output voltage is
measured. If use two input signals, the configuration is said to be dual input,
otherwise it is a single input configuration. On the other hand, if the output
voltage is measured between two collectors, it is referred to as a balanced
output because both the collectors are at the same dc potential w.r.t. ground. If
the output is measured at one of the collectors w.r.t. ground, the configuration is
called an unbalanced output
A multistage amplifier with a desired gain can be obtained
using direct connection between successive stages of
differential amplifiers. The advantage of direct coupling is
that it removes the lower cut off frequency imposed by the
coupling capacitors, and they are therefore, capable of
amplifying dc as well as ac input signals.
 DUAL INPUT, BALANCED OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER:
The circuit is shown in fig. 1, v1 and v2
are the two inputs, applied to the
bases of Q1 and Q2 transistors. The
output voltage is measured between
the two collectors C1 and C2 , which
are at same dc potentials.
D.C. ANALYSIS:
To obtain the operating point (ICC and VCEQ) for differential amplifier dc equivalent circuit is drawn
by reducing the input voltages v1 and v2 to zero as shown in fig. 3.

The internal resistances of the input signals are denoted by RS

because RS1= RS2. Since both emitters biased sections of the
different amplifier are symmetrical in all respects, therefore, the
operating point for only one section need to be determined. The
same values of ICQ and VCEQ can be used for second transistor
Q2.
 The value of RE sets up the emitter current in transistors Q1
and Q2 for a given value of VEE. The emitter current in Q1
and Q2 are independent of collector resistance RC.
The voltage at the emitter of Q1 is approximately equal to -
VBE if the voltage drop across R is negligible. Knowing the
value of IC the voltage at the collector VCis given by
VC =VCC - IC RC
and VCE = VC - VE
= VCC - IC RC + VBE VCE
= VCC + VBE - ICRC (Eq-2)
From the two equations VCEQ and ICQ can be determined. This dc analysis applicable for all
types of differential amplifier.
 DUAL INPUT, BALANCED OUTPUT DIFFERENCE
AMPLIFIER:

The circuit is shown in fig. 1 v1 and v2

are the two inputs, applied to the bases
of Q1 and Q2 transistors. The output
voltage is measured between the two
collectors C1 and C2, which are at same
dc potentials.
 A.C. ANALYSIS :
In previous lecture dc analysis has been done to obtain the operatiing point of the two
transistors.
To find the voltage gain Ad and the input resistance Ri of the differential amplifier, the ac
equivalent circuit is drawn using r-parameters as shown in fig. 2. The dc voltages are
reduced to zero and the ac equivalent of CE configuration is used.

Since the two dc emitter currents are equal. Therefore,

resistance r'e1 and r'e2 are also equal and designated by r'e .
This voltage across each collector resistance is shown 180° out
of phase with respect to the input voltages v1 and v2. This is
same as in CE configuration. The polarity of the output
voltage is shown in Figure. The collector C2 is assumed to be
more positive with respect to collector C1 even though both
are negative with respect to to ground.
A.C. ANALYSIS :
In previous dc analysis has been done to obtain the operatiing point of the two
transistors. To find the voltage gain Ad and the input resistance Ri of the differential
amplifier, the ac equivalent circuit is drawn using r-parameters as shown in fig. 2. The
dc voltages are reduced to zero and the ac equivalent of CE configuration is used.

Since the two dc emitter currents are equal.

Therefore, resistance r'e1 and r'e2 are also equal
and designated by r'e . This voltage across each
collector resistance is shown 180° out of phase with
respect to the input voltages v1 and v2. This is same
as in CE configuration. The polarity of the output
voltage is shown in Figure. The collector C2 is
assumed to be more positive with respect to collector
C1 even though both are negative with respect to to
ground.
 Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2.

Substituting current relations,

Again, assuming RS1 / b and RS2 / b are very small in

comparison with RE and re' and therefore neglecting these terms,
• Solving these two equations, ie1 and
Substituting ie1, & ie2 in the above expression
ie2 can be calculated.

The output voltage VO is given by

Thus a differential amplifier amplifies the difference
between two input signals. Defining the difference of input
signals as vd = v1 - v2 the voltage gain of the dual input
balanced output differential amplifier can be given by
DIFFERENTIAL INPUT RESISTANCE:
Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at
either input terminal with the other terminal grounded. This means that the input resistance Ri1
seen from the input signal source v1 is determined with the signal source v2 set at zero. Similarly,
the input signal v1 is set at zero to determine the input resistance Ri2 seen from the input signal
source v2. Resistance RS1 and RS2 are ignored because they are very small.

Similarly,
OUTPUT RESISTANCE:

Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at

output terminal with respect to ground. Therefore, the output resistance RO1 measured
between collector C1 and ground is equal to that of the collector resistance RC.
Similarly the output resistance RO2 measured at C2 with respect to ground is equal to
that of the collector resistor RC.
RO1 = RO2 = RC (Eq-5)
The current gain of the differential amplifier is undefined. Like CE amplifier the
differential amplifier is a small signal amplifier. It is generally used as a voltage
amplifier and not as current or power amplifier.
INVERTING & NON � INVERTING INPUTS:

In differential amplifier the output voltage vO is given by

VO = Ad (v1 - v2)
When v2 = 0, vO = Ad v1
& when v1 = 0, vO = - Ad v2
Therefore the input voltage v1 is called the non inventing input because a positive voltage v1
acting alone produces a positive output voltage vO. Similarly, the positive voltage v2 acting
alone produces a negative output voltage hence v2 is called inverting input. Consequently B1 is
called noninverting input terminal and B2 is called inverting input terminal.
COMMON MODE GAIN:
A common mode signal is one that drives both inputs of a differential amplifier
equally. The common mode signal is interference, static and other kinds of
undesirable pickup etc. The connecting wires on the input bases act like small
antennas. If a differential amplifier is operating in an environment with lot of
electromagnetic interference, each base picks up an

unwanted interference voltage. If both the transistors were matched in all

respects then the balanced output would be theoretically zero. This is the
important characteristic of a differential amplifier. It discriminates against
common mode input signals. In other words, it refuses to amplify the common
mode signals.
The practical effectiveness of rejecting the common signal depends on the degree of matching between
the two CE stages forming the differential amplifier. In other words, more closely are the currents in the
input transistors, the better is the common mode signal rejection e.g. If v1 and v2 are the two input
signals, then the output of a practical op-amp cannot be described by simply
v0 = Ad (v1 -v2 )
In practical differential amplifier, the output depends not only on difference signal but also upon the
common mode signal (average).
vd = (v1 - vd )
and vC = ½ (v1 + v2 )
The output voltage, therefore can be expressed as
vO = A1 v1 + A2 v2
Where A1 & A2 are the voltage amplification from input 1(2) to output under the condition that input 2
(1) is grounded.
The voltage gain for the difference signal is Ad and for the common mode signal is AC. The ability of a
differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by its common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR). It is the ratio of differential gain Ad to the common mode gain AC
DUAL INPUT, UNBALANCED OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER:
In this case, two input signals are given however the output is measured at only
one of the twocollector w.r.t. ground as shown in fig. 2. The output is referred to
as an unbalanced output because the collector at which the output voltage is
measured is at some finite dc potential with respect to ground..

In other words, there is some dc voltage at the output

terminal without any input signal applied. DC analysis is
exactly same as that of first case.
AC ANALYSIS:
The output voltage gain in this case is given by

The voltage gain is half the gain of the dual input, balanced output differential
amplifier. Since at the output there is a dc error voltage, therefore, to reduce the
voltage to zero, this configuration is normally followed by a level translator
circuit. to reduce the voltage to zero, this configuration is normally followed by a
level translator circuit.
DUAL INPUT, BALANCED OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER:

Example
• Example - 1 The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output
differential amplifier of fig.1:
• RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2 = 50 Ω ,
• +VCC = 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE = 0.715V. Determine the operating points
(ICQ and VCEQ) of the two transistors.

Solution:
The value of ICQ can be obtained from equation (E-1). The voltage VCEQ can be obtained from equation (E-2).

. The values of ICQ and VCEQ are same for both the transistors
DIFFERENTIAL INPUT RESISTANCE:
Example - 1
The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced- Therefore, substituting the known values in voltage gain
output differential amplifier: RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = equation (E-2), we obtain
Rin 2 = 50Ω, +VCC= 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE =
0.715V.
a. Determine the voltage gain.
b. Determine the input resistance b). The input resistance seen from each input source is
given by (E-3) and (E-4):
c. Determine the output resistance.
Solution:
(a). The parameters of the amplifiers are same as discussed in
example-1 of lecture-1. The operating point of the two transistors (c) The output resistance seen looking back into the
obtained in lecture-1 are given below circuit from each of the two output terminals is given
ICQ = 0.988 mA by (E-5)
VCEQ=8.54V
Ro1 = Ro2 = 2.2 k Ω
The ac emitter resistance
Solution:
Since the component values remain unchanged and the biasing arrangement is same, the ICQ and VCEQ
values as well as input and output resistance values for the dual input, unbalanced output configuration
must be the same as those for the dual input, balanced output configuration.
Thus,
ICQ = 0.988 mA
VCEQ = 8.54 V
Ri1 = Ri2 = 5.06 kΩ
Ro = 2.2 kΩ
The voltage gain of the dual input, unbalanced output
differential amplifier is given by
EXAMPLE-2
REPEAT EXAMPLE-1 FOR SINGLE INPUT, BALANCED OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER.
Solution:
Because the same biasing arrangement and same component values are used
in both configurations, the results obtained in Example-1 for the dual input,
balanced output configuration are also valid for the single input, balanced
output configuration.