61

LUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS

, Find root of following equations by Regula-Falsimethod correct to 3decimal places :
() -4x+|=0 (i) x-4x-9 =0
(ii) +x-3r-3 =0 (iv) x tan x + 1 =0

(v) x logi0*= 1.2.

4. Eind areal root of equation e -e =0 correct to four decimal places using method of false
position.
E Find a root of the equation xe* =cos x in the interval (0, 1) using Regula-Falsimethod
corect to four decimal places.
K Find aroot of following equations byy using Secant method correct to 3decimal places :
() r-4x-9 =0 ii) x- e =0 (ti) x+*+r+7 =0
7. Use Secant Method to find an approximate value of 12.
ANSWERS
1. 1.8325 2.094
3. ) 0.254 (i) 2.706 (iii) 1.732
(iv) 2.798 (v) 2.740
4. 1.8571 5. 0.5175

6. () 2.706 (ii) 0.566 (ii) - 2.104

7. 3.4641

. NEWTON-RAPHSON'S METHOD P.U. 2019, 2020)

It is one of the fastest interactive methods for finding roots of non-linear equations which
equires just a single initial approximation. This method is very fast but is quite sensitive to the initial
pproximation.
Let be the actual root of the equation f()=0 and let x be an initial approximation to the root
bff¢) =0.
Let h be the difference between the approximate value xo and the exact root
i.e. h=- xo
E= X0 +h.
Since is the root of the equation f(r) =0, therefore f(E) =0
..(1)
f(ro+h) =0.
Expandingf (Xo +h)about the point xo using Taylor's series, we get

+ -+ ... =0
1! 2! 3!

Neglecting second and higher order derivatives, we get

 62 PRECIZE NUMERICAL METHODSb,
hs-:
f(k)
Abetter approximation than xÍ is given by
= +h

ie.
f()
Again starting with x, a better approximation x, is given by

Continuing so on with the same process, iterative formula for

by
fon.n= 0, 1, 2, ..
Newton-Raphson'
f)
Remark () Newton-Raphson's method is useful when f(o) is large. If f'(%) is
it may diverge. very sta
() Newton-Raphson's method converges very fast provided the initial
approximation
to the root. But if the initial approximation is not sufficiently close to the root, then the
fall in an endless loop.
8.1. Geometrical Interpretation of Newton-Raphson Method
Let x be an initial approximation to the root of equation f(x) =0. Let
point on the curve y =f().
Y

’X
 63
DLUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
Then slope of tangent tothe curve at A( Xg o) is f ) .

Equation of thetangent at Ag(xg: o) is

y-Yo f)(I-x). .)

Itmeets the x-axis at Bo, where y= 0.

Putting y =0 in(1), we get
-Yo =4)(i-x)

f)

i.e.

Coordinates of B are 0,o ie. (x,0), where f() is a

f') = *) f )
better approximation than x

Corresponding to x, let A, ( ) be the point on the curve y= f().

If the tangent at A,(,) to the curve y=f) meets the x-axis at (x,, 0), then x, will be
stillbeter approximation than x.
Continuing so on with the same process, we go closer and closer to the actual root §.
8.2. Order of Convergence of Newton-Raphson Method
Let us assume that is asimple root of theequation f() =0.
The general iterative formula for Newton Raphson's method is

..(1)
f)
Ilf eek+ are the errors in the approximations x.X respectively, then
er+1 xk+|-Z and e= X -

i.e. X7+| =5+e+ and x =+e.

64
PRECIZE NUMERICAL
Substituting these values in (1 ), we have

sE+e, )
METHOD8 B

f(G+e, )
fG+e )
By Taylor's series expansion offE + ex) and f($+ e)
about the point , we
have
sE+ e;) =fE) + e,f'G)+fG)
2! +.
and f" () +
2!

Substituting these values in (2), we have

f(E)+e4fG5)+ 2!
ek+1 = e
f'G)+e;f5)+f5) +....

2!
ek+1 =er
f'E)+efF)+fG)+...
2!

2 f'G)
1+ek f'E)
= e ei f6) +
2 f''E) s'E)

2 f'E) f'E)
1

f5)e fG) ...terms containing higher order errors

fG) 2 fG)
bLUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
Neglecting the terms having higher orders, we get

2 f)

ie. -1 ce. where e=/') is aconstant.

2 f'E)
Hence the order of convergence of Newton-Raphson's method is 2.
'orking Method to Find Root Using Newton-Raphson's Method :
#en 1. Take an initial approximation xÍ, which is close to the exact root.

ten 2. By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have x = x, fu)

f(a)
tep 3. Iff (x)=0, then x7+| is itself aroot of the equation f() =0.
If f() 0, then proceed as in step 2.
.3. Advantages of Newton-Raphson's Method
Following is the list of some of the advantages of the Newton-Raphson's Method:
This is the best method to solve non-linear equations. As compared to other methods, it is very
much less time consuming
2. The Newton-Raphson's Method can also be used to solve system of non-linear
equations, non
inear differential equations and non-linear integral equations.
3. The of convergence of Newton-Raphson's Method is of second order which makes this method
faster as compared to other methods.

4. The general formula in Newton-Raphson's Method is x+ = X, which shows that the

f'a)
greater the value of f(x), there is need of smaller correction to get the correctvalue i.e. great speed
and little labour.
8.4. Disadvantages of Newton-Raphson's Method
Following is the list of some of the drawbacks of the Newton-Raphson's Method:
1. The Newton-Raphson's Method becomes complicated if the derivative of the function f(x) is not
simple.
2. Newton-Raphson's Method fails if f'(x)=0 for some x.
This method requires agreat and sensitive atention regarding the choice of initial approximaion.
Tthe initial approximation is not being approximately chosen, then this method can involve many
Iterations or some times can fall in endless iterations.
 64
PRECIZE NUMERICAL
9. GENERALIZED(MODIFIED) NEWTON-RAPHSON'S
If is a root off(r) =0 with multiplicity m, then
METHOD METHO S R

f() = (r-F)"g (r), where g() 0.

asmall
If we assume that gr) does not vary much in neighbourhood of&. then
f(x) = c(x-)", where c is a constant. we may:

Then f(u) =cm(x-5)" cm (-)"

(x-5)

i.e. fo) =m f)

x-=m f)
f()
E=X- m f)
f()
Hence if x, isany approximation to , then the next approximation xka is given b

k=0, 1, 2, 3, ...
fu)
The above formula is called generalized Newton-Raphson's iterative formula.
Note. We know that if is a root off («) =0 with multiplicity m, then is a root off':) =
multiplicity (m-1) and is a root off"(*) =0 with multiplicity (m-2) and so on.
Hence thé expressions

f)
must besame provided the initial approximation xo is taken sufficiently close to the root.

i ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Using Newton-Raphson's method, find a root ofthe equation x-8 = 0correctU
decimal places.
Sol. The given equation is f(x) = x-8 =0.
Now, f(2.5) = (2.5)28 =-1.75 <0
sOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS 67

and f3) = (3)'-8=|>0.

Aroot of the given equation lies between 2.5 and 3.
Also, f(3) is nearer to zero than f(2.5), therefore we take the initial approximation xo as 3.
The first approximation to the root is given by
2
=3 (3) -8
f'() 2 x0 2(3)
=2,8333.
The second approximation to the root is given by
2
x-8 =2.8333 (2.8333) -8 = 2.8284.
f') 2x1 2(2.8333)
The third approximation to the root is given by
f) -8
= 2.8284 (2.8284) -8 = 2.8284.
f() 2x1 2(2.8284)
From 2nd and 3rd iterations, it is clear that there is no change in the successive approximations to
the root upto first three decimal places.
Hence aroot of given equation is 2.828 (correct to three decimal places).
Example 2. A graph of x -2x-5 =0 indicates that there is a root close to x= 2. Use Newton
Raphson's method to find a root given that our first guess is x, =2.
Sol. The given equation is *-2x-5 =0.
Let f() =x-2x-5, so that f'()= 3x'-2.
We are given that x, =2.
fa,) =8-4-5 =-1
and f'(x) =12-2 =10.
The first approximation to the root is given by
=2 = 2.1.
f'k) 10

Now, fa) = (2.1) -4.2-s =0.061

and fa) = 3(2.1) -2 = |1.23.
The second approximation to the root is given by
0.061
= 2,1 = 2.0946.
f'u) 11.23
 68
PRECIZE NUMERICAL M
Again,
and
f(r,) = (2.0946)° -2 (2.0946) -5 =0.0005 METHODS B
fx,) =3(2.0946)-2 =11.1620.
The third approximation to the root is given by
0.0005
=2.0946 =2.0946.
11.1620
From second and third iterations, we observe that the
given equation are same. successive approximations to
the
Hence 2.0946 is a root of the given equation.
Example 3. Find a root of equation x-x- 4 = 0, correct to three decimal
Raphson's method. places using Ne.
Sol. The given equation is -x -4 =0. (PU.
Let f()= -*-4, sothat f'()= 3x*-1.
Now, f(1.5)= (1.5) - 1.5 4= - 2.125 <0
and f(2) =(2)- 2 - 4=2>0.
A root of the given equation lies between 1.5 and 2.
Also, f(2) is nearer to zero thanf(1.5), therefore we take the initial approximation Xn as2
The first approximation to the root is given by
2
f()
= 2
3(2) -1 21.8182.
11

The second approximation to the root is given by

f() = 1.8182
(1.8182) -1.8182 4 =1.8182 0.1925
.= 1.7966.
f) 3(1.8182)-1 8.9175

The third approximation to the root is given by

= 1.7966 (1.7966) -1.7966 -4- 1.7966 0.00241
= 1.7963.
3(1.7966)-1 8.6833

From 2nd and 3rd iterations, it is clear that there is no change in the successive approximations
the root upto first three decimal places.
Hence a root of given equation is 1.796 (correct to three decimal places).
Example 4. Use Newton-Raphson's method to find a root ofthe equationx sin x +cos x=0 wnsu
nearer to x =3.

Sol. The given equation is x sin x+ cos x=0.

Let f ) =x sin x + cos x.
sOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS 69

Then f'() -x COS Nt sin x - sin x cOS X.

We are given that
f(xo)= f3) =3sin 3+ cos 3=3 X 0.141| - 0.9899 =-0.56666
and f'(x)=f(3) =3cos3= - 2.9699.
The first approximation to the root is given by
=3 - (-0.5666) =2,8092.
f') (-2.9699)
Now. f(x) =(2.8092) sin (2.8092) +cos (2.8092) =-0.0285
and f'() =(2.8092) cos (2.8092) =- 2.6554.
The second approximation to the root is given by

= 2.8092 - (-0.0285) = 2.7984.

f() (-2.6554)
Now, f() =(2.7984) sin (2.7984) +cos (2.7984) =- 0.000037.
Since f (x) is approximately zero, therefore x, = 2.7984 is the required root of the given
equation.
Example 5. Using Newton-Raphson's method, find areal root of the equation2 x - log1oX -7=0
correct to 3decimal places.
Sol. The givenequation is 2x - log1o x- 7=0.
Let f«) =2x- log1o x-7.
0.4343
Then f') =2- logoe =2-
Now, f(3) =2 (3) log03-7=-1- 0.4771 =-14771
and f(4) =2(4) -log1o (4) -7=1 0.6020 =0.3979.
Since f(4) is nearer to zero, we take xo =4 as initial approximation.
0.4343
Now, f'4) =2 =1.8914.
4

By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have

0.3979
=4 =3.7896.
f'uo) 1.8914
Now, f(q) =2(.7896) - log1o (3.7896) -7= 0.0006
and 0.4343
fa) =2- =1.8854.
3.7896
70 PRECIZE NUMERICAL METHODs
The second approximation to the root is given by
=3.7896 - 0.0006
f(x) 1.8854 -3.7892,
From 1st and 2nd iterations, it is clear that there is no change inthe
the root upto three decimal places successive
Hence x =3.789 is a real root of the given equation upto three decimal places. apgroi
Example 6. Using Newton-Raphson method, find the root of the equation 3x-+sin x=e
places.
in the interval (0, 1) correct to three decimal W

e*.
Sol. The given equation is 3 +sin x=
Let fx) = 3x+ sin x - e*.
Then S() = 3+ cos x-e*.
Now, f(0) =0 +0-1=-1
and f(1) =3 + sin 1 -e=3+ 0.841 -2.718 = 1.123.
Since f(0) is nearer to zero, we take x =0as initial approximation.
Now, f'(x0)=f(0) =3+1-1=3.
By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have
=0-=0.3333.
3

Now, f(x,) =1 +sin (0.333) e.3333=1+ 0.3272 -1.3956 =-0.0684

and f) =3 + cos (0.3333) - e0.3333 =3-0.9450 1.3956=0.6594.
The second approximation is given by
-0.0684
=0.3333 = 0.4370.
0.6594
f'()
Now, f(x,) =3 (0.4370) + sin (0.4370) - e0.4370
= 1.311 +0.4232- 1.5481 = 0.1861

and f'(x) =3+ cos (0.4370) e4370 =3 +0.9060 - 1.5481 =2.3579.

The third approximation is given by
0.1861
=0,437o = 0,3581.
f'ez) 2.3579

Now, f(x,) =3 (0.3581)+ sin (0.3581) - e0.3581

= 1.0743 +0.3505 - 1.4306 =-0.0058
and S(;) =3+ cos (0.3581) - es581 =3 +0.9366 - 1.4306 =2.506.
SOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS 71

The fourth approximation is given by

-0.3581 - -0.0058 0.3604.
f'(x,) 2.506

Now, f(x,) =3 (0.3604) + sin (0.3604) - 0.3604

- 1.0812 +0.3526-1.4339 --0.0001.
Since f(x) is approximately equal to zero, therefore x, = 0.3604 is the required root of the
given equation.
Erample 7. Develop a recurrence formula for finding the value of n, using Newton-Raphson's
method and hence compute v32 upto four decimal places.
Sol. Let

Let f(r) = -n.

Then f) =2 x.
By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have
fe)
fa)
ie x-n 2x-x+n_+n
2xk 2x 2xk
-H=0, 1,2, 3, ..
which is the required recurrence formula.
Now to find 32, we take n=32 and the initial
approximation x, 6.
The first approximation to the root is given by

= 5.66667.

The second approximation to the root is given by

32
= 5.65686.
5.66667)
The third approximation to the root is given by
32
= 5.65685.
5.65686
 PRECIZE
72
NUMERICAL
changeMETHOiDnS the
From second and third iterations, it is clear that there is no B
approximations to the oot upto four decimal places.
Hence /32 - 5.6568.
Example 8. Using Newton-Raphson's formula, find an iterative formula for
positive integer n. Use it to find the cube root of, 128 upto 3 decimal places
1
finding the
Sol. Let x= (n)3
x =n x-n=0.
Let fr) =x-n, so that f'() = 3x2.
By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have
-n_3xË-+n
3x? 3 2x+n
k=0, 1,2, ....

which is the required iterative formula.

Now to find (128)3 using above iterative formula, we take n = 128 and ches
approximation xo =5.
The first approximation to the root is given by
128 =5.04.

The second approximation to the root is given by

128 = 5.0397.
2609,*
(S.04)2
The third approximation to the root is given by
128
-260397)%(5.0397)2 = 5.0396.

change in the su
From second and third iterations, it is clear that there is n0
approximations to the root upto three decimal places.
Hence 3/i28 = 5.0396.
Example 9. Using Newton-Raphson's method, find a general formula for finding P
Hence find square root of 12 upto 3 decimal places.
 73
LUTIONOFFNON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
1

LLet
x= (a)P
yP =a

Let f() = x-a, so that f'()= pr.

By Newton-Raphson's iterative formula, we have
x-a (p-1)xP +a
fo)
(p-1)x +a-,k=0, 1, 2, ...,
i.e.

which is the required iterative formula,

Now we wish to find (12) using above iterative formula.

Taking a =12 and p=2, we get
+12
-,k=0, 1,2,..
2x
Taking initial approximation x, =3, we get
X+12 3 +12 =3.5,
2x 2(3)

-H+12_(3.5° +12 =3.4643,

2x 2(3.5)

-x} +12 (3.4643) +12 =3.4641.

2x, 2(3.4643)
From second and third iterations, it is clear that there is no change in the successive
approximations to the root upto three decimal places.
Hence J12 -3.4641.
Example 10. Apply generalized Newton-Raphson's method with x, =0.9 to check whether the
cquation r° -r-x+l=0 has adouble root or not ? Ifyes, find it upto two decimal places.
Sol. The given equation is x--r+1 =0.
Let f(x) =*--tl.
 74
PRECIZE NUMERICAL METHOU
Then f'() =3r-2x-1 and f"()
=6x- 2,
We are given that x =0.9.
f(x)=f(0.9) =0.019, f'(0.9) = -0.37 and
f"(0.9) =3.4.
Now, 2f(0) =0.9 - 2/(0.9).= 0.9 - 2(0.019)
f(x) f(0.9) -0.37 -=1.0027
and =0.9 f0.9) =0.9- -0.37)
f0.9) 3.4 =1.0088.
Since the values of expressions x 2f(xo) and
f() are almost same.
equation has a double root near 1.
The first approximation to the root is given by
2f(x%) =0.9 2(0.019).=1.0027.
f) (-0.37)
Now, f(x) = (1.0027)-(1.0027) - 1.0027 +1 =0.001
and f' ) =3 (1.0027) -2(1.0027) - 1=2.0108.
The second approximation to the root is given by

2f(1) = 1.0027 2(0.001) = 1.0017.

2.0108
From first and second iterations it is clear that there is no change in the values of r
decimal places.
Hence x = 1isthe double root of the given equation (corrected upto two decimalplaces)
Example 11. Find double root of theequation -11+36x2 -16 x - 64 =0 which ist
using four iterations of generalized Newton-Raphson's method.
Sol. The given equation is *-l1x+36-16x 64 =0.
Let f ) = x-11x'+36x -16x-64.
Then f'() = 4x-33**+ 72x - 16.
The first approximation to the root is given by

2f(o) =20-2[(3.9)* -11(3.9) +36(3.9) -16(3.9) -64)-3,9671.

f'(ro) 4(3.9) -33(3.9) +72(3.9) -16
 75
OLUTIONOF NON-LINEAR
EQUATIONS
approximation to the roottis given by
Thesecond
2f()

=3.9671
2[(3.9671)* -11(3.9671) +36(3.9671) -16(3.9671) -64]
4(3.9671)³ -333.9671)°+72(3,9671)-16
=3.9891.

The third approximation to the root is given by

2f(3)
f()

=3.9891 2[(3.9891) -11(3.9891° +36(.9891) -16(3.9891) -64]

4(3.9891° -33/3.9891) +72(3,9891)-16
=3.9964.

The fourth approximation to the root is given by

2f(*)
f'(s)
=3.9964 -
2[(3.9964)-11(3.9964) +36(3.9964)-16(3.9964)-64)
4(3.9964) -33(3.9964) +72(3.9964)-16
-3.9988.
Hence after four iterations, x =3.9988 is the double root of the given equation.

EXERCISE-2(c)

1. Uing Newton-Raphson's method, find a root of the equation x-3x-5=0 corect upto
3decimal places.
3
2. Using Newton-Raphson's method, find a root of the following equations correct upto
decimal places :
) X-cos x=0 (ii) x*+x- 80 =0 (ii) x+ logx =2
sin x =1-x
(iv) x=e
-X
(v) e= (vi)
(vii) 3x= cos x+1 (vii) c0s x= xe.
Newton-Raphson's
3. Given that equation 4e sin x-1 = 0 has a root between 0 and 0.5, use
method to find it correct to 3decimal places.
4. Find a real root of the following equations correct to 4 decimal places using
Newton-Raphson's method:
(i) x*-x-10 =0.
() +* +3x+4 =0
 76
PRECIZE
NUMERICAL
5.

6.
Find a root of x +x-7x-+5 =0 correct to 3
and 3, using Newton's method.
Ifthe equation x-4x-9 =0 has a root near 2.625,
decimal places
find it correct to
METHwhODichS liey
&

7. Finda root ofx-*-10 =0 correct to four decimal places

using
four sigrife
8 Find arecurrence formula for finding the value of Vn using Newton's methea
9.
hence compute following correct upto four decimal places:
() (i) V28 (ii)
Using Newton-Raphson's formula, find the iterative formula for
Newton-Raphson's
J12
positive integer n. Use it tofind cube root of following correct upto 3 finding the cube
28 (i) 65
Find the fifth root of 3 correct to five decimal places using
decimal place,
10.
1
Newton's method.
11. Find a recurrence formula for finding the value of using Newton-Raphson's.
Hence find following values correct upto four decimal places :

() () 15
32

12. Find the iterative formula for finding the value of for some
positive real ni
Hence evaluate the following correct to three decimal place :
1 1
() (ii)
/14 15
13. Finddouble root of the equation f (r) =x'-7x*+16x -12 = 0 near 2 using gen:
Newton-Raphson's method.
ANSWERS
1, 2.279
2. () 0.739 (i) 2.908 (i) 1.756 (iv) 0.567
() 1.857 (v) 0.511 (vi) 0.607 (viii) 0.517
3. 0.370 4. () -1.2224 (ii) 1.8555
5. 2.060 6. 2.706 7. 1.8555

8. k=0, 1, 2, ... () 4.1231 (i1) 5.2915 (iüi) 346

9. () 3.0365 4.0207
Zk+l .....
(i)

10. 1.24573
 77
OLUTIONOF
NOON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
(i) 0.0667
k=0, 1,2,.... () 0.0312
1. += x (2-nx)
k=0, 1,2, .... () 0.267 (i) 0.258
12. +

13. 2

METHODS
ocOMPARISON OF ITERATIVE
Method Iterative Formula Convergence Convergence
Order

Bisection Gain of one bit Guaranteed

1. X*;
2
x, and per iteration Convergence
X- enclose root
Guaranteed
2.False Position
Convergence

Iy and enclose root

1.62 Convergence not

3. Secant
Xk+1 guaranteed

X7 X- need not enclose

root

4. Newton-Raphson 2 Convergence
guaranteed if the
f) initial approx. is
near the root

5.Successive 1 No guarantee of
approximation convergence

11. ROOTS OF POLYNOMIAL (BIRGE-VIETA METHOD)

Newton-Raphson method to solve a polynomial equation fo) = 0 with the help of synthetic
division is called Birge-Vieta method. In this method, we find f(,) and f(*,) using synthetic
division and if x, is the nth approximation, then x, is found by the iteration formula
fE,)
f',)
Now we shall see how to find f(x,) and f'(,) using synthetic method.