ETHICS AND WHERE IT IS DERIVED IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

What is Ethics? • Ethics is a set of rules that allows us to say right

• Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally from wrong, good from the bad.
described as the empirical study of moral decisions. • Ethics can provide true, specific guidance to our
• It is a discipline concerned with what is morally lives.
good and evil, right and wrong. • Ethical principles such as fairness, trustworthiness,
• Any scheme or philosophy of universal ideas or responsibility
beliefs. • Ethics is all about decisions
• Derived from the Greek word "ethos" which may
mean tradition, habit, character, or attitude. Dr. Ann Tenbrunsel (2011) & Brazerman (Author and
Professor of ethics)
Philosophy side it involves critical thinking:
a. It explores, - identify the blind spots as the differences between
b. describes fundamental beliefs, who you want to be and who you are. Hence, most
c. describes standards, of us want to do the right thing, but internal and
d. describes ideals, external factors are in the way.
e. describes traditions,
f. considered as higher level of human discipline Ethicists - Put less emphasis on studying
philosophic principles and, instead, emphasize
Two Division of Ethics the importance of establishing good habits of
1. Normative Ethics - concerns human behavior character - needs of doing the right thing in the
in general, is to address our questions about the right place and time in the right way.
essence of human behavior.
Two fields of Normative Ethics: Moralists - Following one’s interests is not
a. Moral Philosophy - deals with moral ideas wrong.
- Nevertheless, an ethical individual must be
such as what human beings “must do or
able - at least occasionally - to place the needs
how human beings should be.” This also
of others ahead of self-interest, because of our
deals with our moral obligation, the
duty to civil society.
meaning of the act, or the purpose of the
act. VIEWS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
b. Applied Ethics (Practical Ethics) - A 1. Can determine the difference between right
philosophy that discusses strong and basic from wrong, good from bad;
moral issues linked to abortion. 2. Can eliminate actions that do not conform to
what is right;
2. Meta-ethics - A discipline that relies on 3. Will be very careful to the actions and
meaning. It is a science that is seeking to decisions to make;
address non-moral questions about morality. 4. People will not be disturb of the internal and
external factors of doing the right thing;
- Refer to questions about the nature of moral 5. Establish good habits of a character of a
statements. person;
6. Come up with rational decisions in facing an
- the purpose and significance of moral facts, ethical dilemma;
and concerns about the interpretation and 7. Makes a person responsible in the family,
justification of moral statements. school, and society;
8. Becomes sensitive to the needs of others
more than himself or herself;
9. Reminds a person to fully need conscience in HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE
decision making and a person can acknowledge FORMED
the actions made ‣ Are shaped by the beliefs of an individual
‣ Values are the basis of the capacity of an individual
THE DIFFERENCE OF MORAL AND to distinguish between right and wrong
NON-MORAL STANDARDS AND
‣ Morals build on this to form concrete,
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL
context-driven rules that regulate the action of an
STANDARDS
individual
‣ Moral Standards compel us to behave accordingly,
‣ They are formed from the experience of a person’s
although we have no right to insist on others on
life and are subject to opinion
non-moral values.
‣ Refer to the guidelines we have on the types of acts
FACTORS ON HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE
that we find to morally permissible and morally
INFLUENCED
unacceptable
1. The moral values or principles that we conform
‣ Normally promote the common good, that is, the
with, in rearing.
welfare and well-being or human beings, animals,
2. The character and manners that imbibed with us
and the environment.
by means of birthright
‣ Are a blending of norms and values
3. The religious values that our forefathers taught us
4. The values we learned from school
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL
5. The moral conduct, ways and habits of those
STANDARDS (VELASQUEZ, 2012)
people around us
1. Entail serious harm or benefit 6. The direct and implied cultural norms
2. Are not determined by authority figures 7. Our life experiences
3. Should be adopted over other values, 8. Our critical thinking in these experiences
including self-interest.
4. Are focus on objective considerations. MORAL DILEMMA
5. Are perceived and universal. ‣ a situation in which a decision-maker must give
6. Are correlated with different feelings and preference to one moral principle over another
vocabulary. ‣ occur when, confronted with a challenging situation
‣ Self-inflicted dilemma is a moral dilemma that may
Non-moral Standards - Apply the laws arise as a result of a prior personal mistake
which are not related to social or legal
considerations. These criteria are not Kurie & Albin (2007)
inherently related to morality, or by their ‣ A Moral Dilemma is a situation in which people
very definition , lack of ethical sense assume that they should morally do one thing and
a. Etiquette - a decorum, property means that they should morally do another thing.
reverence for the formal criteria governing
conduct in a civilized society. Figar & Dordevic (2016)
b. Statute - a written law passed by a ‣ A Moral Dilemma is a situation whereby a person
legislative body. has to make a decision. Among competing
c. The professional code of ethics - a set alternatives, which is the right (ethical) alternative
of guidelines intended to help practitioners and which is the best.
differentiate between right and wrong to
guide their decision-making.

LEVELS OF DILEMMAS
1. Organization Ethical or Moral Dilemma - refers to 1. Individuals have the right to choose one’s conduct
a situation that causes an organization to respond based on reason, not desire.
negatively or positively to an ethical issue. It effects: 2. Individuals have to abide by the rules that they
a. Staff, shareholders, and society follow.
b. Corporate ethics and customers 3. Individuals are independent from being limited by
c. Leaders ethical actions is preserving financial the options of others to the extent that they may
reporting integrity coexist with each other’s freedom under universal
rule.
2. Individual Moral Dilemma - it pertains to situation 4. Equality is the most among the various freedoms
where individuals confront with a number of factors and freedom is the only inherent power
such as peer pressure, personal financial position ,an The three concepts of freedom
economic and social status which may influence all a. The freedom of a human being as a member of
individual ethical standards. a state,
- Due to peer pressure, an individual engages in a b. The dignity of each person as a subject,
certain scenario in which may change their behavior c. the freedom of any member of the
and attitude. commonwealth as a resident.
5. Individuals have an autonomous right to be happy
3. Structural Moral Dilemma - selecting a proper in their own way, and the intervention of another’s
system of responsibilities and relationships, which is freedom means forcing others to be happy.
continuing universal challenge.
Four concepts in the structural moral dilemmas KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON MORALITY
1. Differentiation vs Integration • Kant based his ethical philosophy on the idea that
2. Gap vs Overlap reason should be used to decide how people will
3. Lack of clarity vs Lack of creativity behave
4. Excessive Autonomy vs Excessive Interdependence • He did not attempt to recommend concrete action
but advised that reason should be used to decide
KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM how to behave.
Immanuel kant - “Regarded as the greatest
philosopher of the modern period.” 5 Philosophy on Morality:
1. Good Will and Duty
Freedom - The right to control one’s actions based • Good will is a common moral concept that openly
on reason, not desire. All of this can be simplified to wishes to use certain virtues for moral purposes.
the definition of autonomy. • A Good will which acts out of obligation can be
‣ Autonomy - derives from the Greek term - described as a will which overcomes barriers to the
(Self-legislator) preservation of moral law.
‣ Principle - is not to live by the animalistic rules • Actions committed concerning obligation have
forced on them from birth, but rather to live by the moral meaning, special respect is granted to acts
laws that you enforce on yourself performed out of duty.
‣ Freedom - (independence from being limited by
the option of another) to the degree that it can 2. Perfect and Imperfect Duties
coexist with the freedom of each other following The perfect duty is always true
universal law. a. Perfect Duty to oneself: Duty not to commit
suicide
b. Perfect Duty to others: Duty not to make a lying
promise to others
Emphasis on Kant’s Philosophy of Freedom
Perfect Duties - duties that we are all obliged to Maxim - the principle that you follow when you
meet every time choose to act the way you do.
e.g. do not kill innocent people For Example: If you decided to cheat on your ethics
e.g. keep all of your promises exam, your Maxim might be; “I will cheat on my
exams so that I will be able to graduate this year.”
Imperfect duty requires flexibility Note:
a. Imperfect duty to oneself: Duty to develop one’s • The Maxim is not rational (reasonable)
talent • The Maxim may also be unethical because it causes
b. Imperfect duty to others: Duty of Benificence an inconsistency
(Kindness)
5. Humanity as an end in itself
Imperfect Duties - duties that we should sometimes • The second interpretation of Kant's Categorical
fulfill, but are not required to do all the time. Imperative is to view life as an end in itself: "Act in
e.g. be charitable such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your
e.g. cultivate yourself own person or in the person of another, always at
the same time as an end and never simply as a
3. Categorical Imperative means."
• Categorical imperative - command unconditionally. • Rational beings should never be viewed simply as a
Irrespective of our wishes or desires, a categorical means to ends; they must also be viewed as ends
imperative binds us as everyone has a responsibility themselves, demanding equal regard for their own
not to lie. logical motives.
• Hypothetical Imperative - one that we must fulfill
if we are to satisfy our desires or command TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES - regulated primarily
conditionally on your having a relevant desire. by the Constitution of the Philippines and the three
Republic Acts.
Categorical VS Hypothetical (1) Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the
• The Categorical Imperative is to act for the sake of Constitution provides that “the rules for taxation
duty only. shall be uniform and equal” and that “a democratic
system of taxation shall be established by the
• Whereas the hypothetical imperative is acting in congress.”
order to receive some kind of reward (2) National law National Internal Revenue Code -
• Kant argues that the categorical imperative is the enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the Tax Reform
only good way to act. Act of 1997 and subsequent laws amending it; most
• For example one should help an old lady across the recently, the Law of the Republic No. 10963 or the
road simply because it is a good thing to do, not Law on Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion
because it will make you feel good. was amended
• Even if a good act makes you feel good, this is not a (3) Local Laws: the major sources of revenue for local
reward, it is a bonus according to kant. government units (LGUs) are taxes imposed under
the Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local Government
4. Universalizability Code of 1991 and those imposed on revenues levied
• When anyone acts, it's a maxim, or a principle. For under state law
Kant, an act is only permissible if one can have the (4) Taxes levied at national level are collected by the
principle that allows an action to be the universal Office of Internal Revenue (BIR), whereas those
law by which everybody acts. levied at local level (i.e. provincial, city, municipal,
and barangay) are collected by the Office of Internal
Revenue (BIR)
1987 Philippine Constitution - “the rules of taxation CULTURAL RELATIVISM
shall be uniform and equal” • Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a
society by our own criteria of what is right or wrong,
odd or natural.
LawDictionary.com (2015) - “Uniformity in taxation • Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a
means equity in the burden of taxation, which can culture on its own terms and not to make
not occur without uniformity in the mode of conclusions based on the norms of one's own
assessment as well as in the rate of taxation. It must community.
• Cultural relativism is any opinion on ethics is
also be applied to all property subject to taxation so subject to the perspective of each person within
that all property can be taxed alike and equally.” their particular culture.

‣ An individual should pay an income tax based on his Summary:

1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society
or her salary’ received with a certain percentage and by their standards in the principle of
the property can be taxed according to assessed right or wrong, eccentric or natural.
value and rates of the property
2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.
‣ An individual as well can be taxed based on his or 3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our
her capacity to pay taxes. knowledge and interpretation of the
practices and cultural traditions that are not part of
our culture and that not
‣ The government cannot force an individual to pay
uncommon to other cultures.
taxes without a job or no house owned. Though it is
mandatory under the law. It is only applicable who 4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims
has income and properties respectively. the idea of no objective universal
moral rules that would apply to every culture and it
varies depending on the culture of
CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE the society.
1. The Filipino people are very resilient
2. Filipinos take pride in their families Islam, for instance, to marry five times are allowed
as long as the man is capable to support them.
3. Filipinos are very religious
4. Filipinos are very respectful Christianity, it is punishable by the law if any man or
5. Filipinos help one another. woman are married twice as it is bigamous (Article
6. Filipinos value traditions and culture. 349 of the Revised Penal Code)
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
8. Filipinos love art and architecture. Second marriage will be void from the very
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people. beginning if the first marriage is valid (Article 35 of
the Family Code)
WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CULTURE “The moral standards of every society differ from the
1. Extreme Personalism other and for that reason, any culture should be
2. Extreme Family Centeredness respected by anyone.”
3. Lack of Discipline
PROS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative 1. It creates learning opportunities that could make
5. Colonial Mentality humanity stronger.
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome 2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal
3. It creates a system of niche expertise
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection 4. It encourages respect
CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL 3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life
RELATIVISM 4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting
1. There will be actions taken that would be defined life
by some as “violent”, “unsafe”, or “wrong.” 5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence;
2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect. curiosity; choosing your own goals
3. It creates a personal bias. 6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social
4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be justice; equality; a world at peace; a world of beauty;
a good thing unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner
harmony.
THE BENEFIT OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM 7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness;
• Make the relationships of the people of the loyalty; responsibility; friendship.
societies strong and unified. 8. Tradition: accepting one’s portion in life; humility;
• Do the actions that will not be offended to them
• Respect and acknowledge every society’s beliefs, devoutness; respect for tradition; moderation.
traditions, and customs to live peacefully and happy. 9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience.
10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national
UNIVERSAL VALUE security; stability of social order; reciprocation of
“value” - something that a person or a group favours; health; sense of belonging.
believes has a value that merits being sought,
promoted, or privileged. HISTORY OF THE UN CHARTER OF UNIVERSAL
VALUES
This can be a: Secretary-General Kofi Annan
a. Thing (money, food, art) Global Ethics - “Do we still have universal values?”.
b. State of Mind (peace, protection, certainty)
c. Behavior (protecting innocent people, telling the “The values of peace, freedom, social progress,
truth, being creative) equal rights and human dignity, enshrined in the
charter of the United Nations in the Universal
• Universal Values can be understood in two ways. Declaration of Human Rights, are no less valid today
First, it could be that something has universal values than when, over half a century ago, those
because everyone finds it important. documents were drafted by representatives of many
Second, it could have universal value when all people different nations and cultures.”
have reason to believe it has value.
“All states reaffirmed certain fundamental values as
• Universal Value is a concept that it is not obvious being essentials to international relations in the
to define because a principle is connected with twenty-first century”: freedom, equality, solidarity,
morality or ethics. tolerance, respect for nature and shared
responsibility.”
• Universal Values need to be socially expressed.
• Shalom H. Schwartz described ‘values’ as The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Section
‘conceptions of what is important that affect the way 11 provides, “The state recognizes the dignity of
people choose action and evaluate events. every human person and guaranteed respect for
human rights.” This implies that any person in
SCHWATZ’S TEN TYPES OF UNIVERSAL VALUE: whatever capacity, economic and social status, rich
1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social or poor, educated or uneducated deserves to be
power, wealth. respected by anyone.
2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition;
influence; intelligence; self-respect.
HUMAN DIGNITY ‣ Hiya or Kahihiyan - sense of shame is another
‣ Dignity - The state or quality of being worthy of Filipino values
honor or respect. “A man of dignity and unbending a. “HIya” may be observed to Filipinos in accepting
principle” the food that are offered to them
‣ Dignity - earned and cannot be taken away from b. They also feel “hiya” in approaching higher
anyone. It must be preserved so that the respect of authorities like school principal, teachers/professors,
other is maintained. deans, and executives.
c. “Kahihiyan” may be observed in Filipino families.
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTERS: STRENGTHS AND They try to avoid doing things that may dishonor
WEAKNESSES their family’s name and reputation
• Filipino cultural morality especially that which
concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a ‣ Amor Propio’ is derived from the concept face.
“smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR)” with
others.
•”Smooth Interpersonal Relationship” (Philippine ‣ Commonly translated as self-respect or
Culture) - principally supported by and anchored on self-esteem, it has been characterized as the high
the following Filipino values and Filipino traits and degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant
values.
to criticism and causes him to have an easily
Filipino Values wounded pride.
‣ Values are those aspects in life that include
customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as ‣ “Amor Propio” comes from the person’s tendency
necessary and important in their dealings with one to protect his or her dignity and honor
another
‣ The Filipino Value System or Filipino values refers Filipino Traits
to the set of values that a majority of the Filipino ‣ Trait - a distinguishing feature or character of a
have historically held important in their lives. person or a group of people

‣ Hospitality - One of the common traits among

Filipino Values: Filipino, or keeping the strangers feel warm and
‣ Pakikisama - or sense of togetherness. It refers to welcome.
doing somebody a good deed, such as helping a ‣ Filipinos are known by other nations through this
relative or neighbor build a house without asking for trait because they really make an effort to welcome
compensation, or helping someone looking for a job. their guests.
Helping other people even in small little ways may
show “pakikisama.” (school & office) ‣ Family - the unit of society and consists, at least
very recent times, of the parent, grandparents, and
‣ Utang na loob - dept or gratitude is very important the children.
to Filipinos. It is recognizing and returning the favor
to that person in the same measure who help them ‣ FIlipinos are also known for having close family
in times of need. ties.
Filipinos may have “utang na loob” if other people
help them during sickness, medication, sending their ‣ As much as possible, they want to live in a house
children to school, finding a job, or they were saved together with their grandparents, parents, children,
in a life threatening situation. and grandchildren.
‣ Respect for the elders - is also observed to the Virtue’s two distinct of human excellences
Filipinos. They obey elderly and consider their 1. Excellences of thoughts
suggestions in major life decisions. 2. Excellences of character

‣ Pakikipagkapwa-tao - these values are important to Virtue - is a character trait that is socially valued.
maintain harmony in Filipino relationships in social
institutions such as family, school, and community. Aristotle considered goodness of character as a
product of the practice of virtuous behavior.
‣ Filipino’s ability to empathize with others, in ‣ Virtues are tendencies to act, to feel, and judge,
helpfulness and generosity in times of need tendencies which are developed from natural
(pakikiramay), in the patience of bayanihan or capacity through proper training and exercise.
mutual assistance and in the famous Filipino ‣ Virtue depend on “clear judgement, self-control,
hospitality. symmetry of desire, and artistry of means”

‣ “Pakikipagkapwa-tao” also promotes in “Doctrine of the Mean” - is a principle that suggests

camaraderie and a feeling of closeness to one that a moral behavior is one that is in the middle of
another two extremes.

MORAL CHARACTER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS

Moral Character - refers to the existence or lack of Dispositions - are particular kinds of properties or
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, characteristics that objects can posses
and loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good
moral character means that he/she is a good person Examples of dispositions:
and a good citizen with a sound moral compass. a. The solubility of a sugar-cube in water,
b. The fragility of porcelain,
Development of moral character can be explained by c. The elasticity of a rubber band,
the following approaches: d. The magnetism of Iodestones
a. virtues,
b. disposition, Moral character traits are those dispositions of
c. circular relations of acts character for which it is appropriate to hold agents
d. Character, and theoretical perspectives. morally responsible.
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES a. Virtue (morality) - a trait deserving of a positive
“CHARACTER” - comes from the ancient greek term reactive attitude, such as praise or gratitude,
charakter, which initially referred to the mark b. Vice (immorality) - a trait deserving of a negative
impressed upon a coin. reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame.

In contemporary usage - “character” refers to a set THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER
of qualities or characteristics that can be used to 1. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person
differentiate between persons. • Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least)
three different ways: by habit, by education, and by
In philosophy - “character” is typically used to refer habitus.
to the particularly moral dimension of a person. a. By Habit - When an action is constantly
repeated, over time.
Virtue Ethics - represents the concept that b. By Education - Actions become skills through
individual’s actions are based upon inner moral repetition and experience.
virtue.
 c. By Habitus - Willingness to respond charitably Level 2: Conventional Level
to anyone in need as the situation arises. ‣ Conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from
2. The Type of Action self-interest to relationships with other people and
‣ Because human beings are body/soul unities, social systems.
actions of the body are actions of the self. Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation
‣ Acts of a human - (actus humans) ‣ Behavior is determined by social approval.
‣ Human acts - (actus humanis) The individual wants to maintain or win the affection
‣ Human acts - rational acts and are more closely and approval of others by being a “good person.”
associated with character than are acts of human Stage 4: Law and order orientation
beings. ‣ Social rules and laws determine behavior.
Example: The individual believes that rules and laws maintain
Human Acts - Laughing at funny things is a social order that is worth preserving.
moral act
Acts of human being - Laughing because Level 3: Postconventional or Principled level
one is being tickled. ‣ The individual moves beyond the perspective of his
or her own society. Morality is defined in terms of
3. Intention and Responsibility abstract principles and values that apply to all
• Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of situations and societies.
action are responsibility and intention. Human Stage 5: Social contract orientation
beings own their actions and the consequences of ‣ Individual rights determine behavior. The
them. individual view laws and rules as flexible tools for
• Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will, improving human purposes.
which is the source of the self-possession and Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
self-governance of human beings. ‣ The highest stage of functioning. At this
‣ One can be prevented from doing something by stage, the appropriate action is determined by one’s
external forces, but carrying through with an action self-chosen ethical principles of conscience.
has an element of the voluntary, of willing to do it
and therefore cannot be forced.
‣ Another way the will can be hindered is by lack
of knowledge

SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: Preconventional level
‣ Morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid
punishment or receive rewards.
Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience orientation
‣ Behavior is determined by consequences.
The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
‣ Behavior is determined again by
consequences. The individual focuses on receiving
rewards or satisfying personal needs.