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IJMPB
14,1 Researching navigation of project
complexity using action
design research
108 Mogens Frank Mikkelsen
TIME, IT-Universitetet i Kobenhavn, Kobenhavn, Denmark
Received 1 February 2020
Revised 30 May 2020 John Venable
31 August 2020
17 October 2020
Curtin University, Perth, Australia, and
Accepted 27 October 2020 Kirsi Aaltonen
Industrial Engineering and Management, Teknillinen Tiedekunta, Oulun Yliopisto,
Oulu, Finland

Abstract
Purpose – Project complexity is becoming increasingly challenging for project managers. Much valuable
research has been done on the concept of project complexity. The research reported in this paper aims to
provide a new means (the “Complexity Navigation Window”) and guiding principles for the navigation of
project complexity in practice.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper applied action design research (a methodology for design
science research) to design and evaluate the Complexity Navigation Window (CNW), which will serve as a
representation of project complexity as a key component of the user interface for a decision support system
(DSS) for managing project complexity.
Findings – Formative evaluations of the CNW by 16 project management practitioners indicated that the
artefact is relevant, comprehensible and heading in a promising direction to guide decision-making. The
evaluation also highlighted project managers’ difficulty in using the (conceptual) representation by itself to
assess a project’s current situation accurately, which in turn limits their ability to understand a project’s current
complexity and decide an appropriate course of strategy. A conceptual framework by itself is insufficient. This
finding motivates further research to develop and evaluate a DSS that would partially automate the assessment
process (by surveying stakeholders and automatically assessing and representing project complexity
according to the CNW), which should aid in increasing the accuracy (and timeliness) of project complexity
assessments and contribute to appropriate strategy formulation and timely revision.
Practical implications – The formative evaluation of the CNW indicates relevance for practitioners and the
further features of the DSS may still yield even higher perceived utility from the full artefact.
Originality/value – The paper provides improved understanding of practitioners’ perceptions of project
complexity and ability to assess it for a given project. The paper describes the design of a new visualisation for
navigating and managing complexity. The paper further presents four strategies for managing project
complexity. Finally, the paper also provides a methodological discussion on the potential of ADR in advancing
project management research.
Keywords Project complexity, Navigation principles, Project complexity management strategies, Design
science research, Action design research, Evaluation strategy
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Projects, as temporary constellations of various stakeholders with diverging and changing
goals and requirements, are inherently complex (Geraldi and S€oderlund, 2016; S€oderlund,
2004). Developing understanding of the different facets of project complexity has therefore
International Journal of Managing
Projects in Business been embedded implicitly on the research agenda of project scholars ever since project
Vol. 14 No. 1, 2021
pp. 108-130
management began as a research field. The early days of project management research
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1753-8378
developed “best practice” guidelines (Geraldi and S€oderlund, 2018), but there was not then an
DOI 10.1108/IJMPB-02-2020-0040 adequate theoretical basis concerning complexity and its management on which to draw.
Following Kant, Geraldi and S€oderlund (2018) recommend achieving a balance of theoretical Researching
and practical outcomes, in which theory informs practice and practice motivates theory. navigation of
Unlike many areas of project management, conceptual (rather than practical) advances
have dominated the study of project complexity (Baccarini, 1996; Geraldi et al., 2011; Thomas
project
and Mengel, 2008; Vidal and Marle, 2008; Williams, 2005). Dealing practically with complexity
complexity remains an under-researched and daunting task for practitioners. Geraldi et al.
(2011) explicitly called for research to transform theoretical understanding into practical
means to respond to, shape and navigate project complexity. Research to develop theory- 109
informed approaches to manage complexity is, however, inherently difficult, since
“Complexity resides as much in the eye of the beholder as it does in the structure and
behavior of a system itself” (Schlindwein and Ison, 2004).
To address these issues, the present paper follows the logic of design science research
(DSR) (Hevner et al., 2004). DSR has been defined as “Research that invents a new purposeful
artefact to address a generalised type of problem and evaluates its utility for solving
problems of that type” (Venable and Baskerville, 2012, p. 142). The DSR is under-represented
in project management research – or at least rarely acknowledged. Recently, (Geraldi and
S€oderlund, 2018) classified project management research into three kinds, (1) traditional
positivist research, (2) interpretative research and (3) emancipatory (also known as “critical”)
research. While they assert that traditional positivist research “has its main interest on
‘solving the problems’ of project organising and increase its efficiency and effectiveness”, it
attempts to do so “through better understanding of causal relationships surrounding
projects”. However, such understanding does not by itself solve problems. Solving problems
requires having the means to do so, which, in the absence of having existing means at hand,
requires designing and developing (new) means to solve the problem, which is the express
goal of DSR. Amongst the different methods for conducting DSR, the research reported in this
paper employs the action design research (ADR) methodology (Sein et al., 2011), which
combines DSR with action research (AR)(Avison et al., 1999; Baskerville and Wood-Harper,
1996; Iivari and Venable, 2009) so that DSR researchers work together with practitioner
clients for mutual benefit.
Following DSR, the present paper engages with the practically relevant, real-life problem
of how to manage and navigate project complexity. To do so, the paper attempts to develop a
new, theoretically informed and practical solution to this problem. In this manner we are
responding to the call by Geraldi et al. (2011, p. 986) advocating that “It is vital that this
research begins its own paradigm shift and builds on a common language that moves the
debate from defining complexity and its characteristics to developing responses to project
complexities. Maybe then, we can help practitioners and their organizations to manage
complexity, instead of creating an even more complex (and complicated) reality.” Thus, the
paper seeks to start bridging the gap between and integrating practical and theoretical
knowledge on project complexity.
The paper further seeks to heed the call of S€oderlund (2011) – “To aid the world of practice,
project management scholars would arguably have to provide solutions on how best to
design structures which correspond to many challenges facing present-day projects, so that
the relevant processes are initiated to take projects to fruition – be that behavioural, social or
technical processes.” In line with S€oderlund’s call, this paper focusses on developing a
practical solution to aid practicing project managers in managing project complexity.
Importantly, while prior empirical literature on the management of complexity focussed
on the structural elements and characteristics of project complexity (e.g. number of tasks and
their interdependencies), the emphasis in the present paper is particularly on project-
stakeholder-related complexity, which is caused by the multiplicity, variety of goals,
equivocality and change dynamics that actors may induce in projects. This is highly relevant,
as practitioners of project management constantly report that “multiple stakeholders” and
IJMPB complex organisational arrangements are the most important characteristic of project
14,1 complexity (Cooke-Davies, 2013). Multiple stakeholders lead to complexity particularly when
their goals and interests diverge. The resulting power struggles, conflicting coalitions,
resistance and the like need to be taken into account when making project decisions in order
to create value for stakeholders and make a project feasible (Lehtinen et al., 2019). This is not
only crucial during the project’s initiation and planning stages, but highly relevant
throughout the entire project life cycle (Aaltonen and Kujala, 2016). This suggests that
110 designing, constructing and deploying a decision support system (DSS) for monitoring,
navigating and managing the project-stakeholder-related complexity arising from multiple,
unaligned stakeholders has strong potential for improving the handling of project
complexity.
The specific focus of this paper is on one of the biggest design challenges of designing a
DSS: the design of a representation (Sprague and Carlson, 1982), in this case for visualising
and navigating project complexity, which is a key aspect of the user interface for such a
system. Navigation design for decision support in handling project complexity arising from
the complex stakeholder set-up is the focus of this paper. While not addressing other system
design issues, this paper takes a small step towards closing the gap between what science
knows about complex project stakeholder constellations and what practitioners need by
addressing the following research question: How can the complexity of a given project be
represented to facilitate the navigation and management of that project?
In this paper, navigation is used as a metaphor for guiding project managers in taking action
to deal with complexity. In classical navigation, there are two important activities. The first is to
locate where you are. Your understanding of where you are also needs to be regularly updated
as you move along. The second activity is planning how to get where you want to go from
where you are. This may require re-planning as actions taken to move towards your destination
may not get you precisely where you thought you would be at any time. Navigation can be used
as a metaphor to guide decision-making and action-taking in many domains. In the case of
dealing with complexity in project management, one needs to have a way of determining the
situation (with respect to project stakeholder complexity) before deciding on an appropriate
way to move towards the goal state (of a successful project).
While the present study makes its primary contribution to project complexity
management research, it also introduces and offers guidance on how to utilize DSR
(Hevner et al., 2004) in project studies. Although well established in the research fields of
management and information systems, DSR has had limited utilization in project
management to date. In our view, DSR as a problem-solving approach is a promising
means to address project complexity and other project phenomena, and offers opportunities
for developing knowledge on projects and reconciling the sometimes differing knowledge
interests of practitioners and academics.
Based on the DSR publication schema from (Gregor and Hevner, 2013), the remainder of
this paper is structured as follows: (2) Theoretical background, (3) Research methodology,
(4) Artefact description, (5) Evaluation, (6) Discussion and (7) Conclusion.

2. Theoretical background
2.1 Overall view of project complexity
An early definition of project complexity defined it as “consisting of many varied interrelated
parts” (Baccarini, 1996). Williams (1999) termed this “structural complexity” and argued for
adding uncertainty as a second dimension. Other researchers added other dimensions.
A systematic review in 2011 argued that project complexity now consisted of five dimensions:
Structural complexity, Uncertainty, Dynamic, Pace and Socio-political (Geraldi et al., 2011).
A recent systematic review showed further development and expanded the understanding of
project complexity to eight dimensions: Structural complexity, Uncertainty, Emergence, Researching
Autonomy, Connectivity, Diversity, Socio-political and Elements of context (Bakhshi et al., navigation of
2016). The diversification of dimensions unfolding the project complexity is however only one
approach to research, as (Floricel et al., 2016) argue for a differentiation into structural
project
complexity, dynamic complexity and representational complexity, the latter resulting from complexity
the inability of actors and organisations to represent the reality and its dynamics. From a
meta-perspective, Mikkelsen (2020) identified five ideal types of research in project
complexity: (1) Positivistic modelling, (2) Complexity theory, (3) Ontological framework, 111
(4) Managerial framework and (5) Emancipative investigation. Each ideal type has a unique
relationship with the perception of project success demonstrating fundamental differences
within research on project complexity.
Amongst the many perspectives on project complexity, this paper adheres to the following
definition “Project complexity is the property of a project which makes it difficult to
understand, foresee and keep under control its overall behaviour, even when given
reasonably complete information about the project system. Its drivers are factors related to
project size, project variety, project interdependence” (Vidal et al., 2011, p. 719).

2.2 Project stakeholder complexity

Stakeholders can act as sources of project complexity through creating both unpredictability
and diversity in a project system (Mok et al., 2017; Ramasesh and Browning, 2014; Aaltonen
and Kujala, 2016). Particularly the early stages of projects are typically characterised by
ambiguous, fluctuating and unexpected stakeholder requirements as the overall project goals
are formulated and negotiated with the stakeholders (Kolltveit and Grønhaug, 2004). Here,
individual stakeholders seek to stabilize their position and goals in the project network and to
maximize value creation in terms of how their own objectives relate to shifting project-level
objectives (DeFillippi and Sydow, 2016), which may further increase the complexity of the
project.
In addition to the potential unpredictability and dynamics of stakeholders’ goals and
behaviours, diversity of project stakeholders’ requirements is also a key issue in complex
projects (Ramasesh and Browning, 2014; Aaltonen and Kujala, 2016). The more stakeholders
there are with conflicting requirements and needs, the more challenging it becomes for the
managers to include, balance and act upon the differing views, whereas having a set-up with
aligned stakeholder requirements would provide a more manageable project complexity
landscape (Ramasesh and Browning, 2014).
The presence of multiple project stakeholders often leads to disagreements, which is a
dimension in the so-called Stacey matrix. According to Zimmerman et al. (1998), the Stacey
matrix depicts the level of complexity based on two dimensions: (1) degree of certainty (close
to certainty as opposed to far from certainty) and (2) level of agreement (close to agreement as
opposed to far from agreement). Furthermore, the higher the degree of diversity and
unpredictability with regard to project stakeholders and their requirements, the more
challenging it also becomes for project managers to interpret, analyse and act upon the
project stakeholder environment (Aaltonen, 2011). To address this challenge, different types
of tools that would support visualising information on the status of the project and
stakeholders’ requirements have been called for, as they could facilitate the appropriate
management of stakeholder complexity (Aaltonen and Kujala, 2016).

2.3 The system-of-systems perspective

One fundamental characterisation of complexity differentiates complicated versus complex
projects(Remington, 2016) and (Kiridena and Sense, 2016). A complicated system,
e.g. a project (and the future in general), can be analysed based on past experiences. The
IJMPB complex system view presumes that projects as systems are by and large unpredictable. A
14,1 similar dichotomy is found in (Daniel and Daniel, 2018), here labelled regulated versus
emerging system properties. The logic of the first is linear where the system is the sum of its
parts. The logic of the second flips to emergence, where the system cannot be expressed by
the sum of its parts. The combined perspective of systems is referred to as system-of-systems
(SoS). The unique affordance of SoS theory is the changing system properties going from one
type of system to another, where the intention is “gaining a better understanding of the range
112 of complexity types” (Ireland et al., 2012, p. 248). SoS is identified as one amongst three
schools of thought in project complexity by Bakhshi et al. (2016), the two others being the
PMI-view (with reference to Project Management Institute) and the complexity theory
perspective. As an example of the SoS perspective, Bakhshi et al. (2016) point to the Cynefin
framework (Snowden and Boone, 2007). The Cynefin framework is gaining interest in
research literature and can support project decision-making (Basha, 2017), including portfolio
management (Shalbafan et al., 2018). Cynefin is seen as a potentially important new tool for
project managers (Vollmar et al., 2017) and is found in several more recent handbooks, like
(Hermano and Martın-Cruz, 2019), (Pirozzi, 2018) and (AXELOS, 2015).
As shown in Figure 1, the Cynefin framework outlines five system domains, called
obvious, complicated, complex, chaotic and disorder (each described below). In Figure 1, the
original wording “simple” has been changed to “obvious” according to the latest development
of the framework (Mikkelsen, 2018). A central feature of this framework is that a different
leadership approach is needed depending on whatkind of system domain (e.g. in our case, a
particular project system) is at hand.
(1) In the Obvious domain, systems are causal, the cause and effect are obvious to all, and
there exists a best practice to follow.
(2) In the Complicated domain, there are also direct connections between cause and effect
in the systems, but analysis is needed to reveal the causality. More options are
available, and they are multifaceted. Therefore, there is no single right answer.
(3) In the Complex domain, the cause and effect in the systems are loosely coupled, and
they can only be seen in hindsight. This suggests emergent practice, where we
discover useable paths as we progress.
(4) In the Chaotic domain, the systems, according to the Cynefin framework’s use of the
term chaotic, are random. Here, the things we do cannot be based on experience since
everything is random.
(5) The Disorder domain is for when you do not know to which of the other four domains
the situation belongs (Snowden and Boone, 2007).

3. Research methodology
When a research question asks “how can”, the research endeavour often becomes a matter of
design. The nature of this paper’s research question focusses on creating a new purposeful
artefact to address a general problem. DSR (Hevner et al., 2004) is exactly suited to this.
DSR has largely been developed in information systems research. However the approach
is applicable in all applied disciplines, including business and management (Venable, 2010).
For example, it has been applied in management studies by such researchers as van Aken
(van Aken, 2004, 2005) and Romme (Romme, 2003; Romme and Endenberg, 2006). DSR
projects typically undertake four main activities: problem diagnosis, purposeful artefact
invention, purposeful artefact evaluation and design theorising (cf. Venable, 2006).
 Researching
navigation of
project
complexity

113

Figure 1.
Cynefin framework
(adopted from
Mikkelsen, 2018)
IJMPB In DSR, a research opportunity arises in the environment (Hevner, 2007), e.g. a problem
14,1 occurring in business practice. We found our problem amongst project managers, who
struggle with handling project complexity. The end goal of this research is to develop an IS
artefact as a DSS that would support project managers to navigate complexity by providing a
way to identify where they are (the current situation) with respect to project complexity and
then to take appropriate action to move towards a desired destination (a situation that is less
complex and therefore more easily manageable).
114 Sprague and Carlson (1982) proposed the Representation, Operations, Memory Aids and
Control Mechanisms design approach to guide developers of DSS. This paper reports on the
design of the problem representation for the interface for such a DSS. Considerations for how
to collect and ensure the quality of data to be used in representing the problem will come later.
Gregor and Hevner (2013) describe a contribution matrix to highlight the kind of
contribution made by different kinds of DSR. Their matrix has two dimensions. Solution
maturity (high vs low) describes whether the technology proposed (in this case, DSS) is one
where knowledge is well-developed and well-established. Domain maturity (also high vs low)
concerns whether the domain of application of the technology (in this case management of
project complexity) is matured. The research reported in this paper can be classified as
“exaptation” since the solution maturity (DSS) is high, but the domain maturity (project
complexity management) is low. In other words, a relatively established technology (or
approach) is adapted from more commonly applied domains to a new or relatively immature
domain. This paper covers the design and evaluation of a representation of the problem space
(to aid in understanding where the project is with respect to complexity), which is a
conceptual artefact to be included in the user interface to support navigation within a DSS
context.
There are multiple, disparate DSR methodologies available to guide DSR researchers. For
a particular DSR project, a specific DSR methodology (or combination of methodologies) must
be chosen. Venable et al. (2017) propose a method for choosing amongst six different DSR
methodologies, which distils technological rules for making the choice. Because project
managers have different decision-making styles, tool support needs, and subjective opinions
and preferences concerning representations of the complexity of a project, the top-level
technical rule in Venable et al. (2017) recommends choosing a DSR methodology that is
subjectivist and interpretive. Furthermore, following the secondary level of technological
rules, because the research has a small group of clients that want to engage in the research, we
chose ADR (Sein et al., 2011) as the DSR methodology for this research.
ADR is a research method and approach that combines DSR with AR. (Avison et al., 1999;
Baskerville and Wood-Harper, 1996; Iivari and Venable, 2009). In ADR, like in AR (Avison
et al., 1999) more generally, the researchers work together with one or more clients to both
(1) solve the clients’ (or participating research practitioner) problem (which motivates the
client to participate in the research and provide access to their organisation) and (2) develop
new knowledge. While it is possible for clients to pay for the research, that is not the case for
this particular research project. In the case of ADR, the new knowledge is about a new
purposeful artefact and its utility for achieving its purpose. ADR has four activities and seven
principles, as shown in Figure 2 below.
In accordance with ADR Principle 1, the research was very much practice-inspired and the
heavy involvement of multiple practicing project managers at the problem formulation stage
helped ensure a clear understanding of the relevant problem from the various practitioners’
points of view. The interactions were conducted as semi-structured workshops with 16
experienced project managers from 15 different companies, who responded to an open
invitation to contribute research by participation in educational workshops. In accordance
with ADR Principle 2, the design of the purposeful artefact (in this case the representation of
the current situation’s complexity) was based on literature on project complexity and
 Researching
navigation of
project
complexity

115

Figure 2.
Action design research
activities and
principles (Sein
et al., 2011)

complexity frameworks in general. How these translated into the artefact design is described
in Section 4.1.
Similarly, ADR Principles 3, 4, 5 and 6 guided the artefact design and evaluation process,
with multiple Build, Intervene, Evaluate (BIE) cycles and reflection by the participants (both
researchers and clients) to guide the emergence of the artefact design from the BIE cycles. In
practice this was conducted on and in between the workshop described in a later section.
In addition to ADR, the Framework for Evaluation in Design Science (FEDS) (Venable
et al., 2016) was applied to guide the design of the evaluation components of this research. The
purposeful artefact developed in this research (a conceptual framework and visual
representation for a DSS) is heavily socio-technical, i.e. there will likely be different
subjective perceptions of its clarity and utility for supporting detailed understanding of the
complexity of the current project situation and careful use to decide a course of action. FEDS
recommends using the human risk and effectiveness (HRE) evaluation strategy for such a
DSR project. The HRE strategy recommends quickly putting prototypes into the hands of
practitioners as realistically as possible, in order to evaluate the subjective individual and
organisational feasibility of the purposeful artefact, before investing heavily in detailed
development. As will be described in Section 5, this strategy therefore seeks early formative
usability evaluations and a quick transition to more naturalistic (with real users, on real
problem situations and a real or at least realistic artefact), rather than artificial, evaluations.
Naturalistic evaluations better support evaluation of effectiveness (in real situations) rather
than efficacy.

4. Designing an artefact for navigating a project’s complexity

This section concerns the ADR Principle 2 of “Theory-ingrained artefact”, e.g. the thinking
process leading to the chosen design, which we call the “Complexity Navigation
Window” (CNW).
A theory-ingrained artefact needs to find a good balance between science and technology,
where the goal of science is to grow the descriptive knowledge and goals of technology are to
grow the prescriptive knowledge base of purposefully designed artefacts to improve human
capabilities (e.g. decision-making) (Baskerville et al., 2018).
The purposeful artefact being developed in this research helps to improve the interaction
between descriptive and prescriptive knowledge, and thereby aid project management
IJMPB practitioners in handling project complexity. The design is based on the SoSs view of project
14,1 complexity described earlier, since the models of this school of thought entail guiding
principles for strategy, which can be adapted for project managers to navigate project
complexity.
A 2 3 2 matrix is often used in research on project complexity to categorize entire projects
into different complexity classes. One recent example is (Floricel et al., 2018), which focusses
on classifying projects based on their complexity. However, projects often change
116 significantly over their life, and project managers need to respond to the current situation.
Therefore, a situational framework, like the Cynefin framework, is more relevant for helping
project managers and decisions-makers navigate the complexity of a given project.
The CNW is a key piece in a larger picture of a DSS to help handle the management of
complex projects. The overall system is expected to operate on two levels. The lower level is
where the various parts of a single project are positioned and distributed over the four
windows (described below). The higher-level compares and balances a project in one position
in the window against other projects’ positions, which would enable the system to be used on
the portfolio level as well. The data input for the DSS (not discussed in this paper) will be
about internal and external stakeholders’ perceptions of the given project or portfolio of
projects.

4.1 Design of the Complexity Navigation Window

The design of the CNW was inspired by the Cynefin framework (Snowden and Boone, 2007).
In practice, projects with their sub-projects are often spread across the Cynefin framework’s
Complex and Complicated domains with some ventures into the chaotic. Only projects
including many replicated tasks, project teams, processes and a stable project environment
may have a significant fraction in the obvious domain. As demonstrated by the literature
search, the practical aspect of project complexity is very much about different opinions of
multiple stakeholders, political conditions, ambiguity and uncertainty of goals, hence for
projects the 5th domain, “disorder”, is much more commonplace than it appears in the
description of the Cynefin framework (Snowden and Boone, 2007). A key insight, supporting
the design of the CNW, was the realisation that the 5th Cynefin domain (disorder)
corresponds to the disagreement amongst stakeholders mentioned earlier since the
confrontation with opposite views (disagreements) often leads to a state of not-knowing
for project decision-makers and managers. Furthermore, the order–disorder dichotomy in
Cynefin corresponds to the two levels of uncertainty, also labelled “regulation–emergence” in
(Daniel and Daniel, 2018). These two insights were central to designing the complexity
visualisation artefact. The resulting design of the project complexity navigation artefact is
shown in Figure 3. The CNW is a visual representation artefact to help project managers to
choose a course of action based on the situational complexity characteristics of a given
project. Capturing both where a project (and its various parts) is located (the “Where are we?”
part of navigation) and mapping strategies for moving a project forward (the “How do we get
there?” part of navigation) are the essence of the CNW. Importantly, because sub-parts of a
project can be expected to be spread over more than one quadrant, different strategies may be
required for different project sub-parts.

4.2 The labels of the artefact

(1) The choice of labelling the first quadrant “Regulation” is based on the dichotomy of
regulation versus emergence (Daniel and Daniel, 2018). The regulation quadrant
corresponds with both the “complicated” and the “obvious” domains in Cynefin.
A system in the regulation quadrant is causal and predictable and therefore the
 Researching
(3) Divergence (4) Chance
navigation of
project
“Discuss and align” “Frame and experiment” complexity
Diversity

Politically driven Change driven

(Negotiation) (Experimental)
117

(1) Regulation (2) Emergence

Consensus

“Plan and execute” “Iterative execution”

Goal driven Vision driven

(Analysis based) (Iterative)

Figure 3.
Clarity Unpredictability The Complexity
Navigation Window

strategy of its project management should be “plan and execute” and the project life
cycle can be guided by the initial defined project goal.
(2) The second quadrant is labelled “emergence” with reference to the work of Daniel and
Daniel (2018) as above. In the emergence quadrant, the unpredictability of a system
makes it complex (as opposed to “only” complicated). The strategy of the quadrant
should be iterative and the direction of the project life cycle should be guided by a vision
(since an initial defined goal is not feasible). A vision to guide a project allows for the
deliverables to be defined during the unfolding of a project (Lenfle and Loch, 2010).
(3) Divergence is chosen as a label for the third quadrant, where the situation entails
many disagreements – but still with a clarity of which methods and goals to disagree
about. The Webster dictionary defines the term divergence as “to extend in different
directions from a common point”, hence the lack of consensus – or at least of a
moderate coalition, strong enough to carry the project through in the face of
resistance (Atkinson et al., 2006). The axis of disagreement is generalised to the
broader term diversity, in order to include the project complexity dimensions
mentioned in the previous section and also “low levels of trust” (Remington, 2016).
Whereas iterative and agile principles are relevant in the emergence quadrant, they
are of no help when there is a divergence amongst the stakeholders and decision-
makers (Winter and Szczepanek, 2017).
(4) The fourth quadrant is labelled “chance’ due to the high degree of randomness, which
results in both big disagreement and high uncertainty. The quadrant name is inspired
IJMPB by the notion” “return on luck” (Collins and Hansen, 2011). When a situation is
14,1 characterised by both disagreement and uncertainty, the situation is on the edge of
chaos. The chance quadrant also is relevant to the chaotic domain in Cynefin, where
chance is understood as random cause and effect (Kurtz and Snowden, 2003); the
same thing will only happen again by chance.

118 4.3 Project management strategies in the Complexity Navigation Window

One essential contribution of the Cynefin framework is that it explicitly points out that there
are distinctly different managerial strategies suited for different levels of complexity of the
system. If the system is unknown to the decision-makers, hence positioned in the fifth domain
(disorder), “The way out of this realm is to break down the situation into constituent parts and
assign each to one of the other four realms. Leaders can then make decisions and intervene in
contextually appropriate ways” (Snowden and Boone, 2007, p. 4). This is similar to the
division of project into subprojects in the CNW, where each of the four squares calls for a
unique strategy.
4.3.1 Strategy for the regulation-quadrant. Regulation refers to the deterministic approach
to project management, where planning is essential, like in the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK) (Project Management Institute, 2017). The strategy entails the
Instructionism form (Pich et al., 2002), where the focus is on the Critical Path Planning and
Risk Management. The modus operandi of the regulation quadrant is “Plan and execute”. The
PM paradigm of regulation should be based on one early agreed upon “iron triangle” (Daniel
and Daniel, 2018). In practice this not easy. In a survey (Bucka-Lassen et al., 2018, p. 18),
practitioners were asked: “what is the most important reason for complexity caused by the
stakeholders?” One option stood out in particular: “Unrealistic expectations from
decision-making stakeholders on what is possible within the deadline and budget”. In
other words, the decision-makers assume the system to be “only” complicated. Given a
consensus on unpredictability of the future can be established, this will move the situation
form regulation into the quadrant of emergent. If no consensus can be reached, the situation
slides into either quadrant 3 or 4 in Figure 3.
4.3.2 Strategy for the emergence-quadrant. In the emergence-quadrant the hindsight does
not (always) lead to foresight and the essences of the project management strategy here, is to
deal with the unpredictability. The same things will not happen again, except by accident. By
and large, the emergence strategy is complementary to strategy presented in PMBOK, with
its focus on planning as the pivot point of all the 10 knowledge areas (Lenfle and Loch, 2010).
The emergence quadrant involves a learning strategy where “Overall vision, Detailed plan
only for next tasks, then high-level logic based on hypotheses, Plan learning actions, and
Provide capacity for re-planning” (Pich et al., 2002, p. 1,018). This learning strategy is very
similar to what is later referred to as “Agile project management strategy” (Fernandez and
Fernandez, 2008) and (Pope-Ruark, 2015). “Iterative execution” is the keyword for the
strategy for the emergence-quadrant, and practically, the iterations can be structured like
sprints in Scrum (Schwaber and Beedle, 2002) or time boxes in agile PM (DSDM, 2014) or
PRINCE2 Agile (AXELOS, 2015).
4.3.3 Strategy for the divergence-quadrant. This quadrant includes the social-political
complexity (Geraldi et al., 2011) and the complexity due to low levels of trust (Remington,
2016). Where consensus exists, the project can work towards a common goal – either in the
shape of objectives or visions – but when consensus is missing, production work in the project
is not relevant since no clear goals exist. Instead, the project has to work on the political
agenda, aligning stakeholders in order to re-establish consensus – or a strong enough
coalition (Al-Haddad and Kotnour, 2015). If the project keeps producing without consensus, it
faces the biggest ineffectiveness of them all: the perfect execution of a thing that should not
have been done. In other words, doing the thing right, but not the right thing Researching
(Remington, 2016). navigation of
In risk of the highest inefficiency of all: Perfect execution of things that should not have
been done. Therefore the modus operandi here is “Discuss and align” meaning that the
project
management of the projects is not so much the monitoring and control of productive work complexity
(like in the regulation-quadrant) but more communication and having meetings (Turner and
Cochrane, 1993). The dichotomy of the regulation versus emergence-quadrant is well
captured by the difference between management and leadership: In contrast to 119
management’s activity of organising and staffing, leadership’s activity is aligning people.
(Kotter, 2001). The strategy can be exemplified by a quote from an experience projects
manager on a workshop; “You should conduct a lot of political meetings; however, you cannot
name the meeting what they are, because then important stakeholders will not show up.” The
strategy must be based on the assumption that hidden agendas exist (Winter and
Szczepanek, 2017), and that building trust and relationship can only to some extent make the
agenda explicit for negotiation between involved parties. In the case of stakeholder non-
alignment and user-incongruity, the following approach has been presented: “Early and
forthright assessment of interests, expectations and needs. Negotiated, agreed-upon and
documented compromises. Continuous monitoring of changes and introduction of
adjustments” (Botchkarev and Finnigan, 2014, p. 11)
4.3.4 Strategy for the chance-quadrant. The chance-quadrant will often be a transition
phase the project (or part of a project) is going through due to a rapid change of circumstance
inside or outside the projects.
As Pich et al. phrase it: “When complexity prevents an evaluation of the causal mapping, it
is impossible to choose a best policy. (Pich et al., 2002, p. 1,019), and go on to argue for at a”
Plan multiple trial projects. The same strategy is in Cynefin called “parallel safe to fail
experiments” (Mikkelsen, 2018). The parallel experiment is here “opposite” to the agile serial
time boxes approach. A more long-term stable situation in the chance-quadrant can be the
fuzzy front end of an innovation project and new product development (Koen et al., 2001).
The fundamental challenge for this strategy to overcome is the disorder and chaotic
conditions of the situation (based on Cynefin terminology). The combination of
unpredictability and high diversity can best be described as confusing, stressful and a
case of “issue-overflow”, where people can no longer distinguish between problems and
circumstances, without the wisdom to know the difference (Lazarus, 1993). The time span for
action is often very limited, hence it can be questioned if the classical definition of a project
still applies, hence the quadrant can be thought of as an emergent and transitional phase of
the project. The situation is on the edge of chaos, when the social constructed commonly
accepted scope breaks down, there is no alignment on which problem to solve, and in what
order. An appropriate strategy in this quadrant is as follows: re-establish a common
acceptable situational scope and a temporary problem breakdown structure leading to a set
of experiments to be carried out, and the result which will inform the temporal problem
breakdown structure and hence the situational scope of the project or sub-project.
4.3.5 An overarching strategy for quadrant hopping. Two things are important for the user
of the CNW to keep in mind: (1) The division of a project in sub-project is not a fixed or given
breakdown structure; (2) The positions of sub-projects in the window are likely to change
during the project lifetime. A good heuristic for positioning is: if there is no evidence of
consensus and clarity of the way forward, then a given project (project-part) is probably not in
the regulation quadrant. If factors of disagreement and uncertainty are ignored or dismissed,
the delusion of success (Lovallo and Kahneman, 2003) prevails. Instead, the user might
assume the worst, and contemplating based on being in the fourth quadrant, ask what
experiments are needed to harvest enough information to determine whether there is
consensus and clarity so that action can be taken based on understanding of any
IJMPB uncertainties or disagreements. For execution the situational contest of any task will be like
14,1 quadrant one. Much attention must be given to move from quadrant four towards quadrant
one – often via either through quadrant two or three. Strategies for this, can be found with
inspiration in (Galli, 2018)

5. Evaluation
120 This section first examines the chosen evaluation strategy (Venable et al., 2016), then the
methods for evaluation, and finally, the findings of the evaluation of the CNW.
As introduced in Section 3, this project used the FEDS (Venable et al., 2016). The FEDS
evaluation design process is composed of four steps: (1) explicate the goals of the evaluation,
(2) choose the evaluation strategy or strategies, (3) determine the properties to evaluate and
(4) design the individual evaluation episode(s) (Venable et al., 2016).
The primary goal of the evaluations at this stage of the ADR process was to make sure
that the artefact (a visual representation of complexity together with links to strategies)
makes sense to practitioners of project management and gives sound recommendations for
navigating the complexity of a given project. Further, the evaluation should measure the
utility of using the artefact and the soundness of its recommendation. At the outset, it was
expected that the personality traits of the participants might influence the evaluation of such
a high-level artefact.
Based on an assessment of project goals and risks, the relevant FEDS strategy chosen for
this work is the human risk and effectiveness (a.k.a. human usability) strategy (see Figure 4):
focussing early on formative (compared to summative) evaluations, but moving quickly
towards more naturalistic (instead of artificial) evaluations. Following this strategy, it was
expected that a series of formative evaluations would confirm (or disconfirm) that the artefact
was heading in a suitable design direction, identify any significant usability problems, and
contribute to more precise instruction and clarification of the artefact. It was decided to
conduct these formative evaluation episodes in a workshop setting, which is close to
naturalistic for the participants, although not quite a real situation (where practitioners would
use the artefact independently in their project, helping them with guiding recommendation
for actual situations).
In this paper, there is emphasis on the formative evaluation, since this is an integral part of
the process of ADR. The remaining of Section 5 explains the process and results of the
formative evaluation.

Figure 4.
The human risk and
effectiveness
evaluation strategy
from the FEDS
evaluation framework.
Circle indicating the
current state
 After completing an initial design of the artefact, practitioners managing projects were Researching
invited to workshops. At first the invitation stated that project managers and project owners navigation of
were to come in teams working with their project. This resulted in only two teams accepting
the invitation. Many project managers showed strong interest in participation, but they could
project
not make their respective project owner prioritise the workshop. The evaluation strategy was complexity
revised so that project managers could come alone.
During the first part of the workshops, the artefact was presented orally by the researcher
followed by a Q and A for clarification. The participants could ask questions in order to grasp 121
the artefact. During the second part, the participants engaged directly with the artefact and
applied it to analyse the complexity of their own projects. Then they worked in groups of two
on each of their own projects in turn. The process was supported by the researcher answering
process questions and providing clarification. Finally, evaluation was done first by filling in
evaluation sheets based on their experience using the artefact to analyse their own projects.
After that, the artefact was evaluated orally by the participants.
The survey focussed on quantitative evaluation questions (ratings out of 10). Section 5.2
presents the results from the quantitative parts of the survey. However, space for qualitative
comments was also included in the survey. After filling in the survey sheets, an oral session
seeking and discussing suggestions for improvements took place. Section 5.3 presents
findings from the qualitative survey questions and the oral improvement suggestion
sessions.

5.1 Questionnaire for the Complexity Navigation Window

This section presents the results from the questionnaire given to workshop participants.
Table 1 below shows the average and SD of participants’ ratings of different qualities of the
Complexity Navigation Window. All questions were rated on a 0–10 scale. The statistical
significance with small N is low, but this is not the issue here as this is not a summative
evaluation. The scores given are only seen as indications.
In Table 1, the average rating for question #1 (7.9 out of 10) shows that the Complexity
Navigation Window, as part of an IS prototype of a DSS for project complexity, made sense to
the participants. The small SD (1.6) shows that there was largely agreement on that.
The highest score goes to question seven “Would the artefact be of higher value if used in
dialog with the project owner?” We tried to have workshops where project managers and
projects owners were invited in pairs of two, but there was no interest from project owners in
these workshops.
The lowest score is on usability with the score of 6.3. While this is not bad, it does call for
further development on the artefact. The test for efficacy (with the question: Did you gain new
insights into project leadership initiative using this artefact?) was at the same level, but came

Stan.
# Question Average Dev.

1 Did the structure of the artefact, with four different situational approaches, make 7.9 1.6
sense to you?
2 Does the artefact have good usability, is it easy to tell the difference of the four 7.1 3.7
situations?
3 Did you find it easy to divide the project into issues to fill in the matrix? 7.2 2.3
4 Did you find the matrices of the model in the artefact consistent in use? 6.3 2.6
5 Did you gain new insights into project leadership initiatives for your project using this 6.4 4.4 Table 1.
artefact? The result of 16 project
6 Do you expect the position of issues to be changing during the project? 7.8 1.5 managers evaluations
7 Would the artefact be of higher value if used in dialogue with the project owner? 8.5 2.3 of the artefact
IJMPB with a very high deviation, meaning that some participants obtained insights while others
14,1 did not.
The evaluation sheets also contained a question on what areas of project management the
participants saw as relevant, as summarised in Table 2.
Based on Table 2, the value of the artefact is most significant for project-setup and
stakeholder management. The latter had a very low SD, so there was a strong consensus on it.
This is aligned with the central hypothesis of the artefact design’s fitness for purpose (that
122 navigating and dealing with the complexity of multiple, divergent stakeholders would have
high utility). The high rating of risk management came as a no surprise.
The SD was very high on the three first areas. Based on the comments on the evaluation
sheets, the overarching reason is that the participants faced very different circumstances in
their respective organisations.

5.2 Qualitative evaluation of the Complexity Navigation Window

The flowing qualitative data are based on the observations of the researcher, the comments
written on the evaluation sheets and the subsequent oral evaluation of the workshop.
5.2.1 Notes from the presentation of the artefact. When the Complexity Navigation
Window was presented to the practitioners in the workshops, some struggled initially with
the two dimensions: Uncertainty and Disagreement. The participants raised questions during
the workshop revealing lack of clarity in the artefact. Questions from the participants
included: “Uncertainty of what?”, “Does uncertainty lead to disagreement – and vice versa?”
and “Can disagreement exist if there is no or little uncertainty?”
Some practitioners struggled with the proposition that there is no true position on a given
issue, since it depends on the eye of the beholder. Others delighted in that and saw a separate
purpose of the CNW to illuminate exactly this problem in the collaboration between the
project owner and the project manager. These comments illuminated very different
worldviews amongst the participants.
5.2.2 Notes from the use of the artefact. The practitioners were asked to divide their own
project into a number of parts suited for positioning in the CNW, e.g. themes, issues, focus
area or another breakdown structure of their own choice. This part of the exercise was
surprisingly difficult. For some, it was difficult to get started without a specified
categorisation model. Others found it difficult to abandon the initial selected breakdown
structure, even when it clearly was a dysfunctional structure (like for example dividing the
project in its phases).
When a useful structure was found, the practitioners struggled with judging the parts in
order to position them in the CNW. One participant reflected: “How can I be certain that this
issue belongs in the ‘certainty’ part of the window, when it might turn out unpredictable?”
Another asked: “How many disagreeing stakeholders does it take to create ‘divergence’?”
There was much uncertainty amongst participants on the question “where does this item
belong” in the window. The artefact lacked an information structure to help participants to
figure out “where you are”.

How much inspiration does the use of the artefact give for each area of handling Stan.
# complex projects? Average Dev.
Table 2.
The results of 16 1 Project-setup 8.5 4.1
project managers’ 2 Organising 6.7 4.6
evaluations of the 3 Communication plan 6.4 4.6
artefact in the area 4 Stakeholder management 8.7 0.7
of use 5 Risk management 7.5 3.0
 The borders in the CNW gave a presumption that a binary classification was demanded. Researching
One participant argued, that in her case it was easier to arrange the parts in a continuum of navigation of
decreasing certainty instead of using a dichotomy for sorting. Further, she argued that there
would also be multiple kinds of strategies to be applied, not only two categories. The black
project
and white appearance of a 2 by 2 matrix clearly can lead to wrong perceptions of the artefact. complexity
The presentation of the artefact might not have struck the best balance between clarity and
applicability.
In their struggle to position the parts of the project on the disagreement dimension, many 123
exclaimed that they really had little clue. However, encountering this difficulty helped them to
realise that it revealed weaknesses in their own stakeholder analysis. As one put it “this
makes me realize what I need to figure out”, which was said in a positive note.
5.2.3 Notes from the oral evaluation after use of the artefact. Notes from the oral part after
the evaluation sheets had been done. In one workshop, the overarching theme in the oral
evaluation was the lack of control over project setup. This turned into the old discussion of
plan-driven versus agile project management. The discussion revealed a lot of frustration on
the restriction of how projects “must” run in their respective organisations. Even when most
parts of their projects are positioned in the uncertainty side of the CNW, practitioners report
being held responsible for the initial agreed-upon triple constraints (iron triangle). Sometimes
there is a contract to be fulfilled, but other times there seems to be a lack of trust from project
owners, or simply a matter of unrealistic expectations and lack of understanding of the
unpredictability of the project.
In another workshop, the most commented theme was stakeholder management. There
was a consensus that the window was a fine starting point for the stakeholder analysis and a
useful supplement to the conventional models for analysing stakeholders in the project
management toolbox. There was general agreement that doing this kind of analysis with the
project owners would provide a better common ground for understanding the project.

6. Discussion
Given the research question, “How can the complexity of a given project be represented to
facilitate the navigation and management of that project?” and the use of a DSR approach to
seek an answer to the question, it is appropriate to divide the discussion section into two parts,
one covering the artefact itself and one on the use of design science in project management.

6.1 The Complexity Navigation Window

The primary finding is that the evaluation of the CNW indicates high relevance according to
the project managers participating in the workshops. The evaluation findings indicate that it
is important to choose a project’s setup based on the situational factors of stakeholder
diversity and unpredictability.
Participants gave a high score on the question: “Would the artefact be of higher value if
used in dialog with the project owner?” The evaluation included this question for a particular
reason. We had invited teams of project owners and project managers to participate together
in the first workshop, as this was our initial vision for artefact use. Sadly, however, only two
teams volunteered. It is very hard to persuade project owners to come to workshops on
project complexity. The reason for this is not quite clear, but might be based on a presumption
that handling the complexity of a project is the task of the project manager. This is an
important lesson in itself. Reflecting on the evaluations, one area for further development of
the CNW is to find a form that appeals to the project owner, not only to project managers.
Most significantly, the formative evaluations also indicated that practitioners of project
management have difficulty placing their projects within the four domains, i.e. they have
IJMPB difficulty assessing the levels of diversity and predictability of a particular project or sub-
14,1 project. Project managers lack information needed to estimate these dimensions comfortably
and accurately. This indicates that further ways or enhancements are needed to improve the
clarity of the different domains – both to project managers and to project owners.
Rather than simply guessing or estimating where a project is currently positioned on the
diversity dimension, project managers also have need for some means to obtain and
interpret information about the actual state of diversity in a project. One possible way to
124 clarify the actual position of a project on the diversity dimension is to gather input from
actual stakeholders, analyse it and represent it within the matrix to indicate the level of
diversity amongst the multiple stakeholders. A computer-based DSS could potentially
assist in this process. The current direction of our research is to design a survey engine to
obtain answers from multiple project stakeholders concerning various relevant topics on an
ongoing basis. The DSS could analyse the data gathered to measure the current state of
disagreement amongst stakeholders, thus placing a project on the diversity dimension of
project complexity and providing more accurate and timely information to project
managers, as well as guiding decision-making about appropriate strategies for managing
the complexity.

6.2 Use of action design research in project management research

Based on our exploration of principles for navigating project complexity using the ADR
methodology for DSR, we consider it to have fine potential as a structured methodology of
pragmatic observation. “The pragmatic approach is to rely on a version of abductive
reasoning that moves back and forth between induction and deduction.” (Morgan, 2007,
p. 71). With the very large body of knowledge of descriptive project complexity, but limited on
prescriptive knowledge, there is a demand for much abductive research.
The research literature on project complexity is mostly descriptive. The fraction of
knowledge with an empirical basis is limited. Often the foundation is Delphi methods for
adjustment of dimension, as for example (Bosch-Rekveldt et al., 2011) and (Vidal et al., 2011).
In the other end, there are examples of grounded-theory-based research using workshops, like
(Maylor et al., 2013). With ADR we find a middle ground, where the theory-ingrained artefact
can foster a fruitful discussion between research and practice. With ADR it becomes possible
for researchers to put a radical different “thing” (like the CNW) “out there” to be tried and
tested by practitioners and learn from the collaboration.
Based on our case, we argue that DSR is appropriate for research on project management,
particularly where new means for improving project management effectiveness and solving
project management problems are needed. We further argue that the ADR methodology for
conducting DSR is very suitable for explorative research endeavours. Research aimed at
producing prescriptive knowledge for managing project complexity better is a combination
of paradigms, and like Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, “we advocate consideration of the
pragmatic method of the classical pragmatists (e.g., Charles Sanders Peirce, William James,
and John Dewey) as a way for researchers to think about the traditional dualisms that have
been debated by the purists. Taking a pragmatic and balanced or pluralist position will help
improve communication amongst researcher from different paradigms as they attempt to
advance knowledge” (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p. 16).
The use of ADR has many similarities to agile project management (DSDM, 2014), most
obviously in the iterations within the BIE stage, which parallels an agile sprint, especially
with the evaluation/review of the artefact by the stakeholders. In our case, the direction of the
development changed in ways that could not have been expected.
Based on the literature research, we agree with Geraldi et al. (2011) that there is a need for
a paradigm shift in the research on project complexity. The mainstream of the research is
based on a descriptive approach, which is not very useful for practitioners. However, going Researching
to the opposite side with AR, may reduce the benefit of legacy from the large body of navigation of
knowledge. Staying on the middle of the road, with DSR, seems to be an optimal solution for
deploying the body of knowledge on project complexity into the practical realm of project
project
management, through the development of new purposeful artefacts that are based on complexity
existing descriptive knowledge and evaluating those artefacts to further enhance their
effectiveness and utility for practitioners in ways that the descriptive knowledge may not
suggest or anticipate. 125
6.2.1 Reflections on evaluation strategy. After evaluation of the CNW, we reflected on an
additional question: Do we need a more iterative approach to evaluation strategy? The fourth
step in FEDS is “design the individual evaluation episode(s)”. It was assumed the episode
would follow a “human usability strategy” (Venable et al., 2016), with a curve as illustrated in
Figure 4 in a former section. Figure 5 is an elaboration on Figure 4.
However, the described evaluation of the CNW made us reconsider the path forward. Does
is make sense to follow the planned evaluation trajectory, and make the next evaluation
slightly more summative in a more naturalistic setting? Or should we proceed upward with
the same level of formative/summative evolution, but in a more naturalistic setting than a
workshop? Or a workshop like before but with a more summative evaluation? We could also
go “backward” and lower the level of “authentic” evaluation (Sein et al., 2011) in one of the
“three realities” (Sun and Kantor, 2006) – real users, real system and real task (or context),
hence redoing the evaluating of the CNW in a more artificial setting, e.g. with a controlled
experiment on a test case (rather than the participants’ own project cases). Or perhaps the best
path is go “backwards” in terms of the concurrent evaluation (Sein et al., 2011), hence be more
formative (going left on the first axis of Figure 5) in the evaluation, for example in workshops
co-designing with practitioners.
FEDS allows for hybrid approaches and also for flexibility (through re-planning) based on
circumstances that arise during a DSR project. For example, while not following FEDS, which
had not yet been published.
These are all valid questions, which make us reconsider the evaluation method. FEDS
might be plan-driven to an extent that does not adequately support an exploratory DSR
project.

Figure 5.
The path of the
evaluation strategy can
be hard to predict in
exploratory DSR
projects
IJMPB 7. Conclusion and further research
14,1 This research aims to design a new means to cope with the challenges of navigating project
complexity. The research follows the DSR and applies the ADR methodology, which are not
often used in research on project management. The design of the CNW was based on extant
conceptualisations of project complexity, more general frameworks of handling complexity,
and strategies for project management and leadership handling of project complexity. The
evaluation was planned and guided using the FEDS, an oft-used evaluation methodology in
126 DSR. The findings of the evaluation by project management professionals indicated high
relevance of the designed artefact, but indicated lower perceived utility for resolving
problems with complexity. The findings of the workshop evaluations should be taken with
caution since the participants may become biased when collaborating with the designing
researchers. However, since the evaluations were formative (aimed at improving the design,
not providing evidence of the utility of a final artefact), the achieved the benefit of designer
interaction with the users to better understand the reality of dealing with complexity and the
potential for the new artefact to adequately address it.
Using DSR, in particular ADR, for research on project management, especially for
overcoming problems associated with project complexity, has potential. Many insights on the
practical working in projects were revealed through working on solutions to complexity,
which might not have been surfaced using the classical (non-DSR, non-ADR) approaches.
More research is needed both on the given artefact and on the use of DSR in managing
project complexity as well as on project management more generally. Future research may
include (1) working on an improved understanding of the information needed for positioning
in the CNW, hence the applicability of the artefact, (2) helping practitioners to identify
appropriate project management initiatives based on complexity analysis and (3) the
extraction of more principles on which to base the leadership of projects and navigation of
project complexity.

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Corresponding author
Mogens Frank Mikkelsen can be contacted at: [email protected]

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