FLUID MECHANICS QUESTIONS

1. List and briefly describe the types of fluid

1) Ideal fluid → Does not take into account certain aspects of the real behaviour of
fluids. It has no viscosity; It is incomprehensible, meaning that the density does not
change with pressure; It has steady flow and irrotational flow
2) Viscous but incompressible fluid →Type of fluid that exhibits resistance to internal
flow (viscosity) but does not experience significant changes in its density under
changes in pressure
3) Nonviscous but compressible fluid → It lacks resistance to internal flow (viscosity)
but has the ability to compress and expand considerably in response to pressure
variations
4) Real fluid → This fluid exhibits both viscosity and compressibility.

2. List the basic parameters describing fluids

1) Velocity (distance to time ratio)
2) Density (mass to volume ratio)
3) Pressure (force to area ratio)
4) Temperature (measure of internal energy of a fluid)
5) Dynamic viscosity coefficient (coefficient of proportionality between the stress in the
fluid and the deformation rate of the fluid element)
6) Thermal conductivity coefficient (proportional factor between heat flux and
temperature gradient)

3. List and describe the types of flows

1) One-dimensional flows: flows with one dominant velocity direction
2) Two-dimensional flows: There are two equally important flow directions
3) three-dimensional flows: There are three equally important flow directions

Each of the mentioned types of flows may also be:

• stationary: The parameters describing it are not-time dependent

• unsteady (Transient): The parameters describing it area time-dependent.
4. Prove that pressure is a scalar quantity

5. Equilibrium conditions of a fluid element

𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − (𝑃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑃
Mass force determined by the unit mass force field: 𝑃 + 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
Component of mass force: 𝜌𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Pressure: 𝑃 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

6. Hydrostatic forces on flat and curved surfaces

Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surfaces represent a system of parallel
elementary forces perpendicular to the wall. It can be reduced to a resultant force equal
to its sum and applied in the middle of parallel forces.
The HF on a surface element of a curved surface (wall) can be presented as a geometric
sum of elementary forces vectors acting in selected directions (usually horizontal and
vertical).
7. Which method of testing fluid motion is better and why (Eulerian or Lagrangian )?

On the one hand, the Eulerian method allows us to understand the behaviour of a fluid in a
specific region over time and how macroscopic properties evolve, while the Langrangian
method allows us to understand the individual particles of the fluid to study microscopic
processes.

That is why when it comes to saying which is best to test the movement of a fluid, I would
say the Eulerian method since it allows for a general analysis of the fluid.

8. Pascal's law, derivation and practical applications.

Pascal's Law: The pressure applied to a liquid contained in a container is transmitted with
the same intensity to any other point in the liquid.
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴2
𝑃1 = ; 𝑃2 = → 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 → 𝐹2 = ∗𝐹
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1 1
Putting Euler's equation 𝜌𝐹⃗ = ∇𝑃 into vector notation we have the following system:
𝜕𝑃
𝜌𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃
𝜌𝑦 =
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑃
{ 𝜌𝑧 = 𝜕𝑧
In the simplest possible case, when it is assumed that no mass forces act, that is 𝐹⃗ = 0 →
∇𝑃 = 0
The above result is a mathematical way of expressing Pascal's law. If we multiply the
system of equations by dx, dy, dz we have:
𝜕𝑃
𝜌𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝜌𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 → 𝜌(𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑃
{ 𝜌𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Or what is the same: 𝜌(𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) = 𝑑𝑃

In this situation, the X, Y, and Z force components have the following

values:
𝑋 = 0; 𝑌 = 0; 𝑍 = 𝑔

Substituting into the previous equation:

𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 → ∫ 𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 → 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝐶
Knowing the Po on the surface of the liquid we can determine the constant: C = Po
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧

The main application is the hydraulic press, then it can also be used in refrigeration and
vehicle tires.
9. The concepts of streamlines and element paths.
• Streamlines: they are imaginary lines that represent the instantaneous paths of the
particles of a fluid as they move through a flow.
• Trajectory lines: These are the actual paths followed by individual fluid particles over
time. Each particle has its trajectory and the trajectory lines represent those of a
specific particle.
• Wake lines: They are formed by continuously releasing fluid particles from a specific
point in space and then marking their positions at successive time intervals.

10. Description of the velocity and acceleration field, substantial derivative and it
derivative physical interpretation
• Velocity field: describes the speed of particles in a fluid at each point in space and at
each instant in time. The vector notation is V (r,t) where r is the position vector and t is
the time.
• Acceleration field: describes how the speed of particles in a fluid changes at each
point and at each instant. In vector notation it is expressed as a (r,t)
• Substantial derivative: it is a tool used for the analysis of changes in the properties of
a moving fluid particle.

• Physical interpretation:
- Local change: the first part represents the change of the property with respect to
time at a fixed point
- Advection: the second part represents the change due to convective transport of
the property along the streamlines. Indicates how the property varies as the fluid
particles move.
11. Derive the derivative form of continuity equation
The continuity equation represents that the product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe
and the velocity of the fluid at any point along the pipe is always constant.
We are going to use the Reynolds equations in a way that tells us that the conservation of a
mass flow that occurs in a control volume will be equal to the sum of the mass fluids that
are entering minus the sum of the mass fluids that are entering. they are dating:
𝑁𝑒 𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑚𝑣𝑐
= ∑ 𝑚𝑒
̇ − ∑ 𝑚𝑠
̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1 𝑗=1
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = [ ] ; 𝜌𝑉𝐴 = [ 3 ] ∗ [ ] ∗ [𝑚2 ] = [ ]
𝑠 𝑚 𝑠 𝑠

𝑁𝑒 𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑚𝑣𝑐
= ∑ 𝑚𝑒
̇ − ∑ 𝑚𝑠
̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1 𝑗=1
= (𝜌𝑢)𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + (𝜌𝑣)𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + (𝜌𝑤)𝑧 𝐴𝑧 − (𝜌𝑢)𝑥+𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑥 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑦+𝑑𝑦 𝐴𝑦 − (𝜌𝑤)𝑧+𝑑𝑧 𝐴𝑧

We group and factor:

𝑑𝑚𝑣𝑐
= [(𝜌𝑢)𝑥 − (𝜌𝑢)𝑥+𝑑𝑥 ]𝐴𝑥 + [(𝜌𝑣)𝑦 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑦+𝑑𝑦 ]𝐴𝑦 + [(𝜌𝑤)𝑧 −(𝜌𝑤)𝑧+𝑑𝑧 ]𝐴𝑧
𝑑𝑡

We have to: 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧; 𝐴𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧; 𝐴𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦; 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧; 𝑚 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉

We replace Ax, Ay, Az y 𝑚𝑣𝑐 :

𝑑𝜌𝑉
= [(𝜌𝑢)𝑥 − (𝜌𝑢)𝑥+𝑑𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + [(𝜌𝑣)𝑦 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑦+𝑑𝑦 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + [(𝜌𝑤)𝑧 − (𝜌𝑤)𝑧+𝑑𝑧 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡

We substitute V and divide by the same:

1 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 [(𝜌𝑢)𝑥 − (𝜌𝑢)𝑥+𝑑𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [(𝜌𝑣)𝑦 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑦+𝑑𝑦 )]𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥 [(𝜌𝑤)𝑧 − (𝜌𝑤)𝑧+𝑑𝑧 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
∗ = + +
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝜌 [(𝜌𝑢)𝑥 − (𝜌𝑢)𝑥+𝑑𝑥 ] [(𝜌𝑣)𝑦 − (𝜌𝑣)𝑦+𝑑𝑦 )] [(𝜌𝑤)𝑧 − (𝜌𝑤)𝑧+𝑑𝑧 ]
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤
= + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ∆𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌
= −∇ ∗ 𝜌𝑣⃗ → + ∇ ∗ 𝜌𝑣⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜌
+ ∇ ∗ 𝜌𝑣⃗ + ∇𝜌 ∗ 𝑣⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑡
 Density does not change in space or time therefore:

∇𝜌 ∗ 𝑣⃗ = 0 → ∇(𝑢
⃗⃗) = 0

12. Derive the derivative form of motion equation (momentum)

13. Derive an equation describing the motion of a viscous fluid ( Navier -Stokes equation)
The Navier-Stokes equations describe the movement of an incompressible Newtonian
fluid, therefore its viscosity is constant and its density does not vary in space or time.

14. What equations constitute a closed system of fluid mechanics equations? (most
complex case)
The equations are: the continuity equation (for the resolution of Pressure) and the 3
equations of motion (One for each component of V). In addition, we have the unknowns of
the tensions that represent surface viscous forces, so the number of unknowns exceeds
the number of equations. To reduce the number of unknowns, an appropriate fluid Mold
must be introduced.
15. Derive the Bernoulli equation (starting from Euler equation) and discuss possible
uses and disadvantages
𝜕𝑣 1
+ (𝑣 ∗ ∇)𝑣 = − ∗ ∇𝑃 − ∇𝜙
𝜕𝑡 𝜌
Where:
• 𝑣 → fluid velocity vector
• 𝑡 → time
• 𝜌 → fluid density
• 𝑃 → pressure
• 𝜙 → gravitational power
𝜕𝑣
=0
𝜕𝑡
With these assumption, Euler's equation simplifies to:
1
(𝑣 ∗ ∇)𝑣 = − ∗ ∇𝑃 − ∇𝜙
𝜌
Now, let us consider the case where the fluid moves along a streamline. Along this line,
the tangential velocity (𝑣𝑡) is constant, and the equation reduces to:
1
𝑣𝑡 ∗ ∇𝑣𝑡 = − ∗ ∇𝑃 − ∇𝜙
𝜌
Multiplying both sides by the density of the fluid (ρ) and dividing by 2, we obtain:
1
∗ 𝜌𝑣𝑡 ∗ ∇𝑣𝑡 = −𝑃 − 𝜌𝜙 + 𝑐𝑡𝑒
2
We define ℎ as the potential height of the fluid per unit of weight, so 𝜌𝜙 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
1 1
Also,2 𝜌𝑣𝑡 ∗ ∇𝑣𝑡 can be represented as 2 𝜌𝑣 2 , where v is the fluid velocity. The integration
constant depends on the choice of reference point.

Finally, we obtain the Bernoulli equation in its most common form:

1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
2
This is a simplified derivation and assumes certain ideal conditions. In practical
applications, these conditions may not be completely met, and other variations and
considerations must be taken into account.
16. Describe the Reynolds experiment, the two basic states of motion of fluids, their
characteristic features and areas of applicability.
Osborne Reynolds' experiment, carried out in the 1880s, was crucial to understanding the
phenomenon of the transition between the two basic states of fluid motion: laminar flow
and turbulent flow. Reynolds used a U-shaped clear glass tube filled with water dyed with
a dye to visualize the flow.

Experiment Description:

1) Laminar Flow: When the speed of water flow was low, the currents followed smooth
and orderly paths, characterized by layers of liquid that slid over each other. This state is
known as laminar flow.
2) Turbulent Flow: As the flow speed increased, a transition to a chaotic and disordered
pattern was observed, with the formation of eddies and turbulence. This state is known
as turbulent flow.

Characteristics:

1) Laminar Flow:
- The fluid particles follow ordered trajectories.
- The layers of fluid slide smoothly over each other.
- Less energy loss in internal friction.
- Predominance at low speeds and for viscous fluids.
2) Turbulent Flow:
- Fluid particles experience chaotic and random movements.
- Formation of vortices, eddies and complex structures.
- Greater energy loss due to internal friction.
- Predominance at high speeds and for less viscous fluids.

Areas of Applicability:

1) Laminar Flow:
- Applications in small diameter pipes and low speeds.
- Chemical and biological processes where precise flow control is required.
- Microfluidic devices and medical applications.
2) Turbulent Flow:**
- Greater efficiency in fluid mixing.
- Greater capacity to transport particles and substances in suspension.
- Applications in large diameter piping systems and in the energy industry.

The Reynolds number (\(Re\)) is a dimensionless parameter used to predict the transition
between laminar flow and turbulent flow. It is calculated as the ratio between inertial and
viscous effects, and its critical value for the transition varies depending on the geometry
and flow conditions.

Understanding the transition between these two states is essential in fluid engineering and
physics, as it significantly affects the behaviour and efficiency of fluid transport systems.
17. The concept of local losses, practical use of this concepts
Local losses in fluid mechanics refer to energy losses that occur at specific points in a
fluid system, generally produced by geometric characteristics, accessories or local
conditions. These losses are associated with factors such as changes in flow velocity,
abrupt contractions or expansions, elbows, valves and other components that disturb the
smooth flow of fluid. Local losses result in a decrease in the total energy of the fluid and
are usually expressed as head loss or pressure drop.

Some practical use could be:

• Piping system design: Engineers use the concept of local losses to design and
optimize piping systems.
• Process industries: Engineers consider local losses to design systems that meet
specific process requirements while minimizing energy losses and operating costs.
• Pumping systems: Pumping systems experience local losses as fluid passes through
pipes, valves and fittings.
• Hydraulic systems: In hydraulic systems, local losses are critical considerations for
designing components such as hydraulic cylinders, valves and connectors.

18. Method of recognizing losses along the length of a pipes, empirical formulas,
Nikuradse chart and physical interpretation of this graph.

For any piping system, in addition to the calculation of friction losses for the length of the
pipe, minor losses due to:

1) Pipe inlet and outlet

2) Sudden expansions and contractions
3) Gradual expansions or contractions
4) Bends, elbows and other couplings
5) Valves open or partially closed
Measurements of minor losses are usually given as the ratio between the piezometric
head lost through the device and the velocity piezometric head associated with the piping
system.
𝑉2
Calculation of minor losses: ℎ𝑚 = 𝑘 ∗ 2𝑔

A single pipe may have several minor leaks. Because the loss terms are related to the
velocity head term, they can be summed into a single loss term as long as the pipe has a
constant diameter.

∑ ℎ = ∑ ℎ𝑓 + ∑ ℎ𝑚

Darcy-Weisbach equation for calculating pressure loss due to friction:

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗
𝑑 2𝑔
 Where:

𝑓 → Friction factor with dimensionless value that depends on the internal roughness of
the pipe and the Reynolds number.

As we can see in the Nikuradse diagram, if the flow is laminar (Re<2000), the friction factor
f varies linearly with respect to the Reynolds number, independent of the relative
roughness.

While if the flow is turbulent, the behavior of f becomes more complex. Near the critical
Re (2200) all the curves coincide.

19. Introduce the Hagen- Poiseuille law and describe its possible applications.
The Hagen-Poisuille law describes the laminar flow of a fluid through a cylindrical tube of
length L and radius R. This law establishes that the flow rate (Q) of a fluid is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the radius of the tube ( R), to the pressure difference
(∆P) between the ends of the tube and inversely proportional to the length of the tube (L)
and the viscosity of the fluid (η).
𝜋 ∗ 𝑟 4 ∗ ∆𝑃
𝑄=
8∗𝜂∗𝐿
Applications:

• Design of piping systems: Allows the calculation of the flow rate and resistance of
pipe flow, which is essential for the efficient design of fluid transport systems.
• Microfluidics: Used to understand and control flow in microchannels and microfluidic
devices.
• Blood flow in blood vessels: used to analyse vascular resistance and how factors
such as vessel diameter affect blood flow.
 • Chemical process engineering: It is relevant to the design and analysis of piping
systems used in fluid transport and mixing processes.

20. Describe the phenomenon of detachment occurring during the flow of bodies
(resistance at flow of bodies)
When a fluid flows around a body, a boundary layer forms on the surface of the object due
to friction between the fluid and the surface. This boundary layer can be laminar or
turbulent depending on factors such as the velocity of the fluid and the geometry of the
body.
Detachment occurs when the boundary layer separates from the body surface. After this,
a recirculation zone is formed behind the body that produces an increase in the body's
resistance to flow. The detachment can affect the lifting and dragging forces on the body.

21. Why does a plane fly and a ship doesn't sink?

The reason why an airplane can fly and a ship does not sink is related to the physical
principles that govern the flight and buoyancy of fluids.

• An airplane flies thanks to the generation of lift in its wings, the aerodynamic shape of
the wings and the relative speed of the air above and under the wings create a pressure
difference that lifts the airplane in the air.
• A ship floats due to Archimedes' principle of flotation. This principle states that an
object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object. The shape of the case is designed to displace a sufficient
amount of water, generating an upward force that counteracts its weight, thus allowing
the boat to float.