CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 OVERVIEW
The friction stir welding process comes under the domain of solid state welding process.
Heat is required only to bring the material in the plastic state without any need to further supply
heat to melt the base metal. The material that is brought in the plastic state is then deformed
using the application of force. The deformation of plasticised material is pointed at mixing it
with the other material or another work-piece of same material. This, in turn, joins the two or
more work-pieces. The heat that is required for plasticising is generated by the frictional force
when the tool surface rubs against the work-piece in a rotational motion. Then, in order to
accomplish the intermixing, the tool traverses. Hence, an effective joint is achieved. The energy
gets saved in the process because the joining occurred at a temperature lesser than that required
to melt the base material. Moreover, since less heat was generated, the heat affected zone is also
minimum, hence keeping the properties of the joint consistent.
1.1 HISTORY

Before the advent of friction stir welding, when arc fusion welding was in fashion, the
defects to welding ratio was considerably higher. The culprit behind that unfavourable event was
the low energy-density fusion welding process which causes the formation of a large pool molten
metal and a large heat affected zone. This led to the formation of defects that were developed
during the weld pool solidification. In return, these defects led to the distortion of work piece and
the welded joint while reducing the strength of the joint as well. Up until 1990s, fusion arc
welding and gas welding had been the prevalent players in the welding industry.[1] Not long
before the invention of FSW, certain other non-fusion welding processes such as friction
welding, had already been developed. However, the former non-fusion welding processes could
only find a very limited use in the industrial applications. In the case of friction welding, the two
work pieces are made to come in contact with each other and with the help of linear motion or
rotations, relative motion is achieved between them. Along with the relative motion, there is also
simultaneous application of the compressive force along the two work-pieces. The reason why
the geometry of the parts joined by the friction welding is restricted is due to the availability of
only two movements: linear and rotational, which can be utilized to create the relative motion
between the work-pieces. The principle governing the joining process in friction welding is that
due to the relative motion between the two parts that are to be joined, frictional heat is generated.
This frictional heat in turn, causes the softening of the metal at ends of parts in contact. At this
semi-plastic softened state, when pressure is also applied, the two parts make up a strong joint at
the surface of contact. Friction welding is very much similar to the forming process. Even though
there had been geometrical restrictions for the use of friction welding and difficulties in clamping
varying sections, it proved to be an efficient way for creating a firm joint between metals,
plastics and many other polymers as the area of heat affected zone created in friction welding is
very minimal just as in most of other solid state welding processes. This new technology
involving the frictional heat and the pressure also unleashed the possibilities of dissimilar
material joining.

Another invention that took place during the same period in 1950s when friction welding was
prevailing was the laser welding. Since then and until now the laser welding is considered to be a
very convenient and efficient mode of creating a joint between the multiples.[2] However, laser
beam welding also has a few cost based restrictions and the restrictions cause due the size of
parts that are to be joined. In laser beam welding, a high concentration welding source with high
degree of penetration heats up the region in the material to be joined very precisely. It is a high
density joining process and along with accuracy, offers the minimal affected zone while creating
a very thing section of the heat affected zone which is, in some cases, negligible.

1.2 FRICTION STIR WELDING - THE INVENTION

With the advancement in technology and with the need of more sophisticated joints, the
welding industry could be seen drifting into the pool of the high density joining processes, which
favour less effect on the area in the vicinity of the weld, thus reducing the defects to welds ratio
and thereby giving the joint more strength along with the crosssections having trivial unwanted
deformations. The research and the development team in ―The Welding Institute (TWI)‖,
situated in United Kingdom, had been carrying out extensive researches in the field of friction
welding. Apart from studying the effect of varying rotation speed and torque parameters in
friction welding, the researchers also showed interest in the properties of various materials in the
plastic state.
 The need of eliminating the geometric restrictions was already being felt by the team. It was
not long after when in 1991 on a very fine day, Wayne Thomas struck an idea of using a probe of
a harder material than those materials to be joined and with the correct rotational speed and
torque, using it to fuse the specimens together. This led to the invention of process named as
Friction Stir Welding. In 1991, Wayne Thomas and his colleagues at TWI patented this
technology.[3]

Friction stir welding (FSW) is very similar to the friction welding not just by the name but
also by the working principle. Both of them are solid state thermo-mechanical joining processes.
The significance of the word ―stir‖ in friction stir welding is that the probe of a harder material
than the specimens to be joined causes a stirring action in the material at the joint and thus highly
plasticising the material to a point at which the complete joint is created. With FSW, the need of
clamping the heavy parts to be joined, as per the ‗parts in motion‘ regulations, could be avoided
as the parts now need to the clamped in stationary architecture while only the small probe needs
to be clamped as per the ‗part in motion‘ guidelines. Another advantage of FSW over friction
welding is that the geometrical restrictions are majorly eliminated. The efficiency of the FSW
join depends upon how well the parts have been clamped and how rigidly the tool has been
mounted. Although the friction stir welding faces a strong competition from the laser welding, it
has its own specialised uses in the industry. In comparison to laser beam welding, the FSW costs
less and its equipment accommodates part variety much better than that accommodated by the
laser beam welding setup.[4]

1.3 FRICTION STIR WELDING - THE TYPE OF JOINTS

One of the most beneficial factors that can be noticed in FSW is that it doesn‘t add any
mass to the joint since there is no involvement of the filler material in the general use. For the
very same reason, it has found industrial applications in the space equipment industry and the
automobile industry where the volume to weight ratio matters a lot. Another advantage that the
concerned process carries is that it can effectively join the sum up thickness of up-to 5 mm,
depending upon the properties of material and the temperature conditions. Also, high accuracy
can be achieved while welding the sum up thickness of plates of 0.2 mm
 Figure: 1.1 Lap Joint in Friction Stir Welding

The types of joints that can be formed by friction stir welding are the lap join and the butt
joint. For a fixed setup it is not convenient to make any other kind of joints in the specimens,
however, with the advancement in the technical field where robotic arms are being employed to
achieve various tasks in space with higher degrees of freedom, there is no limit in possibilities.

1.4 MOTIVATION

As it has already been discussed that the process of friction stir welding has a wide range of
scope in the near future, consider it to be the airplane building industry, the space industry,
making of seam welds in boilers or the supercars. Moreover, it is a well-established process to
join the dissimilar materials too, say plastics such as polythene, abundant metals such as copper,
aluminium and steel, high strength metal such as titanium and innumerable alloys of the listed
metals. However, still the standards are being set in this industry and in this phase of research,
holistic contribution is necessary. By the repetitive experimentation and the analysis of results,
the standards for this type of solid state welding: Friction Stir Welding Process, could be
established. This will enable the future enthusiasts or the people indulging in this technology for
the business to save their time, material, efforts and hence money, yet get the superior friction
stir welds.
 The following are the explanations to the terms that are commonly used in this report:
Shoulder:- The should is a part of the tool that prevents the plasticized material to escape the
weld bead. The shoulder penetrates into the work-piece up to some depth. Plunge
 Depth:- The maximum depth up to which the tool shoulder penetrates into the panels of the
weld material. The plunge depth is measured normal to the surface of the weld panels.
 Probe:- The probe or the pin is the part attached to the shoulder that makes the first contact
with the work-piece to be welded and penetrates into it. The pin height is slightly lower than
the depth of weld to be required to be penetrated.

Figure: 1.2 Schematic Diagram Of Friction Stir Welding Process

Joint Line:- The along which the two work-pieces positioned in a butt-joint get welded.
Advancing Side:- The side along which the rotational direction and the tool travel direction has
the same sense is known as advancing side in case of friction stir welding.
Retreating Side:- The side along which the rotational direction and the tool travel direction has
the opposite sense is known as retreating side in case of friction stir welding.
HAZ:- It stands for the Heat Affected Zone and at this zone the recrystallization takes place.
TMAZ:- It stands for the Thermo-mechanically Affected Zone and only partial recrystallization
takes place in this zone.
NZ:- It stands for the Nugget Zone and is the area where the actual welding takes place.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF FSW PROCESS

Advantages of FSW process over the fusion welding process are given below [4]:
 This―welding process provides good mechanical properties of the weld joint.‖
 Metallurgical properties of the joint is also improved.  Provides better weld surface.
 Highly safe process as metal melting does not take place, spattering of metal and toxic
fumes are completely absent.
 Welding of dissimilar materials, having different properties, can be performed
successfully as―it is a solid state process and material does not react with each other.‖
 Welding of alloys does not experience the alloying element‘s loss.
 Long welds can be obtained with low distortion.
 Low setup cost, welding can be performed on conventional milling machine.
 Easy to operate so expertise is not required.
 No filler or consumable material is required.
 Ecofriendly welding process.
 No shielding gas required.
 Absence of cracking.
 Repeatability and good dimensional stability.

1.6 DISADVANGES OF FSW PROCESS

Besides of the advantages, this processes some disadvantages which are listed below [5]:
 When tool is withdrawn, exit hole is left.
 Less flexible because tool geometry varies with the variation in thickness of the weld
plate.
 Edge preparation is must for good welding.
 Traverse rate is slower than some fusion welding process.
 Proper clamping of the weld plates is required as large downward force is applied.
 Not suitable for complex joints i.e. corner joint (fillet weld), T-joint etc.
1.7 FSW PROCESS APPLICATIONS FSW
Process is widely used in various areas as:
Aerospace industry: Currently, FSW process is used in aerospace industries for welding
the production parts and prototypes. Welding of stringers, ribs and spars are successfully
performed for used in civilian and military aircraft. Examples: various structural components,
space vehicle‘s cryogenic fuel tanks, scientific and military rockets, aviation fuel tanks,
empennages, fuselages and wings.
Marine industries: Marine industries firstly adopted FSW for commercial applications.
―This process is applicable for the following applications: refrigeration plant, transport and
marine structures, hulls and superstructures, helicopter landing platforms, bulkheads and floors,
panels for decks and sides.‖
Railway industry In railway industry, FSW is used for the following applications:
Examples: container bodies, goods wagons, railway tankers,―trams, underground carriages,
rolling stock of railways and high speed trains.‖
Transportation industries: Automotive companies are widely used this process for the
commercial applications. Examples: bicycle frames, motorcycle, fuel tankers, mobile cranes, tail
lifts for Lorries, truck bodies, wheel rims, engine and chassis cradles.
Other industry: sectors In rolling mills for connecting of copper or aluminium coils,
furniture, gas cylinders and gas tanks, kitchens and cooking equipment, white goods,
refrigeration panels, electric motor housings (in production) etc.
 CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Amber Shrivastava et al. [2017] worked on developing a method for detecting the
formation of discontinuities during FSW. Friction stir welding is fundamentally price effective
but the need for noteworthy weld examination can make the process extortionate. A novel
method to weld examination is vital in which an in-situ characterization of weld superiority
could be attained, lowering the reqirement for postprocess examination. For this, friction stir
welds with subsurface empty areas and without voids were formed. The subsurface voids were
created by lowering the friction stir tool rotation frequency and upsurging the tool traverse speed
to make ―colder‖ welds. Process forces were determined during welding, and the void
dimensions were determined postprocess by electronic tomography: ―Three Dimensional X-Ray
Imaging‖. The 2 parameters, based on frequency field content and time-domain average of the
load signals, were found to be linked with void dimension. Standards for subsurface void
recognition and size forecast were developed and shown to be in decent agreement with trial
observations. With the correct choice of data attainment system and frequency analyser the
incidence of subsurface voids can be spotted in real time.
Pankaj Sahlot et al. [2017] concluded that the joining of great strength materials by
making use of friction stir welding (FSW) is hard because of extreme tool wear and alteration in
the form or dimensions of the tool. However, quantifiable understanding of tool wear at the time
of FSW of metallic materials with high melting points is very limited. The quantifiable wear
examination of H13 steel tool at the time of FSW of CuCr-Zr alloy. More amount of total tool
wear is detected for quicker tool rotational speeds, and gentler traverse speeds. Advanced wear
rate shows similar connection with these process parameters at the time of initial traverse stage.
With more tool traverse the wear rate decreases suggestively and is not much altered by the
process parameters. The quantifiable wear study offers insights about tool-wear during friction
stir welding process and would be beneficial to better estimate and increase tool life. This would
also be beneficial to optimize the process parameters and tool form to reduce tool wear at the
time of FSW of materials with high strength.
 Bipul Das et al. [2017] have made efforts towards the checking of friction stir welding
(FSW) process by real-time torque indications in this study work. Signals were studied using
separate wavelet transform & arithmetical features namely asymmetry, dispersion and excess are
calculated. The calculated features are further treated to develop effective procedure for internal
defect recognition in FSW process. A new pointer has been suggested joining the calculated
statistical characteristics. The suggested indicator shows considerable deviances for flawed and
defect free welds. Other than flaw detection by the computed indication features, they are also
offered as inputs to a upkeep vector machine learning based demonstrating tool for the forecast
of ultimate tensile strength of the joints. The forecast accuracy of the model with calculated
signal characteristics are found to be more than the model established with process parameters.
The evaluation of the established support vector regression (SVR) model with artificial neural
network (ANN) model & universal regression model produces that forecast performance of SVR
is grander to ANN and universal regression model. The suggested work can be altered for its
effective use in real-time modeling of FSW process.
Jannik Goebel et al. [2017] studied that the aluminium-lithium alloy named AA2198-
T851. They friction stir welded the material with bobbin tool using a tool technique with one still
and one rotating shoulder. Flaw free welds in three millimeter thick sheet were produced
featuring a high excellence surface texture on the still side. The structure at macro level forms an
asymmetrical shape with microstructural characteristics known from standard FSW. Due to only
one revolving side a material flow track near the still shoulder has been observed. A parameter
study shows that a WP (weld pitch) of 1 mm/rev coupled with high pressure between the
shoulders lead to decent outcomes. Physical performance of 77 per-cent of base metal hardness
& 82 per-cent of base metal ultimate tensile strength were achieved. The fracture examination
indicates 2 competing fracture styles, one being in the HAZ and the other at the borderline of the
SZ (stirred-zone) on the advancing side. The first style is made due to thermal cycle impact,
while the second location is affected from weak bonding as an outcome of the thermal cycle and
experienced distortion.
Kush P. Mehta et al. [2017] analyzed the joint of copper to dissimilar material:
aluminium using the solid state joining process: friction stir welding. The effect of profile of the
tool pin had been researched. The process involved keeping constant all the other parameters but
the design of the tool pin. The frequency of fragmental defects was seen to increase while
increasing the number of edges in the tool pin profile (considering the surface to be a polygon).
A polygonal pin with 4 equal sides all right angles (square) delivered the highest hardness of the
weld having HV283. There were a number of intermetallic compounds present in stir zone of Al-
Cu. The series of tools used were circular, triangular and hexagonal. Al6061-T651 alloy &
electrolytic tough picth (ETP) copper (>99.99% pure cure) were used in the experiment. The
defects generated due to polygonal pin due to the scratching its edges implied on the copper
surface. However, with the edges of tool probe increasing in number, the tensile strength
elevated too. CuAl, CuAl2 as well as Cu9Al4 and Cu3Al were some of the IMCs (intermetallic
compounds generated) generated. Although, the pin shape having edges gave better hardness to
the weld in comparison to the cylindrical tool, it also made it brittle.
GM Karthik et al [2017] have experimented with making an alloy out of copper &
aluminium by using friction stir processing. Later, the group performed the friction stir welding
on the fabricated specimens. The group very well achieved their task with the alloy of copper
and aluminium being created which also responded well to the artificial aging implied upon it.
The selective alloying has been discussed including its future scope. A one centimeter thick
aluminium plate of AA1050 alloy had been used in the experiment. Along with it, the copper
used was in its powder form having particle size of about 60 micrometer. The powder was
pushed into the 3 mm deep & 2 mm wide groove via H13 tool of 15 mm shoulder diameter. The
end result included alloying of the aluminium with the 2 weight percentage of copper. This was
the first time this target was accomplishes and it significantly could be used to enhance the
properties.
Noor Zaman Khan et al [2017] made efforts towards finding the microstructural and
macro-structural conduct by the joints created by FSW between similar and dissimilar materials.
The two base materials used in order to accomplish the same were AA2219 & AA7475, both of
which are the alloys of aluminium. The process of FSW was employed to join dissimilar and
similar 2.5 mm thick sheets of AA 7475-T73 & AA2219-O alloys of aluminium. The alloys
AA2219& AA7475 are employed in the machineries of space shuttles and aeroplane,
respectively that need competent fabrication process. Friction stir welding is a hygienic welding
process skilled of joining tough to weld aerospace alloys of aluminium. The tensile strength,
structure at micro-level, micro-hardness as well as fracture surfaces of the friction stir welded
joints had been investigated. Grain improvement is observed at the stir zone due to active
recrystallization triggered by severe plastic distortion. Least strength for dissimilar joint is
detected mostly due to non-homogeneous drive of base materials consequential to variances in
mechanical and physical characteristics. The least hardness was seen at TMAZ (Thermo-
mechanically Affected Zone) at the retreating side for every joint because of the thermal
softening. Broken surfaces of the similar joints displayed more ductile fracture compared to joint
having dissimilar materials which gave rise to lower elongation of the dissimilar joints.
Wei Zhang et al. [2017] had carried out an investigation to know the outcome of
experimenting with the joining of T2 pure copper and the aluminium alloy Al6061. The special
thing in their investigation was the shape of the joint configuration: tooth shaped. Out of this
dissimilar bonding, microstructure and the physical properties were to be determined. The
process used for joining was the solid state welding: FSW. In the experimentation, dissimilar
6061aluminum alloy and marketable unalloyed copper were friction stir welded: butt weld, while
adopting the configuration of joint having tooth shape in order to investigate the influence of
Al/Cu composition in welding bead (WB) at the scale of micro-level and mechanical properties
of the achieved joint. At initial exams, optimal welding parameters were found to assurance
proper heat input. The experiments of welding were performed with the sizes of the tooth as
variables, which is a unusual method to tailor Al/Cu composition in weld bead. Macro and the
structure at micro-level of the cross section of the joints were branded via Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) which was armed with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) & optical
microscopy (OM).
Special band structure (BS) displaying lamellar-like flow property is worthy of noticing.
Moreover, dispersive Cu particles (DP), making composite-like construction, were caught. Large
Cu concentration, however, generated a harsh material flow because of its high plasticized
temperature & the reduced flow ability and could not produce reliable metallurgical bonding.
The joint was tested for its micro-hardness and the high hardness was caused mainly by the hard
IMCs. Also, tensile tests were done to calculate the joint performance. As per the result analysis,
this joint form has special advantage in altering Al/Cu content in the weld bead as well as
regulating the microstructure that imposes noteworthy influence on physical properties of the
created joints.
Shude Ji et al. [2017] worked on eliminating the tear defects by back heating the friction
stir weld of the alloy: Ti-6Al-4V. Using varied back heating temperatures, the joint creation and
the structure at micro-level were mainly discussed. Results show that the temperature gradient
along thickness plays an important part affecting the tearing defect. By increasing the back
heating temperature, dimensions of the tearing defect progressively decreases due to lowered
temperature-gradient. When using 753K, defectfree BHAFSW joint with complete lamellar
structure along thickness and greater hardness could be obtained. Moreover, the BHAFSW could
effectually lessen tool wear during welding.
Nan Xu et al. [2017] performed an investigation which was based at maintaining a good
strength to ductility synergy. The friction welding was done with a stirrer on the Cu, which was
the base material. Two copper sheets with 2 mm in thickness were welded by large load friction
stir welding with very low speed of welding and rotation rate. Heataffect zone (HAZ) had been
successfully nullified for the enhanced thermal cycle. The grain modification in the stir zone is
credited to the combination of continuous active recrystallization, irregular dynamic
recrystallization, active recovery and also the twinning-induced active recrystallization. The stir
zone displayed ultra-refined grains having low dislocation density & having large fraction of
high angle boundaries. Plentiful twin boundaries were presented into the stir zone as well. Deu to
this, the stir zone displayed a superior strength & ductility synergy having strength of 548 MPa
and a uniform elongation of thirty six per-cent. Their work also provided an effective technique
to improve the strength of FSW Cu joint without any loss of ductility.
Hui Shi et al. [2017] had investigated the IMCs in the banded structure of the joint
welded by friction stir welding. The materials involved were dissimilar magnesium and
aluminium. Various tool rotational speed (TRS) at a pre-set constant travel speed were used,
having the tool offset to Al in order to examine the formation of IMCs in the banded structure
(BS) zone & how they affected the physical properties. Large proportions of IMCs, in the form
of irregular bands of particles or lamellae, had been found in the banded structure zone, where
severe material inter-mixing had taken place during friction stir welding. The BS microstructural
properties were varied with TRS in terms of the morphology of the bands and the size and
spreading of intermetallic compounds particles. Each weld showed brittle fracture style with
their fracture paths spreading mainly in or along the IMCs in the banded structure. It was
displayed that these BS microstructural properties had the important effect on the physical
properties of the joints. Propositions on modifying the BS microstructure were suggested for
optimizing the strength of the BS zone and the final physical properties of the aluminium and
magnesium friction stir welded joints.
M.M.Z. Ahmed et al. [2017] researched on joining the two dissimilar aluminium alloys:
AA7075 and AA5083. The two alloys of aluminium: AA7075-T6 and AA5083-H111 had been
friction stir welded at a pre-set rotation rate of 300 revolutions per minute the and varied traverse
speeds of 50 up-till 200mm/min, with a gap of 50mm/min, in dissimilar and similar joints. The
structures at micro-level and crystallographic surfaces of base materials (BM) and the welds
were inspected by making use of electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. The
physical properties were found using Vicker‘s hardness testing and tensile testing. The fracture
exterior of the tensile tested specimens was inspected with the use of scanning electron
microscope (SEM).
Microstructural examination of AA5083 and AA7075 base metals showed noteworthy
variation in the grain structure of the two alloys having an average grain size of forty micrometer
that was not having substructure in case of aluminium alloy: AA7075, while AA5083 BM
exposed an typical grain size of twenty five micrometer with the high density of substructure.
Apart from it, the type precipitates also are different in these 2 alloys. Even though, the two
alloys, which were joined using the same FSW limits the two alloys showed different response in
terms of the recrystallized small grains after friction stir welding. Noteworthy grain refining
happened in the nugget zone of AA7075 having grain size of six micrometer at welding speed of
50mm/min that was reduced to two micrometer by increasing the speed of welding to
200mm/min. A moderately recrystallized larger grain structure was obtained in AA5083 joints
weld nugget zone with grain size of nine micrometer at 50 mm/min that is lowered to three
micrometer at 200mm/min. It means that the starting material properties have a noteworthy
impact on the ultimate grain structure after friction stir welding. The crystallographic quality in
the nugget zone revealed a simple shear consistency without a noteworthy effect of varying the
welding speed. The dissimilar joints showed ultimate tensile strength stretched between 245 and
267 MPa and fracture strain stretched between 3 and 5.6 %.A brittle to ductile fracture style was
controlling in the examined fracture exterior of the dissimilar joints.
H. Dawson et al. [2017] have evaluated the influence of the welding parameters on the
oxide dispersion having nano size, and the grain size in the matrix of an Oxide Dispersion
Strengthened (ODS) steel upon welding by FSW. Based on collective small angle neutron
scattering and SEM, results revealed a decrease in the ―volume fraction‖ of the elements smaller
than eighty nanometre in the joints, mainly due to particle accumulation. The upsurge in tool
rotation speed or reduction in transverse speed leads to a decrease in nano-sized particle fraction,
and moreover to the happening of melting of the particle. The requirement of the average grain
size in the matrix on the element volume fraction shadows a ―Zener pinning-type‖ connection.
The result leads to the principal role that the small elements have in pinning grain boundary
movement, and thus in controlling the grain size during FSW.
K.H. Kim et al. [2017] in their study friction stir welded a butt joint in very thin 430M2
ferritic SS foils with acceptable joint characteristics. The tool used was a pin-less WC-Co
fabricated. FSBW had been done at a tool rotational speed of nine hundred revolutions per
minute & at a travel speed of ninety six millimeters per minute. The friction stir welded joints
were welded totally without any un-welded zone occurring from smooth material flow, in spite
of being chosen pin-less tool. The conclusion came out to be that maximum tensile strength of
friction stir welded welds was four hundred and sixty eight mega-pascals, equal to the base
metal‘s tensile strength. Particularly, it was observed that sigma phase creation in FSW welds is
repressed associated with that of arc welds, causing improvement of joint strength. The low input
process of friction stir welding is an operative substitute for the traditional fusion welding
GTAW in very thin ferritin stainless steel foil.
V.C. Sinha et al. [2016] made an attempt to compare the microstructure as well as the
mechanical characteristics of the friction stir welded joints between the two cases. The first case
being the joint created between the two samples of similar metal and the other one being the joint
created between the two dissimilar metals. The three pairs of joints created by the combination of
Aluminium Alloy (AlA) and the pure copper (Cu) are AlAAlA, AlA-Cu and Cu-Cu. The rotation
speeds were varied between 150 rpm to 900 rpm and in the steps of 150 rpm at 60 mm/min travel
speed at a constant angle of 2°, in order to obtain enough experimental results. Through SEM,
the microstructure was determined. The following were the intermetallic compounds created at
the interface of Aluminium Alloy and pure copper at the friction stir welded joints of these two
materials: Al4Cu9, AlCu, Al2Cu & Al2Cu3. Also, the corresponding values of grain size were
obtained against the different step-values of heat input. ―X-Ray Diffraction‖ technique was
employed in order to measure the residual stresses at the stir zone. At 750 rpm, the ultimate
tensile strength of the AlA-AlA joint is about 75 per-cent of that of AlA. Also, at 300 rpm, the
tensile strength of Cu-Cu joint was almost equal to that of Cu. As per the experimental results,
the ultimate tensile strength of Cu-AlA joint came out to be about 77 per-cent of that ofAlA. It is
to be noted that the tensile strength of Cu-AlA joint at 600 rpm tool rotational speed is higher
than that of AlA-AlA joint at 750 rpm. The reason why there is creation of the poor joint in case
of dissimilar metals by using the conventional welding techniques is that due to the difference in
chemical, mechanical, thermal properties of the materials and the formation of brittle
intermetallic compounds at the weld interface. Sample Size → 140 mm (long) X 70 mm (wide)
X 3 mm (thick) The tool material used for this purpose was high speed steel with 18 mm
shoulder diameter and 2.7 mm pin high. The bottom diameter of the pin was 2.5 mm At 150 rpm,
in AlA-Cu joint, Cu mixing was only at the shoulder due to low temperature generated while at
the tool rotation speed greater than 150 mm, the better mixing of AlACu could be observed. At
900 rpm, compressive residual stresses in Cu-Cu joints were observed.
Qixian Zheng et al. [2016] made an attempt to join 6061 Aluminium to a dissimilar
metal i.e., 316 stainless steel. The unique thing carried out in this research was that the filler
metal was used coupled with friction stir welding. No other such attempt had even been made.
The introduction of the filler metal ensured the proper and stronger bonding of the two sheets:
316 stainless steel and 6061 Aluminium. The team of researchers had made use of Zinc to work
as the filler metal. The thin foil of zinc was used. It could be observed that stainless steel had
some mixing with the zinc at the interface. The work was carried on keeping lap joint in mind.
The use of aluminium and steel, both is prominent in the automobile industry and are coupled
together for better strength. The reason why introduction of the Zn filler metal increased the
strength of the Aluminium-stainless steel join is that zinc has the thermal expansion coefficient
value between those values of Al 6061 and SS 316. Thus, there are lesser gaps generated during
the joining process, leading to a stronger joint. The structure formed as before welding was
termed as ―sandwich structure‖.
A. Yazdipour et al. [2016] analyzed both physical characteristics as well as the
microstructure of FSW joint formed between Al 5083-H321 and 316L stainless steel alloys. All
the studies were made at 280 rpm. This speed was kept constant throughout the study. The
reason why they had opted for friction stir welding was that they needed better ductility and
strength balance of the joined which was being obtained the best in case of FSW. This paper
dealt with the specified materials due to their high strength and corrosion resistance which made
them the best fit for the applications in vehicle industry. The optical microscope and the scanning
electron microscope were employed for the testing of the joint. In SEM, X-ray add-on clarified
the results a bit further. The tool traverse speeds were varied from 160 to 315 mm/min during the
collection of multiple readings. The tensile stress on the material was also carried out to get a
reading for the material‘s tensile strength value.
Shude Ji et al. [2016] carried out the friction stir welding on aluminium and magnesium,
the two distinct materials in the lap joint configuration. Furthermore, the assistance of a
stationary shoulder was taken, which was placed externally to ease the process. There had been
the effects of this assistance on the cross-section, microstructure as well as the mechanical
properties of the joint. Hence, it was compulsory for this group to analyse all these effects that
were caused due to their introduction of the external assistance by the stationary shoulder. There
was very minute flash formed on employed on utilizing this technique. Furthermore, not a lot of
deformation was observed on the surface making it decently smooth. However, it was a concern
that the configuration of the sheets here proved out to be the most important perimeter as it
affected both the microstructure and the mechanical strength of the joint.
Toshifumi Kakiuchi et al. [2016] carried out their research in order to study how the
crack propagates in dissimilar aluminium and steel friction stir welded joint. It is of great
significance as it help them judge the weak spots in the friction stir welded joint especially in
case of the dissimilar metals. On better understanding of this, various reinforcement steps were
performed for the better strengthening of the joints and managing the initiated hair-line cracks.
The best way to eliminate the effect of a crack in a joint was to obstruct the path of the crack so
that it halts before making further progress and damaging the joint, causing failure. Another
reason for the study was to obtain the correct values of temperature, load and time after which
the crack fails to maximize safety. The join was created between Al 6061-T6 and SS 304. At 800
rpm rotating speed and 0.2 mm tool offset, the tensile strength of specimen cam out to be 194
MPa. The strength was seed reduced at the aluminium side of the joint due to resolution of
precipitates, however, towards the stainless steel side, the strength increased due to work
hardening.
Tae-Jin Yoon et al. [2015] went forward to analyses the geometric shape and the effect
of the onion structure formed during the friction stir welding process. Furthermore, all those
effects were also taken into consideration which paved to the formation of this onion structure.
The type of FSW joint analyzed by them was the lap joint. The materials on which the process
was carried out were two dissimilar aluminium alloys. The use of electron backscattered
diffraction (EBSD) was made in order to get the reading of microtexture, strain maps and
element maps. Various levels of heat input was provided during the continuous observation
process through continuous hole. It was analyzed that just when the threaded probe touched the
work piece at low heat input, during that time only the onion structure formed. It also resulted in
the unwanted void formation on the surface.
Florian A. Besler et al. [2016] performed the friction crush welding of sheet -metals
with flanged edges. The three materials used for the sheets were copper, steel and aluminium.
After bonding the sheets, they were analyzed for the yield strength which came out to be of
parent material: 90 percent for EN AW 5754H22, 95 per-cent for DC01 and 62 per-cent for Cu-
DHP. The microstructure testing brought about the revelations that due to the deformation and
recrystallization of the extra material of flanges, the grain grain-structure that was formed was
finer than the previous one. Thus mostly for welding steel, friction crush welding proved to be a
very effective process. The finer microstructure indicated the low heat input at the welded region
and also improved the joint properties by reducing the distortion and the residual stresses.
Prakash Kumar Sahu et al. [2016] discussed various parameters for the AL/CU FSW
such as tool offset position, tool rotational speed and more significantly the influence of the plate
position on the microstructure as well as the macrostructure of the joint. The important results
obtained by their quest were that the copper must be placed at the advancing side of the tool if
finer microstructure is intended. Moreover, the ultimate tensile strength of the joint made with
dissimilar metals came out to be 95 per-cent of that of aluminium. The bending angle came out
to be 65°. Thus, it also signifies the potential of revolting process: FSW for joining dissimilar
material with very fine properties which no other process could achieve. The Vicker‘s hardness
was found out to be higher at the bottom of the nugget than the hardness at the middle portion
and the top portion of the nugget. Also, from Al to Cu side, the hardness was observed to
increase.
Hui Shi et al. [2015] experimented and made report on the friction stir welding of
dissimilar Al/Mg joint. The area of significance in this study was the banded structure zone
(BSZ). In BSZ, the formation of the intermetallic compounds was specifically analyzed. The
intermetallic compounds have been known to affect the properties of the joint, say it,
microstructural properties or the macro-structural ones. The morphology of the bands as well as
the quantity and distribution of IMCs was based upon the TRS (Tool Rotation Speed).
Throughout the experimentation, the team made sure that the traverse speed was constant. The
end result suggested that the BSZ should be tailored in order to improve the properties of the
AL/Mg friction welded joint.
Landry Giraud et al. [2016] studied the dissimilar welding of two heat treatable
aluminium alloys namely AA6060-T6 and AA7020-T651 by using FSW process. As with all the
friction stir welding processes, even here it was observed that the intermixing of the intermetallic
compounds had occurred at the interface very prominently. The advance speed was kept between
300 mm/min and 1100 mm/min while the tool rotation speed was kept between 1000 rpm and
2000 rpm. It was nowhere observed that the dissimilar FSW process induced hotter side but the
efforts that were made throughout the practical research were very much dependent on the
process parameters. The end result of the experimentation left the researchers with the quasi-
static tensile values of the specimens.

Table 2.1 Standard Deviation & Average For Alloys and the F.S.W Joint

Y. Gao et al. [2015] were engaged in the study of FSLW (Friction Stir Lap Welding) of
the dissimilar Brass/Steel sheets. The motto of their research was targeted to analyses the
microstructural properties and their impact on the mechanical properties of the joint. The sheets
used for the purpose of research were: Cu-40Zn and S25Z. The SEM and energy dispersive X-
Ray spectrometry were employed to analyses the microstructure and it was found out that it
varies along the various limits for the various values of welding speed. Hence, the target of the
further research would be to formulate an optimum value of the welding speed for the most
favorable properties of the joint.
Venkateshkanan M et al. [2014] AA2024 and AA5052, the two dissimilar aluminium
alloys were friction stir welded and the joint was analyzed for the microstructural and macro-
structural properties. The main parameter considered in their experimentation was the tool
geometry. As discussed in the paper, newly developed steeped tool pin profile makes better joint
than the other commonly used tool profiles for friction stir welding. Minute discontinuities could
be observed in the cylindrical and tapered tool profiles while in the other tool profiles, there was
no such thing.

2.2 GAPS IDENTIFIED IN PAST RESEARCHES

There has been a lot of research carried on in the field of Friction Stir Welding process.
However, a very few attempts have been made on:
1.) Friction Stir Lap Welding (FSLW) of more than two sheets, i.e., multiple laps
welding.
2.) Friction Stir welding of very thin plates.
Since very little research has been done on the above two branches of friction stir
welding, there is a research gap which needs to be filled by acquiring analyzing data to set the
standards. Besides, there has not been much study done on the effect of the plunge depth and the
pin height even though both of them play a very crucial role especially when we are dealing with
the very thin plates as discussed further in this research. The scope of the study is oriented at
making the leak proof joint between the copper and Al5052-H32 aluminium alloy sheets while
the copper foil is placed in the middle of two alloyed sheets of aluminium. This would eventually
be helpful in making copper cladded aluminium alloy tubes that have better heat sinking
capabilities than the aluminium alloy tubes without copper cladding. Not only this, the optimum
parameters are found in the study for the thin sheets in a multi-lap joint. It would help the future
researchers and industrialists to refine their parameters for production further. This would
eventually save their precious time as well as the resources which would otherwise be wasted in
the failed samples.
2.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
To find the optimum parameters: tool rotation speed, traverse speed and plunge depth for
the defect free joint. To determine the process parameters for the defect free joint having the
highest ultimate shear strength.
To investigate the microstructure of the defect-free welded sample, having highest
ultimate shear strength using optical microscope and scanning electron microscope. To analyze
the micro-hardness (Vicker‘s hardness) of the sample that had the highest ultimate shear
strength.
To propose better clamping mechanism in case of the thin sheets which bend easily under
the heavy loads applied during the friction stir welding.
 CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
There were a total of three different types of materials involved in the experimentation
work. One of the materials made up the tool. Other two materials constituted the sheets to be
joined and the foil to be inserted.
3.1.1 MATERIAL OF THE TOOL
The material of the friction stir welding tool was M2 (Molybdenum) HSS (High Speed Steel),
also known as the tool steel and is a standard to be used for the tools, in industry. The M2 HSS
tool used for friction stir welding in this experimentation was used without heat treatment due to
the following reasons:
1.) The M2 HSS tool already has a hardness of 60 HRC (Rockwell C Hardness) without the heat
treatment which is much higher than the softer material Al5052-H32, with a Brinell hardness of
60, which is to be welded.
2.) After annealing, the shocks would prove more harmful for the tool and it might break under
heavy loads as in case of friction stir welding.
3.) Unnecessary hardening the tool would result in superfluous costs and would also cause
wastage of time.
The chemical composition of the FSW tool material: M2 HSS is given below:
Table: 3.1 Chemical Composition Of M2 HSS
The physical properties of M2 HSS are listed below:
Table: 3.2 Physical Properties Of M2 HSS

The elastic modulus of tool steel is about 200 MPa.

Figure 3.1 M2 HSS Tool Used For Friction Stir Welding

The dimensions of the tool were as follows:
Table: 3.3 Tool Dimensions
3.1.2 MATERIAL OF THE TWO OUTER SHEETS TO BE JOINED
The aluminium alloys are joined in the experimentation of grade Al5052-H32. It is a
comparatively softer alloy than stainless steel.

Figure 3.2 Al5052 - H32 Sheets

The chemical composition of Al5052-H32 is given as:
Table: 3.4 Chemical Composition Of Al5052-H32

The physical properties of Al5052-H32 are mentioned below:

Table: 3.5 Physical Properties Of Al5052 - H32
 The aluminium sheets are of the thicknesses 1 mm each and cross-sectional area 150 mm
* 150 mm each.
3.1.3 THE SANDWICHED MATERIAL
Pure copper foil is used as the material that is sandwiched in the two sheets of aluminium
alloys.
The physical properties of copper are given below:
Table: 3.6 Physical Properties Of Pure Copper

The value of Rockwell Hardness (F scale) for copper, is 54.

The thickness of the copper foil is 0.1 mm and the cross sectional area is 150 mm * 40
mm for each foil.

3.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 TOPIC SELECTION & MATERIAL SELECTION

The topic was selected seeing the wide use of friction stir welding in the futuristic world.
Also, another area that was found interesting was copper cladded aluminium tubes.

Figure 3.3 Copper Cladded Aluminium Tubes

 These kinds of tubes have vast applications in cooling the bigger computer systems and
are also used in super cars which heat up quite quickly when run at their limits, because of its
excellent heat sinking capability. Besides, the inner material is aluminium alloy (Al5052 H32)
which is light weight as well as cheap and only a thin layer of copper enhances its thermal
properties. The copper cladded aluminium tubes could be used as a radio frequency cable or as
the refrigeration tubes. In this thesis work also the fundamentals of joining two aluminium sheets
with a copper foil in middle could be used to clad copper to aluminium alloy.

Among the different types of aluminium alloys, Al5052 was found to have good
machinability, good weldability, flexibility and also good corrosion resistance. On the other
hand, copper was the best choice available to construct a heat sink. Thus, both of them made a
very good combination.

3.2.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT

The Vertical Milling Centre (VMC) which a type of vertical milling machine having a
CNC (computer numeric control) interface was readily available rather than a dedicated FSW
Setup which has not penetrated into the market at a large scale. Moreover, the clamping
modifications and tool mounting was very easy on a VMC. So it was the best choice to conduct
experiments.

3.2.3 SELECTION OF TOOL PROFILE AND MATERIAL

Upon going through various research papers, it was clear that the cylindrical pin profile
was giving out best results in terms of ultimate shear strengths in case of tensile strength for
FSW joints. Also, since the thickness of sheets forming the lap joint was very thin with the total
thickness accounting to 2.1 mm, it was quite difficult to form threading on the tool. However,
only a single tool was used throughout which was straight cylindrical (not tapered). The tool
material was M2 HSS which is a tool standard and a trusted name in industry having Rockwell
hardness of 60 HRC without heat-treatment and 65 HRC after the heat treatment. For obvious
reasons as discussed in section 3.1.1, tool was used without any heat treatment.
3.2.4 PARAMETERS IN RESEARCH

It is very essential to set restrictions in the boundary of research so as to be able to

follow more vertical approach. For the same, the tool material, tool profile and direction of
rotation were kept constant while the tool rotational speed, plunge depth and traverse speed were
varied.

3.2.5 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS – TAGUCHI

A series of experiments were conducted, some of which failed with the tunneling defects
in the friction stir weld zone. With this the, favorable limits for the sampling method: Taguchi
were set to obtain samples defect free. Only the shear strengths of defect-free samples were
considered.

Figure 3.4 FSW at 800 RPM; 0.1 mm Plunge Depth; 5 mm/min Traverse Speed (a) Front Side of
Weld (b) Back Side of Weld
Figure 3.5 500 RPM; 0.4 mm Plunge Depth; 20 mm/min Traverse Speed (a) Front Side Of Weld
(b) Back Side Of Weld

Figure 3.6 700 RPM; 0.2 mm Plunge Depth; 20 mm/min Traverse Speed (a) Front Side Of Weld
(b) Back Side Of Weld
 The design of experimentation has been done in accordance with the Taguchi method,
with the help of ―Minitab‖ software, and is listed below:

Table 3.7 Design Of Experiments By Taguchi Method

Table 3.8 Actual Welding Parameters By Taguchi Method

Figure 3.7 Sample-preparation with Mirror Finish for SEM Image & Optical Microstructure
 CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There were a total of nine friction stir welded specimens tested for the shear strengths as
per the L9 orthogonal array of Taguchi sampling method, having a sandwich structure with the
two Al5052-H32 aluminium alloy sheets having thickness of 1 mm each on the outer sides and
the copper foil of thickness 0.1 mm, place in the middle. Then, as per two parameters where the
shear strengths came out to be the highest in case of AlA-Cu-AlA multi-lap friction stir welded
joints, two samples of AlA-AlA were friction stir lap welded and their shear strengths were also
determined.
The highest ultimate shear strength came out to be 4.413 MPa in the case of AlA-Cu-AlA
joint with the parameters: 800 rpm, 5 mm/min traverse and 0.2 mm plunge depth. For the same
parameters, the ultimate shear strength came out to be even higher as in the case of AlA-AlA
joint having the ultimate shear strength as 5.955 MPa. Moreover, the second highest value of the
ultimate shear strength came out to be 3.921 MPa, in case of AlA-CuAlA joints at the
parameters: 800 rpm, 15 mm/min traverse and 0.1 mm plunge depth. For the same parameters,
the ultimate shear strength for the AlA-AlA joint came out to be 4.922 MPa.
The need of proper clamping was felt during experimenting, especially in case of the thin
sheets which bend quite easily when the sliding load is applied. Moreover, setting the clamps
very tightly over the work-piece material deformed the surface of sheets as Al5052-H32, the
work-piece material used, is a soft metal. So, the resolution of the problem could be
incorporation of more clamps in the middle or bring some modification in the design of
additional clamps such as the use of roller type clamp which is movable as well.

4.1 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1.1 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (D.O.E.)
Table 4.1 Actual Design of Experiments by Taguchi Method
S. No Level 1: Rotational Level 2: Traverse (mm/min) Level 3: Plunge
Speed (RSM) Depth (mm)

1 700(S) 5(S) 0.1(S)

2 700(S) 10(U) 0.2(U)
 3 700(S) 15(W) 0.3(W)
4 800(U) 5(S) 0.1(S)
5 800(U) 10(U) 0.2(U)
6 800(U) 15(W) 0.3(W)
7 900(W) 5(S) 0.1(S)
8 900(W) 10(U) 0.2(U)
9 900(W) 15(W) 0.3(W)

4.2 CALCULATION OF ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH

Table: 4.2 Shear Fracture Load Values
Sample For Shear Shear Fracture Load
S. No. Parameters
Testing (N)

800 RPM; 5mm/min

1 traverse speed; 0.2 3177.459
mm plunge depth
 800 RPM; 15
2 mm/min traverse 2823.318
speed; 0.1 plunge
depth

900 RPM; 10
3 mm/min traverse 2819.394
speed; 0.1 mm
plunge depth
 800 RPM; 10
4 mm/min traverse 2727.18
speed; 0.3 mm
plunge depth

900 RPM; 15
5 mm/min traverse 2442.69
speed; 0.2 mm
plunge depth
 700 RPM; 5
6 mm/min traverse 2159.181
speed; 0.1 mm
plunge depth

900 RPM; 5mm/min

7 traverse speed; 0.3 1799.154
mm plunge depth
 700 RPM; 10
8 mm/min traverse 1654.947
speed; 0.2 mm
plunge depth

700 RPM; 15
9 mm/min traverse 1617.669
speed; 0.3 mm
plunge depth
Figure: 4.1 Sample Preparations for Shear Testing

Figure: 4.2 Front View of the Tool

Figure: 4.3 Top View of the Tool

Thus, Area = Diameter of tool shoulder * Width of sample = 0.018 m * 0.04 m = 7.2 * 10-4
Also, ultimate shear strength (MPa) = maximum load of fracture (N) / contact area (m2)
Hence, the values for the ultimate shear strength are given as:
Table: 4.3 Ultimate Shear Strength Values
S.No. Parameters for AlA-Cu-AlA Joint Maximum Shear Ultimate Shear
(Tool Rotation Speed in RPM; Load (N) Strength (MPa)
Traverse Speed in mm/min;
Plunge Depth in mm)
1 800;5;0.2 3177.459 4.413
2 800;15;0.1 2823.318 3.921
3 900;10;0.1 2819.394 3.915
4 800;10;0.3 2727.18 3.787
5 900;15;0.2 2442.69 3.392
6 700;5;0.1 2159.181 2.998

7 900;5;0.3 1799.154 2.498

8 700;10;0.2 1654.947 2.298
9 700;15;0.3 1617.669 2.246

Table: 4.4 Response Table for Means

 Table: 4.5 Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios (Larger is better)

Level S U W
1 19.06 21.26 22.21
2 23.24 21.34 21.37
3 21.27 20.96 19.98
Delta 4.18 0.38 2.24
Rank 1 3 2

Figure: 4.4 Main Effects Plot For Means

Figure: 4.5 Main Effects Plot For SN Ratio

4.3 MACROSTRUCTURE AND MICROSTRUCTURE AFTER F.S.W.

Figure: 4.6 Microstructure of Welded Sample Having Highest Ultimate Shear Strength

Figure: 4.7 SEM images of the weld surface at 1200X, 2000X, 3500X & 6500X Zoom
Figure: 4.8 SEM images of the weld surface at 12000X, 35000X & 65000X

Figure: 4.9 SEM images of the weld surface at 120000X Zoom

Figure: 4.10 Vicker's Micro-hardness for the Sample with Optimum Parameters
 CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
After carrying out a series of experiments on the friction stir welded specimens, we come
to the following conclusions:
1.) The friction stir lap welded bond of AlA-AlA always has ultimate shear strength higher than
the AlA-Cu-AlA FSW lap joint for the same parameters.
2.) For the thin sheets, clamping is vital because otherwise the sheets may bend under the heavy
loads.
3.) All the factors: plunge depth, tool rotational speed and the traverse speed play a very
significant role in the surface as well as the strength of the joint.
4.) In case of thin sheets of AL5052, lower values of tool rotational speed cause the material not
to plasticize properly and thus making a weak and irregular joint while the higher values of tool
rotational speeds burn the work-piece material and cause tunneling defects.
Friction stir welding, the process discussed in this thesis report has potential to be used in
the aerospace industry (since it doesn‘t add any extra material to the existing mass), in heat
exchangers as well as in the radio communication industry. Also, as friction stir welding has the
ability to make a leak-proof joint between the dissimilar Al5052-H32 and pure Cu, the process
could be utilized for the AlA-Cu structures based near water bodies, even though it is not
recommended due to electrolytic reaction and thus corrosion, yet is a better option than other
kind of welding processes.
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