DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION: HIGHWAY TECHNOLOGY

MODULE CODE: HWTRMR701

MODULE NAME: ROAD PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE AND

REHABILITATION

COMPETENCE: PERFORM ROAD MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION

Purpose statement
This is a core module which describes the performance outcomes, skills knowledge and attitude
required to road maintenance and rehabilitation.
At the end of this module, the students will be able to identify the defects of pavement area,
provide the solutions to correct them in accordance with a road standard for proper road
strength, traffic mobility and safety.
Learning assumed to be in place
 CSTTD601_Technical drawing
Elements of competence and performance criteria
Learning units describe the essential outcomes of a competence.
Performance criteria describe the required performance needed to demonstrate achievement of the
learning unit.
By the end of the module, the trainee will be able to:
Elements of competence Performance criteria

1. Perform road assessment 1.1 Identify properly suitable assessment technique according
techniques to the standard
1.2 Identify properly distress using Visual technic according
to the standard
1.3 Identify properly structural distress using assessment
equipment according to the standard
1.4 Calculate properly Pavement serviceability index
according to the standard
1.5 Calculate properly International Roughness Index
according to the design manual

2. Identify required 2.1 Identify properly suitable application of maintenance

maintenance principles
2.2 Determine properly distress extent according to the
design manual
2.3 Evaluate properly functional performance of the
pavement according to the design manual

3. Execute maintenance works 3.1 Performance properly site installation according to the
technical specifications
3.2 Supervise proper maintenance works according to the
technical specifications
3.3 Report properly works progress according to reporting
specifications

4. Apply material recycling 4.1 Identify properly state of used materials according to
and re-use technology technical specifications
4.2 Use properly recycling equipment according to the
standard
4.3 Apply properly fresh binder according to technical
specifications
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Learning unit 1- Perform road assessment techniques
1.1 Identify properly suitable assessment technique according to the standard
1.2 Identify properly distress using Visual technic according to the standard
1.3 Identify properly structural distress using assessment equipment according to the standard
1.4 Calculate properly Pavement serviceability index according to the standard
1.5 Calculate properly International Roughness Index according to the design manual
Learning unit 2- Identify required maintenance
2.1. Identify properly suitable application of maintenance principles
2.2. Determine properly distress extent according to the design manual
2.3. Evaluate properly functional performance of the pavement according to the design manual
Learning unit 3- Execute maintenance works
3.1 Performance properly site installation according to the technical specifications
3.2 Supervise proper maintenance works according to the technical specifications
3.3 Report properly works progress according to reporting specifications
Learning unit 4- Apply material recycling and re-use technology
4.1 Identify properly state of used materials according to technical specifications
4.2 Use properly recycling equipment according to the standard
4.3 Apply properly fresh binder according to technical specifications
I. Introduction to road maintenance and rehabilitation
Every newly constructed pavement, by the time it is opened to traffic, is subjected to the disastrous effect of
various factors, such as traffic, weather conditions, solar radiation and so on. At the same time, a gradual
deterioration of the pavement’s functional and structural quality starts. This is attributed to the ageing and
wear of the surfacing material and fatigue of materials composing the pavement.
The above factors, in combination with the reliability of the design, the compliance of materials used and the
quality of the construction achieved, are the only reasons for the emergence of pavement surface distresses,
fatigue failure and, finally, pavement disintegration.
The construction of a new pavement should always be considered as a social investment. The administrator
of the public fund is responsible and obliged not only to preserve the capital invested but also to confer a
benefit.
The benefit may be direct or indirect. The direct benefits include reduction of accidents, reduction of
travelling time/costs and reduction (or no increase) of vehicle maintenance cost.
The indirect benefit is the social benefit arising from comfortable and safe transportation of the users for
social and commercial activities. To preserve the capital and obtain the above benefits, the pavement should
be regularly maintained in order to sustain a tolerable level of service throughout its service life. The profit
may be maximized by setting the limit of tolerable level of service high.
As a consequence, it becomes clear that pavement maintenance is imperative. The term maintenance in this
particular case is a broad term.
Road maintenance is one of the important components of the entire road system. The maintenance operations
involves the assessment of the road condition, diagnosis of the problem and adopting the most appropriate
maintenance steps. Even if the highways are well designed and constructed, they may require
maintenance,the extent of which will depend on several factors including the type of pavement.
II. Review of road pavement layers
Pavement is the structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed materials placed on a
sub grade to support the applied loads and distribute them to soil foundation.

Figure 1:1: Road pavement layers

III. Requirements of an ideal pavement are:
 Should be thick enough to spread loading to a pressure intensity tolerable by subgrade
 Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to traffic load
 Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost susceptible subgrade
 Pavement material should be impervious to penetration of surface water which could weaken subgrade
and subsequently pavement
 Pavement mat should be non-frost susceptible
 Pavement surface should be skid resistant
 Long design life with low maintenance cost
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles.
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed.
In short a good pavement must provide adequate, smooth, durable and serviceable support for the loads
imposed by trafficat all times in all weather conditions and if the pavement fulfills all the above requirements
performs well. The performance of the pavement is counted in terms of the ability to serve traffic safely and
comfortably over a period of service time.
IV. General causes of pavement failures
Pavements deteriorate over the period of time due to heavy traffic movement and variation in climatic
conditions and various types of failures in pavements ranging from minor and localized failure to major and
general failures do take place on roads. The failures may be due to one or a combination of several causes.
Some of the general causes of the pavement failures needing maintenance measures may be classified as
given below:
 Defects in the quality of materials
 Defects in construction method and quality control during construction.
 Inadequate surface and subsurface drainage
 Increase in traffic volume and magnitude of wheel loads.
 Inadequate pavement crust thickness
 Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material
 Natural and Environmental factors - heavy rainfall, land slides, soil erosion, high water table, snow fall,
frost action.

IV.Terminologies
The terminology used for keeping the pavement at a tolerable level of service differs significantly
from country to country. In most of the countries, the following terms are used: routine maintenance,
preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance, major maintenance or pavement rehabilitation,
strengthening and rejuvenation.
 Routine maintenance is defined as the number of activities (works) carried out repeatedly, on a daily,
weekly, monthly or annual basis on all elements of the road/highway in order to ensure serviceability at
all times and under all weather conditions. The main activities in routine maintenance are as follows:
 The cleansing of carriageway, verges, ditches, drains, signs and signals and safety barriers, to name
as few, as well as grass cutting and tree pruning;
 Repair of damaged areas around manhole covers;
 Replacement of damaged safety barriers, road signs and, generally, road furniture; and
 Winter maintenance, such as clearance of snow and prevention of ice formation on the pavement
surface. It is obvious that works that are directly related to the pavement structure are not included in
routine maintenance.
 Preventive maintenance is defined as the number of activities aiming to prevent the premature
emergence of distresses and consequently premature pavement destruction.
 Corrective maintenance is defined as the number of activities aiming to correct pavement surface
imperfections, which affect the safety of the user.
The activities included in the preventive and corrective maintenance are not essentially independent
of each other, except perhaps crack filling, and thus they will not be individually mentioned per case. Works
for preventive and corrective maintenance include crack filling, pothole filling, patching, surface skid
resistance restoration and surface evenness restoration.
Major maintenance or pavement rehabilitation strengthening may be defined as the number of activities
aiming to fully restore the qualitative state of the pavement. The works consist of constructing an asphalt
layer of a certain thickness (asphalt overlay) consisting of new or recycled materials, with or without
levelling course or milling of the old pavement surface. This asphalt layer may be catered to extending a
pavement’s service life.
For a better clarification of the terms maintenance and rehabilitation, The Asphalt Institute (Asphalt Institute
MS-17 3rd Edition) defines
 maintenance as routine work to keep a pavement as close to its desired level of serviceability as possible.
This includes the preservation of existing pavement surfaces, resurfacing of less than the nominal
overlay thickness, resurfacing of a short length of pavement, patching and repair of minor failures and
the under sealing of concrete slabs.
 Rehabilitation is the extension of the pavement structure’s life when maintenance techniques are no
longer viable to maintain adequate serviceability. It requires structural evaluation, corrective action and
at least a nominal hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlay. A nominal overlay has a thickness of three times the
nominal maximum aggregate size. Since many agencies specify 12.5 mm nominal size aggregate for
their surface mixtures, their minimum HMA overlay thickness (over a HMA pavement) should be at
least 38 mm (Asphalt Institute MS-17 3rd Edition). The thickness of the HMA overlay is determined
according to the existing structural condition of the pavement and the required number of years the
pavement will be of service in the future.
Generally, maintenance works are considered as those for maintaining the capital invested to ensure that the
road that has been constructed is maintained to the extent possible to its original condition.
while rehabilitation works are considered as those for increasing capital efficiency.
Learning unit 1- Perform road assessment techniques
1.1: Identify suitable assessment technique
1.1.1 Introduction on road assessment techniques
The evaluation of the pavement condition is a fundamental parameter for the determination of the timing and
type of intervention (maintenance, rehabilitation or reconstruction) and the overall pavement management
practice.
By definition, the Road pavement assessment or evaluation is a technique of assessing the condition of a road
pavement, both structurally and from the point of view of surface characteristics.It is also known as
pavement condition survey and rating of pavement. It is conducted to determine the functional and structural
conditions of a highway section either for the purpose of routine monitoring or planned corrective action.
Usually, two types of road pavement condition assessment or evaluation are conducted: the functional and
the structural evaluation.
Functional evaluation considers the surface characteristics of a pavement and is user related. Surface
characteristics include longitudinal evenness (smoothness), skid resistance, rutting, cracking or any other
surface distress that affects riding quality and safety or surface texture. Functional evaluation is used to
decide whether the pavement needs to be maintained, rehabilitated or reconstructed; essentially, the necessity
for intervention and its type is decided.
Structural evaluation considers layer thickness, materials properties and strength and is load related.
Structural evaluation is used to determine the ability of the pavement structure to carry traffic loading;
essentially, the remaining life of the pavement is determined, and from that, it is decided whether
rehabilitation or strengthening of the pavement structure is required for the anticipated future traffic loading.
1.1.1.1 Purpose of road pavement assessment
The assessment or evaluation of road pavements has the following four (4) purposes;
 To obtain required information promptly from the site for maintain smooth and safe traffic by adequate
maintenance.
 To know the pavement surface condition and identify the portion requiring maintenance
 To find locations of serious potholes in order to prevent accident of the road user and third party.
 To evaluate severity of the distress of the pavement, to prioritize the repair plan and to select the most
urgent section to repair.
In fact the road pavement evaluation is done:
(i) To assess to whether and to what extent the pavement fulfills the requirement.
(ii) To plan maintenance and strengthening works in time. And the engineering assessment of a road
pavement is divided into two fundamental categories:
 Functional performance assessing the surfacing
 Structural performance.
1.1.1.2 Types of road assessment techniques
 Non Destructive Testing: Non destructive testing is the collective term for evaluations/assessment
conducted on an existing road pavement structure that do not require subsequent maintenance work to
return the pavement to its per-testing state. In the area of non destructive testing, data collected in the
field are generally objective in nature, but often subjectivity appears in data analysis and in interpretation.
Example of a non destructive testing technique is Ground Penetration Radar
 Destructive Testing: Destructive testing provides more detailed data about the pavement not possible to
obtain through non destructive testing such as detailed data including laboratory mechanical, physical,
and chemical properties ( obtained through coring, trenching,…) and visual inspection of pavement
layers through coring and trenching.
 Visual condition surveys: Visual condition surveys cover aspects of both functional and structural
pavement condition, but generally serve as a qualitative indicator of overall condition. Specialized
equipment is used to quantify both functional and structural properties of the pavement structure.
Functional evaluation and structural evaluation are complimentary to each other and quite often are best to be
executed together, particularly when more precise determination of pavement rehabilitation strategy is
required. The functional evaluation of pavements is carried out by visual condition surveys or purposely built
mobile devices.
The structural evaluation of the pavement is carried out by non-destructive testing using deflection measuring
devices, supported by detailed information data of the pavement structure. Limited number of coring is
necessary to verify primarily pavement layer thickness, even if a ground penetration radar (GPR) device in
most cases is used.
1.1.1.3 Assessment of pavement condition using GPR
One of the devices used in road pavement evaluation studies is the ground-penetrating RADAR (RAdio
Detection And Ranging), known as GPR. The GPR device is used for rapid and non-destructive
determination of pavement layer thickness. It may also be used to detect cracks and determine crack depths,
discontinuities within layers in general, presence of moisture, voids within unbound materials, particularly
below concrete slabs, and position of reinforcement. This GPR consists of a transmitter
and receiver. The GPR transmits pulses of electromagnetic energy at various frequencies into the pavement
system. The pulses are reflected back to the receiver by the interface of the various pavement layers. and by
receiving and analyzing the reflected images of these pulses, pavement layer thickness and other layer
characteristics (cracks, etc.) are determined. The dielectric constant of the various pavement layers is
determined by coring the pavement and calibrating the GPR. The GPR can also be used to locate voids, and
locate areas with high moisture in the pavement layers. The use of the GPR has been standardized in ASTM
D-4748.
The GRP device is usually mounted on an falling weight deflectometer (FWD) vehicle or any other moving
deflection measuring vehicle. The FWD (or by other means) gathers deflection data which are used to
calculate stresses and strains in the structure on which overlay designs are decided.
A GPR contact device was demonstrated at the First International Conference on Backcalculation of
Pavement Stiffness in Baltimore, MD in 1988. With the development of the horn antenna non-contact
devices soon made it possible to collect data at higher speeds. These devices were also used for bridge health
monitoring in Sweden starting in 1991. It was typically used for detecting delaminating layers. The
evaluation techniques had to evolve somewhat as some layer interfaces are hard to interpret. In the early
1990:ies one usually had to rely on a few experts, but presently there is commercial software available.
However, one has to bear in mind that the thickness of the asphalt concrete layer is the most important for the
back calculation of layer stiffness and overlay design procedures. Fortunately, the interface between bound
and unbound layer is typically rather easy to detect by GPR as the dielectric constants do differ. GPR is a
non-destructive method used for high-resolution images of subsurface conditions. GPR works similarly to a
fish finder or sonar on a boat. The difference is that the GPR uses electromagnetic pulses instead of sound.
The system receives reflections from buried objects and changes in electrical properties of materials, which
are displayed as a continuous profile on a PC monitor. The data are displayed in real time for immediate
analysis on the job site. The measured time depends on the depth to the layer interface and the velocity of
which the wave propagates. Hence, in order to conduct accurate depth determinations from radar-gram, it is
necessary to calibrate the ordinary GPR measurements with velocity measurements or coring in which a
cylindrical core, usually 100 or 150 mm in diameter, is extracted.
GPR has evolved as the most promising NDT method for assessing layer thickness in road structures. The
measuring speed and high-resolution capabilities of the GPR method makes it well suited for road monitoring.
However, GPR is less suited for determining stiffness parameters. Therefore, other non-destructive methods
or coring are necessary compliments to GPR. One such non-destructive method is FWD. An effective
approach of combining GPR and FWD is to conduct the GPR measurement first and use that information to
determine appropriate locations and station distance for the FWD measurements.
Other than assessing layer thickness on existing pavements there are a lot of different uses for GPR in
relation to pavement property assessment. During construction the contractor can ascertain layer thickness to
avoid penalties. Likewise the road authorities can use it for construction control. Other applications involve
identifying large stones and boulders that may become a frost heave problem. Soils that contain much water
affects pavement deterioration. Therefore, moisture susceptibility is another property that can be assessed by
using GPR.

Figure 2.1 Radar-gram

Figure 3.1 Interpreted radar-gram showing variations in layer thickness

Figure below shows a typical GPR device mounted on a vehicle and typical partial processed data.
Figure 4.1 GPR device and (b) sample of processed data showing thickness variation (1 = overlay, 2 =
original asphalt layer, 3 = base/sub-base layer).
Figure 5.1 GPR on trolley

1.1.1.4 Pavement condition Rating

The rating method is based upon visual inspection of pavement distress. Although the relationship between
pavement distress and performance is not well defined, there is general agreement that the ability of a
pavement to sustain traffic loads in a safe and smooth manner is adversely affected by the occurrence of
observable distress. The rating method provides a procedure for uniformly identifying and describing, in
terms of severity and extent, pavement distress. The mathematical expression for pavement condition rating
(PCR) provides an index called pavement condition index reflecting the composite effects of varying distress
types, severity (typically cracks and rutting), and extent of these pavement surface distresses upon the overall
condition of the pavement and also the smoothness and ride comfort of the road.
The pavement condition index PCI is a numerical index scaled between 0 and 100 which is used to indicate
the general condition of a pavement section. PCI is correlated with the pavement performance indicators
measuring roughness such as international roughness index (IRI) and Present Serviceability rating PSR.
Generally a road with high PCI has a low IRI, and a road with a high IRI has a low PCI. However this is not
always the case. For example two roads with same PCI can have significantly different IRI values as a
result of having different types of distresses or grades.
In fact the Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) provides a measure the present condition of pavement and also
provides an objective and rational basis for determining maintenance and repair needs. It is also used to
establish the rate of pavement deterioration for early identification of rehabilitation needs.
The mathematical expression for PCI is as follows:

Equation (1)

Where: n = number of observable distresses, and

Deduct = (Weight for distress) (Wt. for severity) (Wt. for Extent)

Figure 6.1 Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) Scale

PCR numbers are calculated from Equation (1). From this scale ranging from 0 to 100; a PCR of 100
represents a perfect pavement with no observable distress and a PCR of 0 represents a pavement with all
distress present at their “High” levels of severity and “Extensive” levels of extent. All pavement rating
methods mainly help determine the order of priority of the pavement sections for maintenance or
rehabilitation.
Field monitoring procedure
The pavement condition rating is intended to apply to the entire pavement section being monitored. Section
lengths are established by the monitoring procedure, with the average length being from 3 to 5 km (2 to 3
miles). Directional lanes of multi lane roadways are considered separate roadways by the monitoring
procedure. On multi lane roadways the heaviest traveled lane (usually the outside lane) should be rated. For
two lane roadways, rating one direction is sufficient unless a significant difference in condition is observed
between the two lanes. The monitoring procedure checks the variance of the Pavement Serviceability Index
(PSI) within a section to limit section length. This limitation should produce sections that have a fairly
constant visual condition. If a definite variation in condition is observed within a section, the section should
then be subdivided for condition rating.
Step 1. The rating team (the rating team should consist of a Driver and a Rater) should ride the
predetermined roadway section at a speed of about 60 km (40 MPH). During this
step, readily visible distresses such as potholes, bleeding, settlement, faulting, spalling,
and surface deterioration should be rated. Also the need for subdividing the section
should be evaluated in step 1.
Step 2. A second pass along the roadway section should be made with stops at approximately 1.5 km (1 mile)
intervals. For example, a 3 km (2-mile section) would require 2 stops to be made. At each stop the raters
should evaluate the roadway by viewing 30 m (100') of the pavement. Close inspection of pavement cracking,
crack sealing, rutting, raveling, joint spalling, D-cracking, and other visible distress should be made by
viewing the pavement from the roadway shoulder.
Step 3. Complete the PCR form. The final rating form for the roadway section should represent the observed
average of visible distress for the entire section. Separate rating forms based upon the step 1 observations and
the individual stops made during step 2 are not required. However, raters may wish to use additional rating
forms for each stop, simply for note keeping purposes.
Figure 7.1 Example of a Pavement condition Rating form 1
Figure 8.1 Example of a Pavement condition Rating form 2
1.2: Identification distress using visual technique
Introduction

Pavement evaluations are conducted to determine functional and structural conditions of a highway
section either for purposes of routine monitoring or planned corrective action. Functional condition is
primarily concerned with the ride quality or safety aspects of a highway section (surface texture, cross
slope, splash and spray, etc.). Structural condition is concerned with the structural capacity of the
pavement as measured by deflection, layer thickness, and material properties.

At the network level, routine evaluations can be used to develop performance models and prioritize
maintenance or rehabilitation efforts and funding. At the project level, evaluations are more focused on
establishing the root causes of existing distress and the in situ material properties in order to determine
the best rehabilitation strategies.

The Visual evaluation is a simple method where distresses like (Alligator cracking, Longitudinal and
transverse cracking, Bleeding, Pothole, Patching, Ravelling, Rutting) are visually noted and recorded.

Flexible pavement visual survey condition categories.

 Ruts and depressions
Location: - In the wheel tracks of vehicles (ruts)
- Local areas (depressions)
Rutting is a surface depression in a wheel path and is a load-associated distress. Ruts are caused by the
deformations in pavements with insufficient strength to cater for the prevailing traffic, mostly as a result
of improper asphalt mix design,weak pavement, intrusion of sub-grade clay into base course, poor
compaction works or overloaded vehicles. It often takes place on roads with a high prevalence of heavy
traffic for which the pavement was not designed. The longitudinal depressions resulting from rutting
compromises the road camber, restricting water from being drained from the road surface.
Development, if neglected
If water is able to penetrate into the body of the pavement, then there will be a rapid increase in the
degree of rutting often leading to cracking and breakup of the pavement. I.e Un-drained water penetrating
the surface can further weaken the pavement leading to more deformations and finally breaking the
surface.
Figure 9.1 Degradation of carriageway

Figure 10.1 Formation of ruts in the carriageway

Rutting is rated by area and severity, with the area measured as a percentage of the section’s total wheel
path area.
Figure 11:1 Severe Asphalt rutting
 Depressions
These are caused by the uneven settlement of the pavement layers often for the same reasons as when
rutting occurs. Depressions are more common on older roads with limited pavement strengths and which
is experiencing an increase in heavy traffic. Depressions on new roads are either a result of construction
faults, using poor quality materials or when the drainage fails resulting in the pavement being saturated
with water. Depressions can also develop as a result of differential movements at structures, often found
at bridge and culvert approaches.

Figure 12.1 Depressions

 Potholes
Are depressions found randomly distributed over the carriageway and shoulders. They occur on sections
of the road where the road base has been exposed to high moisture levels due to cracks on the paved layer.
The causes can be due to lack of proper bond between the bituminous surfacing and underlying base
courses, insufficient bitumen content and too thinly laid bituminous wearing course. Potholes can also
form if the shoulders are not well compacted during construction and sealed with good quality gravel.
Potholes can also form if the shoulders are not well compacted during construction and sealed with good
quality gravel. In cold weather, the water in the ground freezes and thaws - this makes the ground expand
and contract, and makes cracks in the road. Traffic running over the cracks breaks them open further and
creates a pothole.
Location
No articular location but often in areas showing cracks, deformation or aggregate loss.
Development, if neglected
 progressive enlargement of the hole and formation of additional potholes.
Potholes are a common surface defect on both paved and unpaved roads. They develop under the action
of tyres, especially from heavy vehicles. For roads with a sound base course, they eventually develop
when the surface seal is worn out. Potholes may develop earlier from cracks in the surface caused by
pavement settlements resulting from inadequate load capacity or unstable fills or sub-grades.
Potholes increase rapidly in size during the rainy season when water collects inside the hole. Besides
causing discomfort to the road users, potholes allow water to penetrate into the pavement, thereby
compromising its load bearing capacity, which in turn accelerates the deterioration of the pavement and
its surface.
Potholes often develop as a result of poor drainage of the base course. Blocked side drains or
culverts,resulting in water penetrating the reason for such damages. On roads with base courses
consisting of water-bound Macadam, the reason for potholes can often be traced back to the use of
inferior material. If the base was built using rounded aggregate, it will not achieve the necessary cohesive
properties required to cater for heavy traffic.
Without the interlocking achieved with angular aggregate, there will be movements in the base course
aggregate which breaks up the surface seal. Although this problem can appear on any road, it materialises
more quickly on road sections with severe gradients. The frequent occurrence of potholes can also be an
indicator of a poorly performing base course or subgrade.
In summary these are the main causes of potholes
 Poor quality of material used for the construction of the pavement.
 Infiltration of water.
 Break away of material under the action of traffic.
 Final stage in the development of crazing or of a depression

Figure 13.1 Pothole on a gravel road

Figure 14.1 Potholes on a paved road

 Edge damage of paved roads are caused by weak materials used in shoulders and poor shoulder
maintenance that leaves the surface of the road pavement higher than the adjacent shoulder. Edges
are often more vulnerable to settlements due to shoulders consisting of poor materials or with poor
drainage.

Figure 15.1 Edge damage

Figure 16.1 Damaged road edge
 *
Location : Along the edges of the pavement .

Main Causes
Wear of the shoulder* (formation of step),
Action of water,
Insufficient compaction of the edges of bituminous pavements,
Road too narrow.
Development, if neglected rapid during the rainy season.
 Ravelling
This is a process in which the surface layer loses its aggregate particles due to insufficient binder in
the surface seal. This may take place when there is insufficient bonding with the underlying surface or
from an uneven application of binder when applying a chip and spray seal. A poorly maintained spray bar
with blocked nozzles or the incorrect adjustment of the height of the spray bar will produce an uneven
application of binder. Equally, incorrect binder content in a surface premix may cause ravelling. Finally,
ravelling can take place if the surface seal is poorly spread and compacted, construction during wet
weather, excessively open graded mix and overheating of the binder or aggregate.

Figure 17.1 Ravelling

Ravelling is caused by one or more or the following reasons:
(a) low bitumen content in the mixture,
(b) construction at low temperatures or during rain,
(c) Use of aggregates with poor affinity to bitumen (hydrophilic aggregates),
(d) use of disintegrating or dirty aggregate,
(e) bitumen ageing,
(f) bitumen or asphalt overheating
(g) inadequate compaction.
Ravelling is encouraged by the presence of water.
 Delamination
It is a result of poor bonding with the underlying surface or insufficient stability of the wearing course,
resulting in a total loss of the surface seal. The loss of the surface seal may eventually lead to the
development of potholes unless the defect is addressed by patching or resealing the failed section.

Figure 18.1 Delamination

 Cracks in the road surface can develop in various patterns and frequency. Most cracks are caused by
movements or settlements in the underlying pavement layers as a result of poor materials or
workmanship, instability of fills and shoulders or movements in the sub grade. Settlements may also
take place on aged pavements or as a result of traffic increases necessitating higher pavement
standards. If left unattended, cracks develop into potholes, causing further damage to the pavement
and its surface.
The frequency of cracks provides some indication of which layer of the pavement is causing the
settlement. When there are less frequent cracks, the settlements are likely to originate from the deepest
layers in the pavement, i.e. the sub grade or sub-base. Settlement cracks caused by insufficient pavement
strength or unstable fills will reappear and can eventually result in a disintegration of the surface.
Figure 19.1 Cracks on pavement

The most common forms of cracking are fatigue/alligator/map, longitudinal, transverse, and block
 Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracking is generally associated with an early stage of fatigue, a construction pavement joint,
an underlying trench or cracks associated with temperature cycling. Figure below shows a typical
longitudinal crack. Low severity longitudinal cracking can be treated by crack sealing. Higher severity
longitudinal cracking can be treated by full-depth patching or a thin overlay.

Figure 20.1 Longitudinal cracking

 Transverse Cracking
Transverse cracking is similar to longitudinal cracking except the cracking is perpendicular to the
direction of travel. Figure below shows typical transverse cracking. Low severity transverse cracking can
be treated with crack sealing. At higher severity, transverse cracking can be treated by crack sealing in
conjunction with a slurry seal or micro-surfacing, mill and overlay, or removal and replacement of the
surface layer. In those cases where an overlay and/or removal and replacement are warranted, it is
important to select the appropriate grade of asphalt to prevent the occurrence of transverse cracks in the
future.

Figure 21.1 Transverse Cracking

 Block Cracking: Block cracking is a climate /material related distress, where shrinkage of the
bituminous surface or underlying stabilized base causes interconnected cracks that divide the surface
into irregular pieces. The block cracking pattern is much larger than alligator cracking, with blocks
ranging from 1 ft to 10 ft. On edge, and is not limited to the wheel paths. Rating is generally in terms
of a percentage of the lane's total surface area. This distress is not a structural problem until the
effects of traffic and the environment further weaken the pavement by allowing moisture infiltration
and ravelling of the crack edges. Addressing this distress as part of a rehabilitation strategy may be as
simple as sealing the cracks prior to placing a surface treatment.
Figure 22.1 Block cracking
 Alligator Cracking ( Fatigue Cracking ): Is a traffic loading related distress that is initiated in the
wheel paths. Alligator cracking is characterised by branched and interconnected cracks that form
small small polygonal blocks ( less than 1 ft on the edge) , the pattern of which resembles an
alligator’s skin. When alligator cracking is extensive and has initiated from the wheel paths, and there
is no surface depression, the cause is related to fatigue of the asphalt layer. The particular pavement
section has failed and reached its service life. If, together with the alligator cracking, surface
depression is observed, the pavement has also failed as a result of settlement failure of the sub-grade.
Which failure came first is a matter of investigation to be conducted.
When alligator cracking is not extensive but localized, the cause is most probably the local weakening of
the sub-grade or, to a lesser extent, of the unbound layers, owing to moisture increase. This implies that,
locally, the sub-grade material had very low bearing capacity (existence of medium- to high-plasticity
material) or the unbound materials used do not comply with the requirements. Localized alligator
cracking more often is accompanied by surface depression. Localized alligator cracking usually appear
within the first few years after pavement construction (2 to 5 years).
Rating is expressed as a percentage of the total wheel path area for the rated lane. A minimal
rehabilitation strategy should include removal of the affected material and proper patching before placing
a new surface. Attempting to seal or place an overlay over these cracks without proper patching will
result in rapid appearance of the distress.
Causes
Alligator cracking, also known as fatigue cracking, is caused by excessive deflection of the asphalt layer.
This can be caused by overloading the asphalt layer (fatigue cracking of asphalt layer) or by weakening of
the subgrade or unbound layers because of moisture increase. The above are also related to insufficient
pavement thickness and to thin asphalt layer.

Figure 23.1 Typical pattern of alligator cracking

Figure 24.1 Localized alligator cracking
 Bleeding or flushing
This is a result of excessive amounts of bitumen binder in the surface seal. The excess binder is forced to
the road surface by the action of traffic. The spot where bleeding has occurred is soft and has a smooth
surface. The “fat’ surface reduces skid resistance, especially when wet. In extreme cases the surface layer
may separate and break away under the action of traffic. Bleeding is described as the presence of excess
asphalt on the surface of the pavement. The condition is generally more prevalent in the wheel paths and
can be present in both HMAC and seal coat surfaces. Flushing can reduce the surface friction and may
contribute to a traffic safety hazard. Measurement is in terms of percent of the lane’s total wheel path
affected and the degree of severity ( low, medium, high ). Underlying causes can include high asphalt
cement content, excessive densification ( low air voids) of the surface mix, temperature susceptibility of
the AC binder, soft AC binder, excessive tack, or even migration of the AC layers that are moisture
susceptible. Corrective actions can include application of micro surfacing, a conventional seal coat ( using
stringent field control to monitor the asphalt application rate), Cold milling with subsequent seal or thin
overlay, a permeable friction course, or a conventional thin overlay.
Figure 25.1 Bleeding
Corrugations
These are transverse wave patterns occurring on carriageway formed mainly during the dry season on
gravel or earth roads on which high proportions of loose material exists. As the traffic passes, the loose
material is pushed into regular lumps across the road forming deeper corrugations.
Figure 26.1 Corrugations
 Edge subsidence and rutting
Usually along the edges of the pavement where it borders unsealed shoulders.
Main Causes
 Inadequate or badly maintained shoulder,
 Penetration of water into the pavement structure or foundation and resulting loss of bearing strength,
 Poor drainage,
 Narrow carriageway.
Development, if neglected
 Rapid during the rainy season leading to the disintegration of the edges of the pavement.
 Figure 27.1 Edge subsidence
 Shoving
Location
 Usually on either side of the wheel tracks. The irregularities are usually associated with deformation
and subsidence.
Main Causes
 Ingress of water: reduced bearing capacity of the pavement,
 Materials: of poor quality,
 Workmanship: insufficient compaction,
 Traffic: passage of vehicles which are too heavy for the pavement structure.
Development, if neglected
 Forcing up of weak materials as deformation occurs,
 Progressive disintegration of the pavement.

Figure 28.1 Shoving

Non-Destructive Evaluation of the pavement functional properties
Non-destructive testing is used to test functional and structural properties of the pavement. Functional
properties of the pavements include:
 Roughness, and
 Skid resistance
Learning Outcome 1.3: Identify structural distress using assessment equipment
1.3.3 Introduction on automatized distress data collection
Automated distress data collection is the technique by which pavement distress data are collected by
imaging or use of non contact sensor equipments. Oppositely to the pavement distress data collected
through manual procedures, even if recorded by laptop computers or by other methods are not considered
to have been collected through automated means. Manual collection is understood to mean that data are
collected through processes where people are directly involved in the obsevation or measurement of
pavement surface properties without the benefit of automated equipment ( e.g: Visual surveys, and
faultmeters). The definition of fully automated is such that distresses are identified and quantified through
techniques that require either no or a very minimum of human intervention. Typically automated in the
context of pavement cracking involves the use of digital recognition software capable of recognizing and
quantifying variations in grayscale that relate to striations( cracks) on a pavement surface.
1.3.4 Pavement Distress data capture/collection technologies
The equipment used in automated pavement distress data collection in this unit, conforms to the
provisions of the ASTM standard guide for classification of automated pavement condition survey
equipment. The data collection technologies fall into two general classes; imaging of the pavement
surface through photographing, videotaping, or digitizing, and measurement of pavement longitudinal and
transverse profile through the use of various non contact sensors.
 Analog imaging
The predominant use of analogue imaging of pavements is in photographing (usually with 35 mm film)
and videotaping. Images obtained can be of high quality but they are not easily converted to digital format
for computer storage and manipulation. Analog imaging has been used in recent years owing to the
maturing of digital technology. The photographic method popularly known as photo-logging was used as
analog imaging method by many agencies for years. The photo-logging methodology essentially consists
of photographing the pavement surface usually with 35 mm film and the reduction of distress data
through review of the film at a workstation. Photo-logging vans typically use a downward-facing camera
and possibly one or more facing forward or in another direction, depending on the user needs. Most of the
works was done by contract on a cost per mile/kilometer basis. Much of the work done at night used
lighted cameras to overcome problems with shadows cast by vehicles, traffic or roadside features that can
mask the pavement features critical to proper distress evaluation.
Although analog video signals can be transmitted and copied throgh narrow band widths, it is difficult to
manipulate, copy and distribute the signals which degrades image quality. It is also difficult to integrate
analog video with other types of data such as text and graphics, unless high end video production is used.
The resolution of the analog video signal is also relatively low compared with that of digital
alternatives.That is why nowadays most of highway users of videotapes have largely transitioned into
using computer based digital technology.
 Digital Imaging
The employment of digital cameras came out as the preferred of pavement imaging to capture pavement
surface distress data. A major force behind the move toward digital imaging of pavement is the
opportunity to reduce distress data from those images throgh automated methods. Another advantage of
digital imaging is the availability of random access to the data. Another reaason is that digital images lend
themselves to automated analysis because of the ability to analyse variations in gray scale as those
variations relate to the pavement features. There are two types of cameras used to digitally image a
pavement surface. These are known generally as the “Area scan” and the “ Line scan”.
 Area Scan
This method of digital imaging refers to that in which an image consisting of thousand of pixels depicts
some defined pavement area usually one half to full-lane width and 3 to 5m long, depending on camera
features ( lens, camera angle, placement) and survey vehicle speed. In pavement imaging, camera angle is
of great importance for distorted pixels ( and images) will occur if the camera is not perpendicular to the
pavement surface. Area scanning uses a two dimensional (2-D) array of pixels in conventional sequence
of snapshots.

Figure 29.1 Area Scanning

 Figure 30.1: 2,048-pixel resolution image in JPEG format (area scan digital camera)
 Line Scan
The most common example of line scan imaging is the fax machine. Line scan imagers use a single line
of sensor pixels ( effectively one-dimensional ) to build up a 2-D image. The second dimension results
from the motion of the object being imaged. The 2-D images are required line by line by successive
single-line scans while the object moves ( Perpendicularly) past the line of pixels in the image sensor.
Thus, line scan pavement imaging is performed through the digital capture of a series of transverse lines
that are that are full lane width. These lines are stitched together to form a continuous image or an
image broken at intervals set by the user.

Figure 31.1 Line Scanning

A particularly onerous problem with line scan imaging can result from any shadows cast by the survey
vehicle itself. Because of the line scan feature, any shadow from the vehicle that falls onto the pavement
surface will appear as a continuous shadow in the scanned image. If this shadow falls in a critical area of
the pavement, a wheel path, for example, the image can be rendered virtually useless. Special precautions
and sometimes special lighting must be used to avoid this problem with line scans.

Figure 32.1 Linescan pavement image with vehicle-cast shadow in left wheel track

 Distress data processing technologies

This is referred to the various technologies employed to gather useful information from the data collected
through automated means. Modern high-speed computers and data storage devices have led to quantum
leaps in the ability to deal with some of these issues. The result is that there are at least three general
classes of methods used to reduce pavement condition data to useful information. Depending on the
degree of human intervention required to achieve useful results they are purely manual semi-automated,
and fully automated methods. For the most part, the manual and semi automated methods apply only to
pavement cracking and patching (image-collected data). The analysis of ride quality, rutting, and
joint-faulting data collected with sensors has been largely automated. Only semi-automated and
automated methods are discussed in this synthesis.
 Semi-Automated Methods
Semi-automated methods of distress data reduction include those methods in which there is significant
human intervention.
In some cases, the process is primarily manual and involves a trained rater sitting at a workstation where
pavement images are systematically reviewed and the various distresses identified and classified as to
extent and severity. Such workstations are equipped with images players, integrated distress rating and
location-reference software that can access image and database files, high-capacity storage devices, and
one or more high-speed processors. The identification of various distress types, as well as their severities
and extents from images requires observers or raters who have been well trained in both pavement
distress evaluation and in the use of the workstation hardware and software

Figure 33.1 Digital work Station

Figure 34.1 Automated pavement cracking analysis.

 Fully Automated Methods
In the context of this synthesis, the definition of fully automated is that distresses are identified and
quantified through processes that require either no or very minimal human involvement. Typically, fully
automated in the context of pavement cracking analysis involves the use of digital recognition software
capable of recognizing and quantifying variations in grayscale that relate to striations (or cracks) on a
pavement surface.
For crack detection, an initial setup is required where the workstation operator selects images used to
determine an optimum set of detection parameters accounting for pixel-by-pixel grayscale variation as
related to crack contrast, brightness, and surface conditions. During this setup phase, the program
provides visual feedback of the detection results in the form of crack maps traced over the underlying
images of control pavements. The beginning and end of each crack are location referenced using an x–y
coordinate system. For each crack, the length, width, and orientation are also computed and saved.

Figure 35.1 Typical digital pavement image

Figure 36.1 Example crack map

1.3.5 Identification of Pavement Management Information System (PMIS), distress types for
flexible pavement
Pavement Management is defined as ‘The effective and efficient directing of the various activities
involved in providing and sustaining pavements in a condition acceptable to the travelling public at the
least life cycle cost. Pavement management in its broadest sense encompasses all activities involved in
the planning, design, construction, maintenance, evaluation and rehabilitation of the pavement portion of
the public works program to optimize pavement conditions. The necessity for pavement management led
to the development of the pavement management system (PMS).
According to AASHTO (1993), A pavement management system PMS is a set of tools or methods that
assist decision makers in finding optimum strategies for providing, evaluating and maintaining pavements
in a serviceable condition over a given period of time. The function of a PMIS is to improve the
efficiency of decision-making, expand its scope, provide feedback on the consequences of decisions,
facilitate the coordination of activities and ensure the consistency of decisions made at different
management levels.
Purpose of pavement management
The purpose of pavement management is to get financial, technical, organisational and
administrative benefits (OECD 1987).
 Financial benefits
Pavement management should aim to maximise net financial profits in relation to the
financial restrictions imposed. This is achieved by the following:
 Appropriate management of the available funds
Programming the maintenance/rehabilitation works in accordance with the available funds
Determination of the impact of various maintenance/rehabilitation alternative solutions to the cost of
the proprietor and to the cost of the user
Determination of the impact of construction quality to the user cost
Objective evaluation/selection of the optimal choice, based solely on cost/benefit analysis
 Technical benefits
Pavement management should offer technical benefits. To achieve technical benefits, a PMS Should
Be composed of an extensive and integrated database (data bank) that should be constantly updated
Be reformed using the experience of the past and the technological advances of the present, by
ameliorating the maintenance and construction techniques and avoiding the same mistakes
Choose the most appropriate maintenance/rehabilitation method
Use reliable forecast models of the pavement behaviour and reliable cost/benefit estimation models
Use criteria that aid decision making, such as desired level of pavement condition, warning level and
intervention level
 Organisational benefits
In pavement management, there should also be organisational benefits; to achieve this, a PMS should
Be able to reasonably determine the pavement condition at the network or project level
Plan and program both the present and future maintenance activities
Use the most effective and efficient methodology of systematic monitoring of the pavement condition
Predict the consequences that will result from different financing
Provide an objective basis for political decisions
Figure 37.1 Major classes of activities in PMIS

 Levels of pavement management analysis

PMSs used in decision making are distinguished into three reference levels: the project level,
the network level and the strategic level. The project-level PMS considers a specific section (or sections)
of the road network. The network-level PMS considers the road network of a wide area such as a district
or county.
The strategic-level PMS considers the entire road network of a region or even of the whole country or
state. Some modern integrated PMSs are developed to operate at all levels depending on the
requirements.
 Pavement management at the project level
Pavement management at the project level involves decisions regarding the maintenance and
rehabilitation of specific pavement sections, defining the ‘project’. The decisions are made by operation
engineers with good technical background and based on technical merits rather than on resource
requirements and budget projections.
In a PMS at the project level, a detailed functional and structural evaluation of the pavement sections is
conducted, the causes of deterioration are identified, followed by the selection of the appropriate
intervention (routine maintenance, maintenance, rehabilitation or reconstruction). Figure below illustrates
the elements contained in a PMS at the project level.
The functional evaluation of the pavement is usually carried out by a visual condition survey, coring and
the use of necessary devices measuring surface characteristics such as skid resistance and
transverse/longitudinal evenness. The decisions are usually based on the deterioration rate of the
pavement section, assisted by historical maintenance and construction data. When alternative solutions
are considered, life cycle cost analysis is applied. All collected data from the sections at the project level
are stored in a main data bank in which data from other projects and from the road network are also
stored.
In particular, a PMS at the project level
 Considers all basic pavement design parameters such as subgrade strength, traffic volume,
properties of materials, climatic conditions, cost of materials, age of pavement and remaining life
 Deals with detailed pavement analysis, determines the cause for each individual distress and
specifies corrective measures or suggests alternatives solutions
 Applies life cycle cost analysis when alternatives are considered
 Decides whether maintenance, rehabilitation or reconstruction will be implemented at each specific
pavement section and establishes priorities
 Selects the type of materials to be used and specifies rehabilitation thickness
 Presents pavement condition, results and recommendations in tabular or graphical form
 Feeds the main data bank with inventory data, pavement characteristics, pavement behaviour and
corrective measures taken in the specific project sections
 Pavement management at the network level
Pavement management at the network level deals with summary information related to the network
concern, aiming at prioritization of maintenance and rehabilitation works with respect to the amount of
funding available. The decisions are made by senior executives. As it is stated (Asphalt Institute 2009),
they make decisions that play a part in determining pavement performance targets, distributing funds
among regions or districts and establishing pavement preservation policies. Figure below illustrates the
elements contained at the network level.
The evaluation of the functional and structural condition of the network pavements is carried out by
traffic speed moving devices; limited coring and falling weight deflectometer (FWD) measurements are
conducted only to confirm the findings from moving devices and obtain more structural details on
pavement layers at selective locations.
All collected data, GIS referenced, are stored in the main data bank for future use.
A PMS at the network level
Depicts the current pavement condition of the network
Predicts and projects future needs
Identifies candidate projects for improvements
Prioritizes the candidate projects
Determines budget requirements for short- and long-term needs
Estimates the consequences of the alternative fund investments on the future behaviour of pavement
Determines the final work plan, usually by an iterative process that involves moving neighbouring
projects from one year to another, or combining similar actions, to gain economy of scale
Presents network pavement condition in map and tabular form
Feeds the main data bank with all data collected from the network and with the final decisions made
regarding corrective measures

Figure 38.1 Activities of PMIS at project and network levels

 Pavement management at the strategic level
Pavement management is used nowadays on strategic decisions made by government officials,
transportation boards, city councils or an agency’s upper management. All are charged with long-term
decision making based on pavement performance targets, fund requirements to achieve the performance
targets, distribution of funds among regions or districts and pavement preservation policy.
Pavement management components
A PMS, irrespective of the analysis level, is composed of the following components:
a. Pavement inventory
b. Pavement condition information (survey)
c. Traffic data
d. History of post works
e. Database
f. Analysis module
g. Reporting module

Figure 39.1 Pavement Management process

 Pavement inventory
The minimum pavement characteristics to be recorded are as follows:
Jurisdictional information, such as concessionaire, district, region or city.
Location information, which includes the beginning and end point of each pavement segment.
Road classification, for example, highway, principal, secondary or arterial road, crossroad,
interchange and so on. A term often used is branch identification. A branch is an easily identifiable
part of the pavement network with a distinct use.
The type of pavement and type of shoulder (when it exists).
The dimensions of the road (branch), for example, length, width and number of lanes, width of
shoulders (when they exist) and so on.
The historical construction data, for instance, year/month of construction, one stage or planned stage
construction, maintenance/rehabilitation history, materials used, layer thickness, bearing capacity
of formation layer material and anything else considered useful.
Past traffic data.
Pavement inventory may also contain additional data such as bridge or underpass locations, road marking,
streetlights, safety barriers, street furniture in general, accident records, construction, maintenance,
rehabilitation cost, contracting companies’ data, noise and air pollution measurements and anything else
related to the road. The above mentioned complementary data are not of course all necessary for a
pavement management study. They are useful, however, as they provide an integrated picture of the road.
The existence of all the above mentioned characteristics makes the data bank more complete and offers
the opportunity to take other decisions being part of road management.
 Pavement condition information
Pavement condition information is perhaps the most fundamental of all input data, as it will define the
present and future needs for maintenance or rehabilitation works. Pavement condition is assessed by
pavement condition surveys carried out visually or by the use of appropriate static or mobile devices,
measuring functional and structural pavement properties. The results of pavement condition surveys are
expressed in terms of condition indices.
 Traffic data
Historic traffic data and traffic counts are also very important because they are necessary to determine
past traffic and predict future pavement condition and remaining pavement life. Historic traffic data are
relatively easy to be found in most countries. If not available, past traffic can be estimated from traffic
counts executed during surveying period, the average annual increase of commercial vehicles from date
of construction or last intervention and number of years elapsed.
 History of post works
The history of post-construction works, if carried out, must be known in detail. This provides valuable
information on estimating rates of deterioration for locally existent conditions. Initial construction details
and history of post-construction works link the differences in pavement performance to pavement
structure characteristics.
 Database
The inventory, pavement condition, traffic and historic works data should be stored in a database. The
data storage can range from simple spreadsheets to a rational computerised database. The latter is
advantageous since retrieving, sorting and updating data become an easier task; it also provides access
and the possibility of distant sharing by all agencies’ offices.
 Analysis module
The analysis module is the heart of a PMS since, after processing and analysing the data, themaintenance
or rehabilitation program is optimised within given constrains, usually funding Limitations
a) Pavement performance models
The pavement performance or pavement deterioration models predict future changes in the pavement
condition. They are critical because they determine when maintenance/rehabilitation will be required,
hence estimating needs for future funding. Thus, pavement performance prediction models should be as
reliable as possible. The above is not an easy task since the general term, pavement performance, is
affected by many individual functional and structural pavement characteristics such as evenness, rutting,
cracking, ravelling, potholing, skid resistance and so on. Each of these characteristics deteriorates
differently depending on the existing conditions and type of pavement and hence requires a different way
of treatment. To assist pavement management, for all pavement characteristic properties, there should be
an individual unique deterioration model; an almost impossible task.
b) Reporting on treatment rules
Treatment rules must be defined to describe the conditions under which intervention works (maintenance,
rehabilitation or reconstruction) are considered to be feasible. The degree of sophistication for defining
treatment rules depends on the agency
1.3.6 Distress types for Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Typical distresses in rigid pavements
The surface distresses in rigid pavements may be classified into cracking, deformation (distortion),
disintegration and loss of skid resistance.
Before describing in detail the distresses and their causes, it should be mentioned that effective
maintenance/treatment of the distresses in rigid pavements with cement mortar or concrete (unreinforced
or reinforced) is too difficult and sometimes impossible. For this reason, bitumen and asphalt are the
materials greatly used in maintenance of rigid pavements.
Cracking of rigid pavements
Cracking is the most common distresses of rigid pavements. It is caused, to a great extent,
not only by the concrete’s volumetric behaviour under temperature variations but also by the
repetitive loading caused by traffic and some other external factors. Cracks in concrete may develop at
any direction, from the first hours of curing. Many cracks could be avoided or limited by provision of
proper joint spacing, careful curing of concrete, good concrete mix and pavement design and good
workmanship. Timely maintenance sealing of the joints and of the cracks is of vital importance to prevent
development of further distresses, which eventually accelerates the complete deterioration of the
pavement. The use of continuous reinforced concrete and, to a lesser extent, jointed reinforced concrete
eliminates the development of some of the distresses described below.
 Linear cracking
Linear cracking are formed in the transverse, longitudinal or diagonal direction that divides
the slab into two to four parts. They extend down to a certain depth of the slab or to the full
depth of the slab.
Causes
Linear cracking is caused by one or more of the following reasons:
(a) traffic overloading (usually the stage where pavement construction reaches its excepted life),
(b) improper transverse joint spacing (slab size, temperature related),
(c) late sawing of the joint groove,
(d) dowel restrain gross misalignment,
(e) compression failure,
(f) ingress of incompressible material into the joint,
(g) edge restrain,
(h) lack or loss of sub-base or subgrade support,
(i) excessive swelling/ shrinkage of the subgrade,
(j) settlement of the subgrade owing to improper compaction and
(k) propagation cracking (in unreinforced slabs) as a result of crack formed in the sub-base.

Figure 40.1 Transverse cracking (crack through the full depth of the slab)
 Corner cracking
Corner cracking appears at the corners and is a crack that, together with the two sides of the joints, forms
a triangle. Corner cracking usually extends the full depth of the slab.
Causes
Corner cracking is caused by load repetitions combined with a loss of corner support (subbase or
subgrade), poor load transfer across the joint, dowel bar restrain near the edge of
the slab and ingress of solids into the joint. The loss of support may be created by pumping
or warping stresses.
 Joint cracking and extrusion of joint seal
Joint cracking appears at the joint in the form of a crack (or cracks) either on the surface of the joint
sealant or between the sealant and the wall of the joint. In some cases, the joint may be safer from
extrusion of the sealant.
Causes
A crack on the surface of the sealant is a cohesion failure resulting primarily from ageing of the sealant.
Other factors such as inappropriate sealing material or incorrect sealing groove may also be the cause. A
crack between the sealant and the wall of the joint is an adhesion failure resulting from inadequate
preparation of the sealing groove, inappropriate sealing material, the presence of moisture in the sealing
groove, incorrect dimensions of the sealing groove or the chilling effect.
Extrusion of the sealant may be caused by overfill sealing groove and lack of compressibility of the
backer material (caulking strip), if used.
 D-cracking
D-cracking is the formation of a series of cracks parallel and close to each other curving around corners
of joints or cracks intersecting edges. D-cracking always starts from the bottom of the slab and progresses
upwards until it reaches the surface, usually near the pavement joints.
Causes
D-cracking is caused by freezing and thawing cycles of the concrete containing expansive or poor-quality
aggregates. Accumulation of water in the pavement structure (sub-base or subgrade) is the only
contributing factor for the development of this type of cracking.
 Multiple cracking
Multiple cracking is the crack pattern that divides the slab into more than four parts. It can be likened to a
situation where the slab is shattered.
Causes
Multiple cracking is caused by fatigue and other factors. When multiple cracking forms earlier than
expected, the probable cause is poor support of the slab.
 Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete
Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete is non-fatigue-related cracking caused, to a great extent, by the
moisture-induced volume changes of the concrete during the early stages of curing (plastic stage) as well
as after when the concrete is hardened.
The most typical forms of cracking that developed on fresh and hardened concrete are plastic shrinkage
cracking, drying (long term) shrinkage cracking, crazing cracking and early thermal contraction
cracking.
 The plastic shrinkage cracks are linear, formed randomly and usually parallel to each other;
 the drying shrinkage cracks are almost linear cracks and are formed either transversely or
longitudinally to the longer length of the slab (single type) or into a three-crack pattern (branched
type);
 the crazing cracks are of an irregular network pattern (map cracking); and the early thermal
contraction cracks are linear and formed in the slab’s corners or edges. The opening width of the
cracks varies from 0.1 to 3 mm and their depth can be very shallow or very deep, depending on the
form of cracking.
Figure 41.1 Crazing cracking

Figure… Drying shrinkage cracking, linear-branched into three cracks

Figure 42.1 Drying shrinkage cracking
Causes
Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete, in general, is caused by a combination of the following factors:
environmental conditions during curing, rate of bleeding, rate of cooling, rate of water evaporation,
temperature gradient or moisture content between the top and bottom of a slab, inefficient joints, excess
shrinkage and inefficient curing. The type of aggregate used is also an important factor, usually
overlooked, for the development of shrinkage cracking. When shrinking aggregate is used, extra care
during curing should be taken to avoid development of shrinkage cracking.

 Cracking of hardened concrete caused by other factors

External factors may also cause cracking of hardened concrete. These are cracking attributed to poor
construction practice, cracking attributed to errors in design and detailing, cracking attributed to
externally applied loads, weathering cracking or defrost cracking, cracking attributed to corrosion of
reinforcement and cracking attributed to overloading.
 Surface deformation in rigid pavements
Surface deformation is another very common type of distress of jointed rigid pavements. Surface
deformation is the difference in elevation across a joint or a crack resulting from vertical movements.
Vertical movement may develop either by permanent movement in the form of settlement (also known as
faulting) or by dynamic movement caused by passing traffic usually associated with mud pumping.
Evaluation of faulting may be carried out by using AASHTO R 36(2013).
 Causes
Settlement or faulting is caused by compaction/consolidation or shrinkage of the layers underlying the
slab, movements in the underlying ground or lack of effective load transfer between slabs at joints
(effectiveness of dowels and tie bars). Dynamic movement is caused by lack of support from the sub-base,
lack of effective load transfer at joints or poor pavement (surface) or subgrade drainage.
Disintegration of rigid pavements
Disintegration, as in flexible pavements, is the fragmentation of the pavement surface into small loose
pieces. This may also include the detachment (loss or dislodging) of aggregate particles from the surface
of the rigid pavement. If disintegration is not treated at an early stage, the slab will certainly require
complete reconstruction. The main forms of disintegration in rigid pavements are scaling and joint (or
edge of slabs)spalling.
 Scaling
Scaling is the flaking or peeling of the surface of hardened concrete. It starts as localised patches that later
on may merge. Light scaling does not expose coarse aggregates. Moderate
scaling exposes the coarse aggregate, while in severe scaling, coarse aggregates are clearly exposed and
stand out.

Figure 43.1 Scaling

Causes
Scaling is caused by one of the following: over-finish (surface bleed water), improper mixing,
improper/insufficient curing, use of unsuitable aggregate, chemical action of the de-icing material or
exposure to freezing and thawing particularly when non-air-entrained concrete is used.
 Spalling
Joint (or edge) and corner of slabs spalling is the breaking up or disintegration of the concrete at these
joint locations or cracks. Spalling may be distinguished into shallow or deep and impairs the effectiveness
of joint seal. Spalling is identified by small pieces of concrete, usually in angular shape,separated from
the pavement surface. As seen in the figure below, spalling generally occurs at joints, edges, corners or
cracks, or directly over reinforcing bars. Infiltration of incompressible particles into joints or cracks,
corrosion of rebars or dowels, misalignment of dowels, subbase movement, and poor quality concrete
aggregate are possible causes for spalling.

Figure 44.1 Spalling in rigid pavements

Causes
Spalling is caused by one of the following: weak concrete, poor joint sealing (or crack sealing),
infiltration of fine material or sand into the joint, improper forming of joint or damage caused by removal
of formwork, penetration of stones into the joint groove, misplacement of dowels or dowel restrain. The
last three factors cause deep spalling.
 Loss of surface skid resistance
Loss of surface skid resistance to levels below acceptable is associated with smooth and slippery concrete
surface, which directly affects traffic safety. Unlike all other surface distresses, a smooth and slippery
surface does not affect the structural deterioration of the rigid pavement.
Cause
The cause for loss of surface skid resistance is exclusively the wear of the surface texture provided, the
polishing of the fine aggregate and the polishing of the exposed coarse aggregate.
Tabular summary of distresses in rigid pavements
1.4 Calculate present serviceability index
1.4.1 Present serviceability ratio and present serviceability index concept
The first expression of the functional evaluation of the pavement was related to the ‘rideability’ or
acceptability of the pavement by road users. The determination of the ride quality was carried out by a
group of people who drove over various pavement sections of excellent to unacceptable quality level and
then rated the pavement sections on a scale of 0 to 5. Such pavements were those constructed during the
AASHTO experiment (AASHTO 1962; Carey and Irick 1960). During the rating, the drivers were asked
to take into account the surface irregularities along the transverse and longitudinal direction, cracking and
in general any pavement distress affecting the ride quality. From the average rating obtained, the term
present serviceability ratio (PSR) was defined, where 0 to 1 indicates a pavement in very poor condition
(unacceptable), 1 to 2 denotes a pavement in poor condition, 3– indicates a pavement in good condition
and 4 to 5 denotes a pavement in very good condition. Serviceability of a pavement is defined as its
ability to serve the type of traffic (automobiles and trucks) which use the facility. The primary measure of
serviceabilty is the present serviceability index PSI .
The subjectivity of rating the pavement condition by users in terms of PSR has led to the development of
the present serviceability index (PSI). The same sections of the AASHTO study were also surveyed at the
same time and physical measurements (slope variance in wheel paths, cracking, area of patching and rut
depth) were carried out (AASHTO 1962). The PSR estimated from objective physical measurements was
termed PSI. The equations derived to determine PSR in an objective way in terms of PSI were as follows:
For flexible pavements:
For Rigid pavements

Where:
 PSI is the present serviceability index;
 SV is the average slope variance on both wheel paths, as obtained by AASHTO profilometer (this is
an expression of surface irregularities);
 C is the major cracking in linear feet per 1000 ft2 of pavement area;
 P is the asphalt patching in square feet per 1000 ft2 of pavement area; and
 RD is the average rut depth of both wheel paths based on a 4 ft straightedge in inches (this is an
expression of permanent deformation).
The determination of PSI using the above equations provided the ability to quantify more objectively the
pavement condition from condition surveys.
Many organizations in many countries have adopted the PSI approach for periodical evaluation of the
pavement condition (road network) aiming to prioritise and organise maintenance and rehabilitation
works. Others have modified the PSI equations according to their own findings and needs, for example,
inclusion of International Roughness Index (IRI) measurements (Hernan de Solminihac et al. 2003).
AASHTO values are 4.5 for rigid pavement and 4.2 for flexible pavement. The PSI value is decreased as
pavement is in use, and usually when the PSI value is below 2.0, that is, the pavement is in poor condition
and at an unsatisfactory level, immediate rehabilitation should be considered. A PSI value of 2.5 is
usually considered as a warning level for future pavement rehabilitation works.
PSI assessment is a useful tool for decision making with regard to maintenance, rehabilitation or even
reconstruction of the pavement. It is mentioned that the PSI concept is also used in the thickness design of
new flexible pavements or asphalt overlays using the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
(AASHTO 1993).
 Figure 45.1 Concept of pavement performance using Present Serviceability Index (PSI)

1.5 Calculate properly International Roughness Index according to the design manual
As a reminder Pavement Condition data include Pavement roughness (IRI, rut), Pavement distress (PCI),
Pavement structural condition and Skid resistance.
Pavement Condition Parameters are:

Pavement roughness refers to irregularities in the pavement surface that affect the smoothness of the ride.
Pavement roughness can be defined by:
 Present serviceability rating (PSR)
 Present serviceability index (PSI)
 Relationship between IRI and PSI
PSI represents the overall pavement condition based on the values of: rut depth, roughness, and cracking
index.
 In-class activity

Rut IRI PCI PSI

0.175 92 82 ?