KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

MUKTHAGANGOTHRI, MYSORE – 570 006

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

(FIRST SEMESTER)

Course: ESOEL Block I: Unit 1, 2, 3, 4

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

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 Karnataka State Open University

Mukthagangotri, Mysuru - 570 006

Department of studies in Environmental science

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

First Semester

Course: ESOEL
Basics of Environmental Science
Block I: Unit 1, 2, 3, 4

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 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

COURSE DESIGN
Dr. Vidyashankar S. Chairman
Vice Chancellor
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006
Prof. Ashok Kamble Convener
Dean (Academic)
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

COURSE COORDINATOR & EDITOR

Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar
Chairman
Department of Studies in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

COURSE WRITERS
NAME BLOCK UNITS
Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar I 1-4
Assistant Professor & Chairman
Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru

PUBLISHER
Registrar
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

Developed by Academic Section, KSOU, Mysuru

Karnataka State Open University (KSOU), 2022
© All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from Karnataka State Open University.
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 Contents Page No.

Block Introduction vi

Unit 5: Definition, Principle and Scope of Environmental Science 1 - 24

Unit 6: Ecosystems 25 - 40

Unit 7: Population Dynamics 41 - 55

Unit 8: Biogeochemical Cycles 56 - 76

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 Block II: Biodiversity Conservation and Management
Block Introduction

Environmental science covers many interconnected issues involving human population, earth’s natural
resources, environmental pollution etc. and combines information from many disciplines and provides
detailed information about our surroundings, its importance and influence on organisms, including
human beings. Environment composed of physical, biological and cultural environment. Ecosystems
are the areas where interaction of abiotic and biotic factors leads to transfer of food and energy,
biogeochemical cycles, production and control. Ecosystems are of two types, natural and artificial
ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Ecosystems are composed of
abiotic and biotic factors. Biotic factors include producers, consumers and decomposers constitute to
trophic structure. The repeated pattern of eating and being eaten of organisms in an ecosystem is called
food chain. Food web is the internetwork pattern many food chains in an ecosystem. The graphical
representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, where it indicated to number of
organisms, the amount of energy stores and the biomass present in each trophic level. Population
dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short- and long-term changes in the size and age
composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those
changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates,
and by immigration and emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population
decline.

Unit 1 gives you introduction, principles and scope of environmental science. Unit 2 describe the
concept of ecosystem, their types, trophic structure, food chain, food web etc. Unit 3 explains the
population dynamics, where you will learn the concept of birth rate, death rate, immigration
emigration etc. In Unit 4, Biogeochemical cycles are discussed, here gaseous cycles like nitrogen,
carbon, oxygen and sedimentary cycles like sulphur and phosphorus given.

Chairman
Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri,
Mysuru – 570 006

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 UNIT1: DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES AND SCOPE OF
ENVERNOMNETAL SCIENCE

STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition, Principles and Scope of Environmental Science
1.3 Factors of Environment
1.3.1 Physical environment
1.3.2 Biological Environment
1.3.3 Cultural environment
1.3.4 Formation of the first cells
1.4 Ecosystems
1.4.1 Abiotic or Non-living Components of Ecosystem
1.4.2 Biotic or Living Components of Ecosystem
1.5 Classification of Ecosystems
1.6 Pond Ecosystem
1.7 Forest Ecosystem
1.8 Grassland Ecosystem
1.9 Estuary Ecosystem
1.10 Summary
1.11 Keywords
1.12 Questions for self study
1.13 References and further readings

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1.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• define environment
• explain the principles and scope of Environmental Science
• discuss the biotic and abiotic factors of environment
• define ecosystem
• describe different types of ecosystems

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Environmental science covers many interconnected issues involving human population, earth’s natural
resources, environmental pollution etc. and combines information from many disciplines, such as
biology, geography, geology, chemistry, physics, economics, sociology, demography (the study of
populations), cultural anthropology, natural resources management, agriculture, engineering, law,
politics, and ethics.

1.2 DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

You observe the nature, it consists of land, water, mountains, plants and animals etc. A critical
observation of your surroundings might have ignited an array of questions in your mind, at least
once. How did life and its surroundings originate on earth? How did this life branch out lead to the
current diversity on earth? What is the significance of our surrounding? Is it changing because of
our intervention? Should we do something to restore homeostasis of the surroundings? So on and so
forth. Before trying to answer these questions, let us understand the basics of ‘Environmental
Science’ which in turn would address these issues.
The word “environment” originates from “environ” and refers to the ‘things that surround’. The
environment of an organism consists of all the physical and biological surroundings and their
interactions.
Definitions of Environment
‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces, influences
and conditions, which affect the life, nature behaviour and the growth, development and maturity
of living organisms’ (Douglas and Holland).
‘Environment refers to the sum total of all conditions which surround man at a given point in

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space and time’ (C.C.Park).
The entire range of external influence acting on an organism, both the physical and biological,
and other organisms, i.e. forces of nature surrounding an individual (Encyclopedia Britannica).
Total environmental system including not only the biosphere, but also his interactions with his
natural and man-made surroundings (US Council on Environmental quality).

Ecology is a branch of biology and a basic tool of environmental science and aims at the study of
interrelationships between organisms and their environment. The word ‘ecology’ is derived from
the Greek oikos, meaning “household,” and logos, meaning “study. Thus, the study of the
environmental house includes all the organisms in it and all the functional processes that make the
house habitable. Ecology might therefore be thought of as the study of the ‘homelife’ of living
organisms. The environment of an organism consists of all those factors and phenomena outside
the organism that influence it, whether these are physical and chemical (abiotic) or other organisms
(biotic). In common usage, “environmental science” and “ecology” are often used
interchangeably, but technically, ecology refers only to the study of organisms and their
interactions with each other and their environment (Fig-2 shows the levels of organization of
matter in nature. Ecology focuses mainly on organisms, populations, community, ecosystem and
biosphere). In practice, there is considerable overlap between the work of ecologists and other
environmental scientists.

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Fig. 2. Some levels of organization of matter in nature. Ecology focuses on the bottom
five of these levels.

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Scope of Environmental science
The environmental science provides detailed information about our surroundings, its importance
and influence on organisms, including human beings. It even talks about the protection and
conservation of our surroundings, which is being destroyed/altered due to human intervention. At
present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity, threatening
the survival of mankind on earth. Man is himself an organism within an environment. Like other
animals, man is influenced by the physical features of his environment and absolutely dependent
upon other species for his food, clothing, medicine, and other similar aspects and he has to adjust
to other individuals of his own species. Therefore, the basic laws of ecology apply well to him
and its fundamental knowledge is must for man for his own existence on this planet (Earth). Man
almost always has a modifying influence, and without proper regulation he often has a
destructive effect. For instance, by applying certain ecological principles to such fields as
agriculture, biological surveys, game management, pest control, forestry, horticulture, and
fishery biology, he has received tremendous economic gains. Its knowledge is found critically
important for intelligent conservation whether in relation to soil, forest, wildlife, water supply or
fishery resources.

Further, rapid growth of urbanization and fast rate of multiplication of human population have
resulted in fatal threat of scarcity of wild life, food, open space, and of survival. There are certain
other ecological problems. Agriculture and now forestry are concentrating upon monoculture or
single species ecosystems–in spite of the difficulties and dangers associated with unnaturally
simplified ecosystems that lack a diversity of species. Over much of the world, especially in the
grasslands, we continue to disrupt the energy balance through overgrazing and end up with
eroded mountain sides, silt-clogged streams and lakes, and a scarcity of water. Therefore, future
of human life on earth demands more knowledge about the ecosystems and other ecological
problems. The study of environmental science gives you an idea of the present environment, how
it is changing with the influence of developmental activities and measures to control
environmental impacts.

Environmental science as a subject has a wide scope. It encompasses a large number of areas and
aspects, which may be summarized as follows.
· Natural resources—their conservation and management

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· Ecology and biodiversity
· Environmental pollution and control
· Social issues in relation to development and environment
· Human population and environment
Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized as:
Research & Development (R & D) in environment: Skilled environmental scientists have an
important role to play in examining various environmental problems in a scientific manner and
carryout R&D activities for developing cleaner technologies and promoting
sustainable development. There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with
environmental issues. Environmental management and environmental engineering are emerging as
new career opportunities for environmental protection and management.

(i) Green advocacy: With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and laws related to
environment, need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the
cases related to water and air pollution, forest, wildlife etc.

(ii) Green marketing: While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing
emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or
ISO14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great
demand in the coming years.
(iii) Green media: Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media
like television, radio, newspaper, magazines, hoardings, advertisements etc. for which environmentally
educated persons are required.

(iv) Environment consultancy: Many non- government organizations (NGOs), industries and
governmentbodiesareengagingenvironmentalconsultantsforsystematicallystudyingandtackling
environment related problems.
The United Nations conference on environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and
popularly known as ‘Earth summit’ followed by the world summit on sustainable development at
Johannesburg in 2002 have highlighted the key issues of global environmental concern and have
attracted the attention of the general public towards the deteriorating environment around the globe.

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1.3 FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENT

As you know that, in environment, soil, rock, mountains, plants and animals you see. These are
essential and interact each other for community development. These factors are classified in to
physical, biological nd cultural environment and are interrelated in various ways, individually as
well as collectively. These are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Classification and components of environment

1.3.1 Physical environment

The Physical constituent of environment includes soil, water, air, climate, temperature,
light etc. These are also called abiotic constituents of the environment. This part of the
environment mainly determines the type of the habitat or living conditions of the human
population. This physical constituent of the environment is again divided into three parts.
They are
(i) Atmosphere (gas)
(ii) Hydrosphere (liquid)
(iii) Lithosphere (solid)
These three parts represent the three important states of matter constituting the environment. This
physical component of environment only consists of non-living things like air, water and soil. All

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these nonliving things influence much to all living organisms including man. Water and
temperature are the most important abiotic components affecting living beings. Larger proportion
of body’s weight is due to water.
All living organisms require water for their survival. Besides water is the main vital fluid to keep
optimum temperature of the body. All life activates work in a particular range of temperature.
When temperature will be in excess of necessity, living beings will die.
Air is main physical component which provides oxygen for respiration. All living beings
including plants& animals require oxygen for their existence. Oxygen is taken into the body by
respiration process and comes out in from of carbon dioxide. Plants, on the other hand takes in
carbon dioxide for food preparation during photosynthesis and gives out oxygen to the
surrounding.
Soil is the most important for all living beings to create their habitat. It is the soil in which plant
grows and man constructs houses to live in. It is the ground water present in the soil which
provides for drinking and other farming activities.
Lithosphere: Lithosphere is derived from the word "sphere," combined with the Greek word
"lithos" which means rock. The lithosphere is the solid outer section of Earth which includes
Earth's crust (the"skin" of rock on the outer layer of planet Earth), as well as the underlying cool,
dense, and fairly rigid upper part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere extends from the surface
of Earth to a depth of about 44-62 mi (70-100 km). The main component of lithosphere is earth’s
tectonic plates.
Hydrosphere: Hydrosphere comprises of all forms of water bodies on earth including marine
(oceans, seas) freshwater (rivers, lakes, ponds, streams) and groundwater resources etc. It covers
71% of earth’s surface. 97% of water found on Earth is in the oceans in the form of salt water.
Only 3 % of water on Earth is freshwater. Out of this, 30.8% is available as groundwater and
68.9% is in frozen forms as in glaciers. Amount of 0.3% is available in rivers, reservoirs and
lakes and is easily accessible to man.
Atmosphere: Atmosphere is gaseous layer enveloping the Earth. The atmosphere with oxygen
in abundance is unique to Earth and sustains life. It mainly comprises 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95%
oxygen, 0.93%argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.
The amount of water vapor present is variable (0-3%).Earth's atmosphere has a series of layers,
each with its own specific traits. Moving upward from ground level, these layers are named the

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troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The troposphere is the
lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it extends upward to about 11 km (about
33,000 feet) above sea level. The next layer up is called the stratosphere. The stratosphere
extends from the top of the troposphere to about 52 km (32 miles) above the ground. The
infamous ozone layer is found within the stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb
high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat. Above the
stratosphere is the mesosphere. It extends upward to a height of about 85 km (53 miles) above
our planet. Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere.
The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the thermosphere. High-
energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its
temperature to hundreds or at times thousands of degrees. At the top of the thermosphere
temperatures can be found anywhere between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above the
ground. Temperatures in the upper thermosphere can range from about 500° C to 2,000°
C or higher.
1.3.2 Biological Environment
The biological constituent of environment is also called biotic component of environment. This
component consists of all living things like plants, animals and small micro-organisms like
bacteria. This component interacts with the abiotic component of the environment. This
interaction of two components forms various ecosystems like pond ecosystem, marine
ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc.
The self-sufficient large ecosystem of the earth is called Biosphere. All ecosystems consist of
three different types of living organisms and constitute to biosphere.
These three types are named as:
(a) Flora (Producers)
(b) Fauna (Consumers)
(c) Microbia (Decomposers)
All plants they are capable of preparing their own food. Producers are generally green plants and
other photosynthetic bacteria which produces various organic substances such as carbohydrates,
proteins etc. with the help of water, soil and light energy.
All animals (fauna) are depended on plants for their food. They get energy from plants. They are
called as consumers. Consumers depend for their nutrition on the organic food produced by the

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green plants.
Decomposers mainly bacteria, bring about the decomposition of dead plants and animals and
return various important minerals for the running of the biogeochemical cycles.
1.3.3 Cultural environment
This type of environment includes the varied aspects of socio-cultural interactions along with its
outcomes such as beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes etc. The tangible and intangible aspects of
environment are included in it.
Psychological Environment: Psychological environment deals with the perception and
experiences related to any environmental setting. Some environment may be stimulating and
exciting for us, while others may be dull and boring. Psychological environment is more often
used in the organizational context.
Man-Environment Relationship: Man and environment relationship is as old as the evolution
of mankind. Since the evolution of man, the physical elements of the planet earth, such as terrain,
soil, water, climate, flora and fauna formed man’s environment. During that time man was a
typically a ‘physical man’ because of his limited wants, requirements, and total dependence on
nature.
With the growth in social and economic activities, advancement in technologies, man expanded
his own environment through design and skill to have provisions for improved and better food,
shelter, access, and comfort or luxuries. Man’s ability to survive in a variety of ecosystem and
his unique ability to adapt to a great variety of external conditions make man-environment
relationship quite a fascinating area of study.
The environment in which man survives and to which he adapts himself and which he influences
include physical, socio-cultural, and biological aspects. Man and environment has never been
static and a great many factors are responsible for the shifts in man environment relationship.

1.4 ECOSYSTEMS

Individuals of the same species occur in populations. Populations are organized into
communities. An ecosystem includes all the biotic (living) interactions of a community as
wellastheinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheirabiotic(non-living)environment.Anatural system
consisting of a community of organisms and its physical environment is known as an
ecosystem. In ecosystems, biological processes (such as photosynthesis) interact with physical
and chemical processes to modify the composition of gases in the atmosphere, transfer energy

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from the sun through living organisms, recycle waste products, and respond to
environmental changes with flexibility. As you can recall ecology literally means “the study of
one’s house.” The environment—one’s house—consists of two parts, the biotic (living)
environment, which includes all organisms, and the abiotic (nonliving, or physical)
surroundings, which include living space, temperature, sunlight, soil, wind, and precipitation
etc.

Let us look into the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. The schematic
representation is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The schematic representation of components of ecosystem

1.4.1. Abiotic or Non-living Components of Ecosystem

The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem such as light, temperature, rainfall,
pressure, pH, the content of oxygen and other gases etc constitute its abiotic structure. These
factors exhibit diurnal, nocturnal, seasonal, and annual changes. It includes climatic factors,
edaphic (soil) factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and toxic substances. The
distribution, abundance, growth and reproduction of the organisms comprising the
individual members of populations are controlled by certain environmental or ecological
factors. An environmental factor is any external force, substance or condition which surrounds
and affects the life of an organism in anyway.

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Abiotic environmental factors include climatic factors such as light, temperature, water, air and
fire, topographic factors such as altitude, direction of mountain chains and valleys, steepness and
exposure of slopes, edaphic factors like soil formation, physical and chemical properties
of soil nutrients.

B. Biotic or Living Components of Ecosystem

The biotic environmental factors comprise plants, animals, and microbes; they interact in
a fundamentally energy-dependent fashion. The biotic components of an ecosystem can be
classified according to their mode of energy acquisition and are classified into producers,
consumers, and decomposers. The organisms of an ecosystem are divided into three categories
on the basis of how they obtain nourishment: producers, consumers, and decomposers. Virtually
all ecosystems contain representatives of all three groups, which interact extensively, both
directly and indirectly, with one another.

Producers, or autotrophs (Greek auto, “self,” and tropho, “nourishment”): Producers or

autotrophs manufacture organic molecules from simple inorganic substances, generally CO2 and
water, usually using the energy of sunlight. In other words, most producers perform the process
of photosynthesis. Producers incorporate the chemicals they manufacture into their own bodies,
becoming potential food resources for other organisms. Whereas plants are the most significant
producers on land, algae and certain types of bacteria are important producers in aquatic
environments.

Consumers or heterotrophs (Greek heter, “different,” and tropho, “nourishment”): These

organisms use the bodies of other organisms as a source of food energy and bodybuilding
materials. Consumers are further classified into following types:
Primary consumers or herbivores - Consumers that eat producers are called Primary
consumers. Rabbits and deer are examples of primary consumers, as is the marsh periwinkle, a
type of snail that feeds on algae in the salt marsh ecosystem.
Secondary consumers - They eat primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers - They eat secondary consumers. Both secondary and tertiary consumers
are flesh-eating carnivores that eat other animals. Lions, lizards, and spiders are examples of

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carnivores, as are the northern diamondback terrapin and the northern water snake in the salt
marsh ecosystem.
Omnivores - Omnivores eat a variety of organisms, both plant and animal. Bears, pigs, and
humans are examples of omnivores; the meadow vole, which eats both insects and cordgrass in
the salt marsh ecosystem, is an omnivore.
Detritus feeders or detritivores - These organisms consume detritus, organic matter that
includes animal carcasses, leaf litter, and feces. Detritus feeders, such as snails, crabs, clams, and
worms, are especially abundant in aquatic environments, where they burrow in the bottom muck
and consume the organic matter that collects there. Detritus feeders work with microbial
decomposers to destroy dead organisms and waste products.

Decomposers, also called saprotrophs (Greek sapro, “rotten,” and tropho,

“nourishment”): These are heterotrophs that break down dead organic material and use the
decomposition products to supply themselves with energy. They typically release simple
inorganic molecules, such as CO2 and mineral salts, that producers can reuse. Bacteria and fungi
are important decomposers.

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystems are classified mainly into natural and artificial ecosystems. In natural
ecosystem, a biological environment occurring freely in nature rather than being created by man,
like forest, river, desert. Etc. Ecosystems that are made by man for commercial or other benefits
is known as an artificial ecosystem and are modified by humans for their own profit like crop
land, aquarium, dam etc.

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 Fig. 4. Classification of Ecosystems

Natural ecosystems are further divided into two types, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
Aquatic ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystem definition states it is a water-based environment, wherein, living
organisms interact with both physical and chemical features of the environment. These living
creatures whose food, shelter, reproduction, and other essential activities depend on a water-
based environment are known as aquatic organisms.
there are two types of aquatic ecosystems, namely freshwater ecosystems and marine
ecosystems. Both freshwater and marine ecosystems are further divided under different aquatic
ecosystems`.
Freshwater ecosystems: Freshwater ecosystems covers less than 1% of the earth’s surface and
is broadly divided into – lentic, lotic and wetland ecosystems.
Lentic ecosystem includes standing water bodies like ponds and lakes and is a home to both
floating and rooted plants, algae, and invertebrates. Lotic ecosystems are characterized by rapid
flowing water moving in one direction, examples streams and rivers. Wetland ecosystem is made
with land that is either covered with water or saturated with water.
Marine ecosystems: Marine ecosystem is the largest aquatic ecosystem and covers over 70% of
the earth’s total surface. This ecosystem is relatively more concentrated in terms of salinity and
the body of aquatic organisms is well-adjusted to saline water. Marine ecosystems like estuaries,
coral reefs and mangroves found in coastal areas, and upwelling regions and open oceans.

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Terrestrial Ecosystem
A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the interactions of biotic
and abiotic components in a given area. Examples of terrestrial ecosystems include the forest,
grassland, desert etc.

1.6 POND ECOSYSTEM

A pond as a whole serves a good example of a fresh water ecosystem. A pond indeed exhibits a
self-sufficient self-regulating system. You can see small plants, large plants, small organisms to
large organisms. There you can see producers and consumers, also microorganisms present in the
pond which constitute to biotic components and they are interacting with the abiotic components
(Fig. 5). These components are as follows:

1. Abiotic Component

The chief non-living or abiotic components are heat, light, pH value of water, and the basic
inorganic and organic compounds, such as water itself, carbon dioxide, oxygen, calcium,
nitrogen, phosphates, amino acids, humic acid, etc. Inorganic salts occur in the form of
phosphates, nitrates and chlorides of sodium, potassium and calcium.

2. Biotic Component

It includes various organisms which are classified into the following types:

A. Producers

These are green plants and photosynthetic bacteria. The producers fix radiant energy of sun and
with the help of minerals derived from water and mud; they manufacture complex organic
substances as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
These plants are of various sizes and occupy different regions of the pond.
Macrophytes are large plants, some are completely submerged like hydrilla, chara, Vallisneria,
few are floating plants like azolla, salvinia, wolffia, lemnaetc, and some are rooted with floating
leaves like lotus, nymphaea etc.
Phytoplanktons are microscopic (minute), floating or suspended lower plants (algae) that are
distributed throughout the water. Most of them are filamentous algae such as Spirogyra,
Ulothrix, Zygnema, Cladophora and Oedogonium and also Scendesmus, Volvox, Diatoms,
Anabaena, Gloeotrichia, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Chlamydomonas, Spriulina, etc.

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 Fig. 5. Diagram of the pond ecosystem.
B. Consumers
Consumers are mainly small organisms and are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on
the organic food manufactured by producers. Organisms, they depend on plants for food they are
called as herbivores or primary consumers eg., zooplanktons like Brachionus, Asplanchna,
Lecane, Euglena, Coleps, Dileptus etc.Zooplanktons are eaten by small fishes they are called
primary carnivores or secondary consumers. Large fishes feed on small fishes and are called
secondary carnivore or tertiary consumers.
C. Decomposers

Decomposers like bacteria and fungi help in returning of mineral elements again to the
medium of the pond and in running biogeochemical cycles by the process of decomposition.
Decomposers of pond ecosystem include chiefly bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Among
fungi, species of Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Cladosporium, Pythium, Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Thielavia, Alternaria, Trichoderms, Circinella, Fusarium, Curvularis, Paecilomyces, Saprolegnia,
etc., are most common decomposers in water and mud of the pond.

1.7 RIVER ECOSYSTEM

Running-or moving-water or lotic ecosystems include rivers, streams, and related environments.
They are remarkably variable, ranging in size from Ganga, Yamuna, Hindon, Kali Nadi, Sutlaj,
Gomti, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Mahanadi, Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari, etc., to the trickle of a

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small spring. They vary from raging torrents and waterfalls to rivers whose flow is so smooth as
to be almost unnoticeable. A given river varies considerably over its length, as it changes from a
mountain brook to a large river. This is most noticeable in the abiotic factors of the environment,
but all features of the ecosystem vary in response.
Abiotic components
The nature of a flowing-water ecosystem changes greatly between its source (where it begins)
and its mouth (where it empties into another body of water). Various conditions exist along the
length of a river or stream. The important abiotic components of river ecosystem are water flow,
light, temperature, oxygen play important role in maintaining the balance in ecosystem. They are
important for existence of organisms.
Biotic Components
Producers: Phytoplankton and periphyton are the most significant sources of primary
production in most streams and rivers. These are well adopted for slow moving rivers and
backwaters. Diatoms are another group of producers found in rivers. Some plants are free
floating at the water’s surface in dense mats like duckweed or water hyacinth. Others are
rooted and may be classified as submerged or emergent. Rooted plants usually occur in areas
of slackened current where fine-grained soils are found. These rooted plants are flexible, with
elongated leaves that offer minimal resistance to current. Algae and plants are important to
lotic systems as sources of energy, for forming microhabitats that shelter other fauna from
predators and the current, and as a food resource.
Consumers: Up to 90% of invertebrates in some lotic systems are insects. These species exhibit
tremendous diversity and can be found occupying almost every available habitat, including the
surfaces of stones, deep below the substratum, adrift in the current, and in the surface film.
Insects have developed several strategies for living in the diverse flows of lotic systems.
Additional invertebrate taxa common to flowing waters include mollusks such as snails, limpets,
clams, mussels, as well as crustaceans like crayfish and crabs. Like most of the primary
consumers, lotic invertebrates often rely heavily on the current to bring them food and oxygen.
Invertebrates, especially insects, are important as both consumers and prey items in lotic
systems. Other vertebrate taxa that inhabit lotic systems include amphibians, such as
salamanders, reptiles (e.g. snakes, turtles, crocodiles and alligators) various bird species, and
mammals (e.g., otters, beavers, hippos, and river dolphins). With the exception of a few species,

17
these vertebrates are not tied to water as fishes are, and spend part of their time in terrestrial
habitats. Many fish species are important as consumers and as prey species to the larger
vertebrates mentioned above.
Decomposers: Bacteria are present in large numbers in lotic waters. Free-living forms are
associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and vegetation,
in between particles that compose the substrate, and suspended in the water column. Bacteria
play a large role in energy recycling.

1.7 FOREST ECOSYSTEM

The word forest is derived from Latin ‘Foris’ meaning outside, the reference being to village
boundary fence, and must have included all uncultivated and uninhabitated land. Today a forest
is any land managed for the diverse purposes of forestry whether covered with trees, shrubs,
climbers, etc., or not. The forest biomes include a complex assemblage of different kinds of
biotic communities. Optimum conditions of temperature and ground moisture responsible
for the growth of trees contribute greatly to the establishment of forest communities. In addition,
50 mm rainfall is a pre-requisite for the trees. The nature of soil, wind and air currents
determines the distribution (abundance or sparseness) of forest vegetation. Normally ecologists
recognize among forest communities such features as their evergreen nature, whether deciduous
or indeciduous, as well as their shape, whether broad-leaved as in temperate forests or more
needle-like as in the conifers. On the basis of these features the forest biomes of the world
have been classified into following biomes— coniferous forest, tropical forest, and temperate
forest. All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a gradient from north to south or from
high altitude to lower altitude. Forests occupy roughly 40% of the land. In India, the forests
occupy roughly 1/10thof the total land area.
Abiotic component
These are the in organic as well as organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. In
addition to the minerals present in forests we find the dead organic debris-the litter
accumulation, chiefly in temperate climate. Moreover, the light conditions are different due to
complex stratification in the plant communities.
Biotic components
The living organisms present in the food chain occur in the following order:

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Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater degree of
stratification especially in tropical moist deciduous forests. The trees are of different kinds
depending upon the kind of forest formation developing in that climate. Besides trees there are
also present shrubs and ground vegetation. In these forests dominant members of the flora, the
producers, are such trees as Tectonagrandis, Butea frondosa, Shorearubusta and Lagerstroemia
parviflora. In temperate coniferous forests, shrubs and ground flora are insignificant. In
temperate deciduous forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus, Acer, Betula, Thuja,
Picea etc., whereas in temperate coniferous forests the producer trees are species of Abies, Picea,
Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus, Rhododendron etc.
Consumers: Primary consumers are the herbivores that include the animals feeding on tree
leaves as ants, flies, beetles, leafhoppers, bugs and spiders etc., and larger animals grazing on
shoots and/or fruits of the producers, the elephants, nilgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying
foxes, fruitbats, mangooses etc.Secondary consumers are the carnivores like snakes, birds,
lizards, fox etc. feeding on the herbivores.Tertiary consumers are the top carnivores like lion,
tiger etc. that eat carnivores of secondary consumers level.
Decomposers: These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of
Aspergillus, Coprinus, Polyporus, Ganoderma, Fusarium, Alternaria, Trichodermaetc), and
members of Actinomycetes like species of Streptomyces etc. Rate of decomposition in tropical
and subtropical forests is more rapid than that in the temperate ones.

1.8 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

This is a type of terrestrial ecosystem and occupies a comparatively less area, roughly 19% of the
earth’s surface. Grasslands are characterized by high rates of evaporation, periodic severe
droughts. They occur largely where rainfall is between 25 and 75 mm per year. Most grasslands
require periodic fires for maintenance, renewal and elimination of incoming woody growth. The
various components of a grassland ecosystem are as follows.
Abiotic component
These are the nutrients present in soil and the aerial environment. Thus the elements like C, H,
O, N, P, S etc. are supplied by carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates etc.,
present in air and soil of the area. Moreover, some trace elements are also present in soil.

19
Biotic components
Producers: They are mainly grasses, as species of Diacanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium,
Digitaria, Dactyloctenium, Brachiaria, Setaria, Sporobolus etc. besides them a few forbs and
shrubs also contribute to primary production. Ground layer is dominated by mosses and plants
with rosette type growth forms such as dandelions. Seasonally variable herbaceous layer consists
of three or more strata. Ground layer plants such as wild strawberry, dandelion, cinquefoil etc.
grow upward to make the first stratum. Middle layer consists of short grasses and such herbs as
wild mustard, cone flower and aster. The upper layer consists of the flowering heads of tall
grasses. Grasslands accumulate a layer of mulch on the ground which helps in conservation of
soil moisture.
Consumers: Primary consumers are the herbivores feeding on grasses and mainly include
cows, buffaloes, deers, sheep, rabbit, mouse etc. besides them, there are also present some
insects as Leptocorisa, Dysdercus, Oxyrhachis, Cicinella, Coccinella, some termites and
millipedes etc. that feed on the leaves of grasses. Secondary consumers are the carnivores
feeding on herbivores. These include the animals like fox, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizards, birds
etc. sometimes the hawks feed on the secondary consumers thus occupying tertiary consumer
level in the food chain.
Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of different forms of
higher life are fungi, as species of Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus,
Fusrium etc., and some bacteria and actinomycetes. They bring about the minerals back to the
soil, thus making them available to the producers.

1.9 ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM

Waters of all streams and rivers ultimately drain into the sea; the place where this
freshwater joins the salt water is called an estuary. An estuary is the wide lower tidal part of a
river which is strongly affected by tidal action. Estuaries are the transitional zones (ecotones)
between the sea and rivers and are the sites of unique ecological properties possessing a
characteristic biological make up. They are semi-enclosed coastal bodies of water that have
a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with

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freshwater from rivers. Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes
and water bodies behind barrier beaches. Not all rivers open into estuaries: some simply
discharge their runoff into the ocean. Estuaries differ in size, shape and volume of water flow,
all influenced by the geology of the region in which they occur. As the river reaches the
encroaching sea, the sediments carried by stream are dropped in the quite water. These
accumulate to form deltas in the upper reaches of the mouth and shorten the estuary. When
silt and mud accumulations become high enough to be exposed at low tide, tidal flats develop
which divide and braid the original channel of the estuary. At the same time, ocean
currentsandtideserodethecoastlineanddepositmaterialontheseawardsideoftheestuary, also
shortening the mouth. If more material is deposited than is carried away, then barrier
beaches, island and brackish lagoons appear.
Abiotic Components
Water current and salinity are the major factors in an estuary, where the environment is neither
freshwater nor salt. The salinity of estuaries varies vertically and horizontally and fluctuates
between 0.5– 0.35%. Due to low salinity, freshwater has a lower density than sea water (± 1.00,
as opposed to 1.03). Were there no tides in an estuary to mix fresh and salt-water the lighter
freshwater would simply flow over the heavier sea water and dissipate in the ocean. However,
the tidal action acts as a plunger to thoroughly flush the estuary and mix the fresh and salt water.
This has several results. The water level in the estuary fluctuates regularly, unlike that of river.
For this reason, the habitat that is covered at high tide and uncovered at low tide is a prominent
one in the estuary, and has no analogue in any purely freshwater ecosystem. Further, the salinity
is exceedingly variable and may change by a factor often over the course of a day at any
location. At low tide, most of water passing through the estuary is fresh river water, and the
salinity is correspondingly low. At high tide, most of the water may be of marine origin, and
the salinity correspondingly high. Flow maybe somewhat stratified, or mixing may be
incomplete, and the salinity at any time may vary considerably from one location to another.
The intensity of current, and, hence, of the degree of mixing, is dependent on the intensity of
the tides and of the rivers flow rate. In other words, an estuary is an exceedingly variable
environment. Further, salinity of estuaries remains highest during the summer and during
periods of drought, when less fresh water flows into the estuary. It is lowest during the winter
and spring, when rivers and streams are discharging their peak loads.

21
The temperatures in estuaries fluctuate considerably diurnally and seasonally. Waters are heated
by solar radiation and inflowing and tidal currents. High tide on the mud flats may heat or cool
the water, depending on the season. The upper layer of estuarine water may be cooler in winter
and warmer in summer than the bottom, a condition that, as in a lake, will result in a spring and
autumn overturn. Anyhow, all estuaries have high productivity.
Biotic Components
Carikker (1967) has classified the regions of estuaries into the head, where freshwater enters the
estuary, upper, middle and lower reaches with increasing range of salinities and the mouth with
salinity nearly equal to the sea. He has also classified the animals inhabiting the estuarine region
into oligohaline (0.5 to 5 per cent), mesohaline (5 to 18 per cent) in the upper reaches, polyhaline
(18 to 25 per cent) in the lower reaches, 25 to 30 per cent in the middle and euhaline (30 to 50
per cent) in the mouth of the estuary.

Producers: The plants of the estuary are of four basic sorts: phytoplankton, marginal and
marsh vegetation, mud-flat algae, and epiphytic plants-growing on the marginal marsh
vegetation. Because of the turbid water found in estuaries, phytoplanktons are normally
uncommon. However, in Hooghly-Matla estuarine system in West Bengal, Gopalakrishnan
(1971) has reported an abundance of phytoplanktonic forms—several species of diatoms,
Synedra, Navicula, Rhizostoma, Fragilaria, Asteriobella, Biddulphia, Planktoniella, Hemidiscus,
Chaetoceros, Cyclotella, Stephanodiscus, Triceratium; several species of green algae such as
Pediastrum, Spirogyra, Eudornia, Tribonema, Closterium, Zygonema, Pandorina, Volvox,
Chlorella; and blue-green algae such as Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, and
Trichodesmus.Most estuarine algae are of marine origin. Further, the most significant estuarine
plants are marsh grasses such as Spartina, Salicornia, and Scirpus, as well as some submerged
filamentous algae such as Cladophora, Chara and Enteromorpha.
Consumers: Very few animals feed on these plants directly, but a very large amount is
consumed as detritus. The estuarine animal communities include zooplanktons and other
animals. For example, the planktonic animal forms of Hoogly-Matla estuary of India include
flagellate protozoans such as Euglena, Ceratium, Peridinium, Noctiluca; other protozoans such as
Difflugia, Arcella, Vorticella; rotifer species such as Branchionus, Keratella, Asplanchna, etc.;
copepods such as Diaptomus, Pseudodiaptomus, Cyclops and Paracalanus; cladocerans of the
genus Bosmina, BosminopsisCeriodaphnia, Moina, besides a number of isopods.Several insect

22
larvae, annelid worms, molluscs, enter the estuary from the freshwater, while most marine
phytoplankton, Crustacea, annelid worms, anemones and Bryozoa enter an estuary from marine
ecosystems. For example, out of 130 species of fishes and 30 species of prawns of Hoogly-Matla
estuary, several fishes such as Hilsa, Harpodon, Mugil, Trachyurus, etc., migrate from sea in to
the mouth of the estuary, to form important fish catches, while some such as palaemonid prawns
are freshwater inhabitants and come to live in estuaries. Adyar estuary of Madras coast is found
rich in invertebrate and vertebrate fauna (Aiyar and Panikkar, 1937). The common invertebrates
of this estuary are sea anemones, hermaphrodite nereids, the crabs and several molluscs.
Decomposers again includes many groups of bacteria.
Decomposers: The decomposers of the estuary are bacteria, flies, snails, tube worms, and fiddler
and blue crabs. They all help to break down dead plant and animal matter.

1.10 SUMMARY
The environment refers to the sum total of all conditions which surround man at a given
point in space and time. Ecology is a branch of biology and aims to study of interrelationships
between organisms and environment. The study of environmental science provides detailed
information about our surroundings. It encompasses a large number of areas and aspects like
environmental pollution, biodiversity and conservation, natural resource management, social
issues and health. In environment, physical, biological and cultural components interrelated in
various ways individually as well as collectively. Ecosystem is an area where biotic and abiotic
factors interact leads to energy flow, nutrient flow. Ecosystems are classified into natural and
artificial ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are further classified into aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems are either freshwater or marine water bodies, Lotic ecosystems
are flowing water bodies like rivers and lentic ecosystems are stagnant water bodies like lakes,
and estuary ecosystems are transitional water bodies where rivers meet seas. Marine ecosystems
include costal areas like estuaries, upwelling regions and open oceans. Terrestrial ecosystems are
made by land examples are forest, grassland and deserts.

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1.10 KEYWORDS

Environment ; Ecology; Ecosystem

Abiotic components Biotic components Producers
Consumers Decomposers Pond ecosystem
Forest ecosystem Grassland ecosystem Estuary ecosystem

1.11 QUESTIONS FOR SELFSTUDY

1. What is environment? Add a note on the scope of environmental science.

2. Define ecology. Explain the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment.
3. What is ecosystem? Explain the abiotic and biotic factors affecting ecosystem.
4. Write a note on classification of ecosystems.
5. Describe the pond ecosystem with neat sketch.
6. Discuss the various factors affecting forest ecosystem.
7. Explain river ecosystem with abiotic and biotic factors.
8. Give a short note on estuary ecosystem.
9. Explain desert ecosystem and its factors.

1.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Kiran B. ChhokarMamataPandya, MeenaRaghunathan, 2004. Understanding Environment

CentreforEnvironmentEducation(CEE),Ahmedabad.
2. OswaldJ.Schmitz,2007EcologyandEcosystemConservationIslandpressWashington,USA.
3. Stanleya.Rice,MassimoPigliucci,2007,EncyclopediaofEvolutionfactsonfile,Inc. Animprint
ofinfobasepublishing132west31ststreetNewYork10001.
4. G.TylerMiller,Jr.ScottE.Spoolman,2010,EnvironmentalSciencethirteentheditionBrooks/ Cole,
Cengagelearning.
5. Lindad.Williams,2005EnvironmentalSciencetheMcGraw-Hillcompanies,Inc.

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 UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS

STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Trophic Structure
2.3 Energy Flow
2.4 Food chain
2.5 Food Web
2.6 Ecological Pyramids
2.7 Summary
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Questions for self-study
2.10 References and further readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• discuss how ecosystems are maintained self-regulation
• explain the trophic structure of the ecosystem
• discuss energy flow is taking place between trophic levels in the ecosystem
• define food chain and food web
• describe various types of ecological pyramids

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Ecosystems have a unique property of self-regulation. The ecosystem comprising various sub-
components of biotic and abiotic nature, which are inter-linked and interdependent, have an
inherent property to resist change. That means, the ecosystems have a property to tolerate
external disturbance or stress. This property is known as homeostasis. For example, carbon-
dioxide is required by green plants to manufacture their food during photosynthesis and the food
produced by green plants is actually the base of food chains, energy flow and material cycles.

25
The ecosystems have an excellent balance of regulating the levels of carbon dioxide through
carbon cycle, where all living organisms produce CO2 during respiration and the green plants
use them up during photosynthesis, liberating oxygen. Up to certain limits, increase in
CO2concentrations can help in improving production by green plants. But beyond a limit, the
increased CO2 will cause an imbalance in the ecosystem triggering various harmful positive
feedbacks. As a result, several adverse environmental impacts occur including global warming,
changing rainfall patterns, crop insecurity, storms, flooding, and emergence of new types of pests
all leading to degradation of the ecosystem. Stability of an ecosystem is the result of resistance
and resilience. Resistance is the ability of a community to withstand environmental disturbances,
natural or human events that disrupt a community. Resilience is the ability of a community to
recover quickly to its former state following an environmental disturbance. A community with
considerable species richness may function better that is, have more resistance and resilience
than a community with less species richness.
First law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy, which says that energy may be
transformed from one form into another but, is neither created nor destroyed. According to the
first law of thermodynamics, an organism may absorb energy from its surroundings, or it may
give up some energy into its surroundings, but the total energy content of the organism and its
surroundings is always the same.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, the amount of usable energy available to do
work in the universe decreases over time. The second law of thermodynamics is consistent with
the first law; that is, the total amount of energy in the universe is not decreasing with time.
However, the total amount of energy in the universe available to do work decreases over time.
Entropy is a measure of this disorder or randomness; organized, usable energy has low entropy,
whereas disorganized energy such as heat has high entropy. Entropy is continuously increasing
in the universe in all natural processes, and entropy is not reversible. Another way to explain the
second law of thermodynamics, then, is that entropy, or disorder, in a system increases over time.
With the exception of a few ecosystems such as hydrothermal vents, energy enters ecosystems as
radiant energy (sunlight), some of which plants trap during photosynthesis. The energy, now in
chemical form, is stored in the bonds of organic molecules such as glucose. To obtain energy,
animals eat plants or eat animals that ate plants. All organisms -plants, animals, and

microorganisms—respire to obtain some of the energy in organic molecules. When cellular

26
respiration breaks these molecules apart, the energy becomes available for work such as
repairing tissues, producing body heat, or reproducing. As the work is accomplished, the energy
escapes the organism and dissipates into the environment as heat(recall the second law of
thermodynamics). Ultimately, this heat radiates into space. Once an organism has used energy, it
becomes unusable for all other organisms. The movement of energy just described is called
energy flow.
2.2 TROPHIC STRUCTURE

In an ecosystem, energy flow occurs in food chains, in which energy from food passes
from one organism to the next in a sequence. Each level, or “link,” in a food chain is a trophic
level (the Greek ‘tropho’ means “nourishment”). An organism is assigned a trophic level based
on the number of energy transfer steps to that level. Producers (organisms that photosynthesize)
form the first trophic level, primary consumers (herbivores) the second trophic level, secondary
consumers (carnivores) the third trophic level, and so on. At every step in a food chain are
decomposers, which respire organic molecules in the carcasses and body wastes of all members
of the food chain.

In the trophic structure (Fig. 1) of any ecosystem, living organisms are distinguished on the basis
of their nutritional relationships, which are discussed as follows

Fig. 1. Trophic structure of Terrestrial ecosystem

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A. Autotrophic component

Autotrophic (auto = self ; trough = nourishing) component of ecosystem includes the producers
or energy transducers which convert solar energy into chemical energy (that becomes locked in
complex organic substances such as carbohydrate, lipid, protein, etc.) with the help of simple
inorganic substances such as water and carbon dioxide and organic substances such as enzymes.
Autotrophs fall into following two groups: (i) photoautotrophs which contain green
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll to transduct the solar or light energy of sun, e.g., trees,
grasses, algae, other tiny phytoplanktons and photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria (=blue
green algae).
Photoautotrophs which contain green photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll to transduct the solar
or light energy of sun, e.g., trees, grasses, algae, other tiny phytoplanktons and photosynthetic
bacteria and cyanobacteria (=blue green algae).
Chemoautotrophs which use energy generated in oxidation - reduction process, but their
significance in the ecosystem as producers is minimal, e.g., microorganisms such as Beggiatoa,
sulphur bacteria, etc.
B. Heterotrophic component
In the heterotrophic (hetero = other; trophic = nourishing) organisms predominate the activities
of utilization, rearrangement and decomposition of complex organic materials. Heterotrophic
organisms are also called consumers, as they consume the matter built up by the producers
(autotrophs).

The consumers are of following two main types:

i. Macroconsumers

These are also called phagotrophs (phago= to eat) and include mainly animals which ingest other
organisms or chunks of organic matter. Depending on their food habits, consumers may either be
herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (flesh eaters). Herbivores live on living plants and are also
known as primary consumers, e.g., insects, zooplanktons and animals such as deer, cattle, elephant,
etc. If Secondary and tertiary consumers are present in the food chain of an ecosystem, they are
called carnivores or omnivores, e.g., insects such as preying mantis, dragon flies; spiders and
large animals such as tiger, lion, leopard, wolf, etc. Secondary consumers are the carnivores
which feed on primary consumers or herbivores.

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ii. Microconsumers

These are also called decomposers, reducers, saprotrophs (sapro = decompose),

osmotrophs (osmo = to pass through a membrane) and scavengers. Microconsumers include
microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Microconsumers breakdown complex
organic compounds of dead or living protoplasm, absorb some of the decomposition or
breakdown products and release inorganic nutrients in the environment, making them available
again to autotrophs or producers. Some invertebrate animals such as protozoa, oligochaeta such
as earthworms, etc., use the dead organic matter for their food, as they have the essential
enzymes and, hence, can be classified as decomposer organisms. Some ecologists believe that
microorganisms are primary decomposers, while invertebrates are secondary decomposers.
2.3 ENERGY FLOW
The flow of energy through different trophic levels within an ecosystem. Green plants absorb
sunlight and convert into chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis.

Chemical energy flows though food chain in ecosystem from producers to consumers and upon
death, to decomposers. Through this process, some of the energy utilized for respiration as well
released as heat. Living organisms cannot utilize this heat into other forms of usable energy.
Hence, all ecosystems require a continuous influx of energy from an external source (mainly
sun).Thus, energy flow in any ecosystem is unidirectional.

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 Fig. 2. Energy flow in terrestrial ecosystem.

From energetics point of view, it is essential to understand the following factors in an ecosystem
(i) the efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of solar energy.
(ii) The use of this converted chemical form of energy by the consumers,
(iii) the total input of energy in form of food and its efficiency of assimilation
(iv) the loss through respiration, heat, excretion etc. and
(v) the gross net production.

2.4 FOOD CHAIN

In an ecosystem, all living organisms they depend on other organisms mainly for food
and other necessities like shelter, protection etc. The feeding relationship in an ecosystem depend
on the community structure.
The food chain is the repeated pattern of eating and being eaten of organisms in an
ecosystem, where nutrients and energy is transferred from one organism to the other. Producers
utilize the radiant energy of sun which is transformed to chemical form, ATP during
photosynthesis. Thus green plants occupy, in any food chain, the first trophic (nutritional) level-
the producers level, and are called the primary producers. The energy, as stored in food matter
manufactured by green plants, is then utilized by the plant eaters-the herbivores, which constitute
the second trophic level-the primary consumers level, and are called the primary consumers
(herbivores). Herbivores in turn are eaten by the carnivores, which constitute the third trophic

30
level-the secondary consumers level, and are called the secondary consumers (carnivores). These
in turn may be eaten still by other carnivores at tertiary consumers level i.e. by the tertiary
consumers (carnivores). Some organisms are omnivores eating the producers as well as the
carnivores at their lower level in the food chain.
There are two types of food chain, grazing and detritus food chain.
i. Grazing food chain
This type of food chain starts from the living green plants, goes to grazing herbivores (that feed
on living plant materials with their predators), and on to carnivores (animal eaters). Ecosystems
with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an influx of solar radiation. This type of
chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement of this captured energy to
herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this type of food chain. From energy
standpoint, these chains are very important.

Examples
Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk
In grassland ecosystem, grass trap solar energy and convert into chemical energy and
grasshopper eating grass for its food and the same transferred to frog, snake and ultimately, to
top carnivore hawk. The energy and nutrients flow through different trophic levels in an
ecosystem.
Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Small fish  Large fish
In aquatic ecosystem like pond, phytoplanktons eaten by zooplanktons and zooplanktons eaten
by Small fish followed by Large fish.
ii. Detritus Food Chain
This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter to microorganisms and then to organisms
feeding on detritus (detriti-vores) and their predators. Such ecosystems are thus less dependent
on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another
system. For example, such type of food chain operates in the decomposing accumulated litter in
a temperate forest.
The detritus food chain begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into
decomposers and detritivores, which are further eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores.
Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on.

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Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on
detritus.
Example

Detritus food chain of mangrove ecosystem

A detritus food chain based on mangroves leaves falling into shallow estuary waters. Leaf
fragments acted on by the saprotrophs and colonised by algae are eaten and re-eaten
(coprophagy) by a key group of small detritivores which in turn. provide the main food for game
fish, herons, storks and ibis.

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2.5 FOOD WEB
In an ecosystem, each trophic level is occupied by varieties of members, for examples producers
trophic level occupied by various types of plants, similarly herbivores, plant eaters are numerous,
hence occupy different food chains in an ecosystem and they interconnected forming sort of
interlocking pattern.
The interconnected and internetwork pattern of different food chains in an ecosystems
referred to as food web.
For example, in grazing food chain of a grassland, in the absence of rabbit, grass may also be
eaten by mouse. The mouse in turn may be eaten directly by hawk or by snake first which is then
eaten by hawk. Thus, in nature there are found alternatives which all together constitute some
sort of interlocking pattern - the food web.
Besides those shown in Fig.3, there may also be present some other consumers as vultures, fox
and man in grasslands, and if so, the food web may be even more complex than shown here.
However, these all five chains are interlinked with each other at different points, forming food
web.

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 Fig. 3. The interconnected and interlocked pattern – Food web

2.6 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producers
at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological pyramid.
The trophic structure and function at successive trophic levels, i.e. producers, herbivores,
carnivores, may be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids where the first or
producer level constitutes the base of the pyramid and the successive levels, the tiers making the
apex. Ecological pyramids are of three general types-
i. pyramid of numbers, showing the number of individual organisms at each level,

ii. pyramid of biomass, showing the total dry weight and other suitable measure of the total
amount of living matter, and
iii. Pyramid of energy, showing the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive
trophic levels. The pyramids of numbers and biomass may be upright or inverted
depending upon the nature of the food chain in the particular ecosystem, whereas
pyramids of energy are always upright.

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i. Pyramid of numbers

The pyramid of number represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level.
This pyramid was innovated by Charles Elton (1927), who pointed out the great difference in
the number of the organisms involved in each step of the food chain. The animals at the lower
end (base of pyramid) of the chain are the most abundant. Successive links of carnivores
decrease rapidly in number until there are very few carnivores at the top. The pyramid of
number ignores the biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the energy transferred
or the use of energy by the groups involved. We may have upright or inverted pyramid of
numbers, depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain as shown in Fig.4. A grassland
ecosystem and a pond ecosystem (Fig. 4 A & B) show an upright pyramid of numbers. The
producers in the grasslands are grasses and that in a pond are phytoplanktons (algae etc.),
which are small in size and very large in number. So the producers form a broad base. The
herbivores in grassland are insects while tertiary carnivores are hawks or other birds which
are gradually less and less in number and hence the pyramid apex becomes gradually
narrower forming an upright pyramid. Similar is the case with the herbivores, carnivores and
top carnivores in pond which decrease in number at higher trophic levels. In a forest ecosystem,
big trees are the producers, which are less in number and hence form a narrow base. A larger
number of herbivores including birds, insects and several species of animals feed upon the
trees (on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark etc.) and form a much broader middle level. The
secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number than herbivores while top
carnivores like lion, tiger etc. are still smaller in number. So the pyramid is narrow on both
sides and broader in the middle (Fig. 4 C). Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid
of number. The producers like a few big trees harbour fruit eating birds acting like herbivores
which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs etc. grow as parasites on these
birds while a still greater number of hyperparasites like bugs, fleas and microbes feed upon
them, thus making an inverted pyramid (Fig. 4D).

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 Fig. 4. Pyramid of numbers A) Grassland ecosystem, B) Pond ecosystem, C) Forest
ecosystem and D) Parasite ecosystem

ii. Pyramid of biomass

It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. Biomass is a
quantitative estimate of the total mass, or amount, of living material; it indicates the amount of
fixed energy at a particular time. Biomass units of measure vary: Biomass is represented as total
volume, as dry weight, or as live weight. Typically, pyramids of biomass illustrate a progressive
reduction of biomass in succeeding trophic levels. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or
inverted. Fig. 5 (a, b) show pyramids of biomass in a grassland and forest ecosystem and is
upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a
huge biomass while the consumers. total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic
levels, resulting in broad base and narrowing top. The pond ecosystem shows an inverted
pyramid of biomass (Fig. 5 C).

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 Fig. 5. Pyramid of biomass A) Grassland ecosystem, B) Forest ecosystem, C) Pond
ecosystem

ii. Pyramid of energy

A pyramid of energy illustrates the energy content, often expressed as kilocalories per
square meter per year, of the biomass of each trophic level. The amount of energy present
at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the
best representation of the trophic relationships and it is always upright. At every successive
trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration etc.
Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp
decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as we move from producers to top
carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright as shown in Fig. 6.

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 Fig. 6. Pyramid of energy

2.7 SUMMARY
In an ecosystem, biotic components depend on each other for food, shelter etc and interact each other and
have self regulation. There is exchange of matter and energy between them, and these organisms occupy at
producer, consumer or decomposer levels based on the nutritional relationship and these levels are termed as
trophic level. The flow of energy through different trophic levels, plant receive radiant energy from Sun and
converts in to chemical energy and this energy transfer to herbivores and consumers and lastly energy escape
into the atmosphere after decomposition of these organisms. The flow of energy always unidirectional. The
eating and being eater pattern of organisms in any ecosystem depend on each other for their food termed as
food chain. In grazing food chain, green plants absorb radiant energy, thus depends on autotrophic
energy capture and the movement of this captured energy to herbivores. In detritus food chain, food
chain begins with dead and decaying organic material and energy passes in to decomposers and detrivores.
Food web is the internetworking patterns of different food chain in an ecosystem. Ecological pyramids refer

38
to graphical representation of number of organisms, biomass and amount of energy present in each trophic
levels.
2.8 KEYWORDS
Trophic structure Food Chain Food Web
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

2.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY

1. What is trophic structure? Explain the features.
2. What is food chain. Describe types of food chains with example.
3. What is Food web? Give example.
4. What are ecological pyramids? With example explain different types.

2.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. Kiran B. Chhokar Mamata Pandya, Meena Raghunathan, 2004. Understanding Environment
Centre for Environment Education(CEE),Ahmedabad.

2. OswaldJ.Schmitz,2007Ecology and Ecosystem Conservation, Island press, Washington, USA.

3. Stanleya. Rice, Massimo Pigliucci, 2007, Encyclopedia of Evolution facts on file, Inc. An
imprint of info base publishing 132 west 31ststreet New York 10001.

4. G. TylerMiller,Jr.ScottE.Spoolman,2010,EnvironmentalSciencethirteentheditionBrooks/ Cole,
Cengage learning.

5. Lindad.Williams,2005EnvironmentalSciencetheMcGraw-Hillcompanies, Inc.

39
 UNIT 3: POPULATION DYNAMICS

STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Population density
3.3 Natality
3.4 Mortality
3.5 Age Structure
3.6 Population Growth Pattern
3.7 Population dispersion
3.8 Summary
3.9 Keywords
3.10 Questions for self study
3.11 References and further readings

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3.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• define population and population density
• explain birth rate and death rate
• discuss age structure of population
• explain growth pattern of population
• describe population dispersion

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Population refers the individuals of one species that occupies a particular geographic area and
sexually reproducing species, interbreeds. Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that
studies short- and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the
biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals
with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates, and by immigration and
emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline. Organisms in
nature are never isolated and they grow organized as populations, communities and ecosystems.

The term population has its origin in the Latin word populus, meaning people. In ecology, a
population may be defined as a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular
space at a specific time. Population ecology is the study of individuals of the same species where
the processes such as aggregation, interdependencies between individuals and various factors
governing such processes are emphasized. The ultimate constituents of the population are
individual organisms that can potentially interbreed. The populations may be subdivided into
demes or local populations. Demes are the groups of interbreeding organisms, the smallest
collective unit of a plant or animal population. Individuals in demes, thus, share a common gene
pool (gene pool is the sum total of all the allelic genes in a population). The boundaries of a
population both in space and in time are vague and in practice are usually fixed arbitrarily by the
investigator. Some ecologists recognized following two types of populations:
1. Monospecific population is the population of individuals of only one species; and

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 2. Mixed or polyspecific population is the population of individuals of more than one species.
Often ecologists use the term community for polyspecific population.
Population ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the numbers of a particular species
found in an area and how and why those numbers change (or remain fixed) over time. Population
ecologists try to determine the population processes common to all populations. They study how
a population responds to its environment, such as how individuals in a population compete for
food or other resources, and how predation, disease, and other environmental pressures affect the
population. A population, whether of bacteria or maples or giraffes, cannot increase indefinitely
because of such environmental pressures. Additional aspects of populations important to
environmental science are their reproductive success or failure (i.e., extinction) and how
populations affect the normal functioning of communities and ecosystems. Scientists in applied
disciplines, such as forestry, agronomy (crop science), and wildlife management, must
understand population ecology to effectively manage populations of economic importance, such
as forest trees, field crops, game animals, and fishes. An understanding of the population
dynamics of endangered species plays a key role in efforts to prevent their slide to extinction.

The ecological studies of populations include population characteristics, population dynamics

and regulation of population. Population characteristics include, population size, growth rates
etc. and are controlled by the processes of birth, death, immigration and emigration.

3.2 POPULATION DENSITY

Total size of population is generally expressed as number of individuals in a population.
The population size (N) at any given place is determined by the processes of
a. Birth (B),
b. Death (D),
c. New arrivals from outside or immigration (I) and
d. Going out or emigration (E).
Therefore, change in population size between intervals of time i.e.,
Nt + 1 is Nt (initial stage) + birth (B) – death (D) + immigration (I) – emigration (E)

Population density is defined as numbers of individuals per unit area or per unit volume of
environment. Since, the patterns of dispersion of organisms in nature are different it becomes
important to distinguish between crude density and specific ecological density).

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Crude density is the density (number or biomass) per unit total space. Specific or ecological or
economic density is the density (number or biomass) per unit of habitat space, i.e., available area
or volume that can actually be colonized by the population. This distinction becomes important
due to the fact that organisms in nature grow generally clumped into groups and rarely as
uniformly distributed. For example, in plant species like Cassia tora, Oplismenusburmanni, etc.
individuals are found more crowded in shady patches, and few in other parts of same area. Thus,
density calculated in total area (shady as well as exposed) would be crude density, whereas the
density value for only shady area (where the plants actually grow) would be ecological density.

Another contrast between crude density and ecological density is shown in Figure 1, which is
based upon Kahl’s (1964) study on fish density. As shown in the figure the crude density of
small fish in the area as a whole goes down as the water level drops during the winter dry season,
but the ecological density in the contracting pools of water increases as fish are crowded into
smaller and smaller water area. Thus with changing time, water level and total number of fish,
the two densities are different. Not only with changing but at a given time also the two would
differ.

Fig. 1: Ecological and crude density of fish prey in relation to the breeding of
stork predator
Often it is more important to know if the population is changing with time (increasing or
decreasing) than to know its size at any moment. The two densities will differ in each case. In

43
case of changing population indices of relative abundance are useful. These indices may be ‘time
relative’ as for example the number of animals (birds) seen per hour, or they may be percentages
of various kinds used widely in vegetation studies.

The population density changes with time. A rate is generally obtained by dividing the change by
the period of time elapsed during the change. Thus, growth rate of a population is the number of
organisms added to the population per time.

3.3 NATALITY

Natality or commonly called ‘birth rate’ is a broader term covering the production of new
individuals by birth, hatching, germination, or fission etc. Population increases because of
natality. The natality rate may be expressed as the number of organisms born per female per unit
time. In human population, the natality rate is equivalent to the ‘birth-rate’.

At this stage, one should be clear regarding two essential aspects of the reproduction which
forms main component of natality:

 Fertility is the physiological notion which indicates that an organism is capable of breeding.

 Fecundity. Refers to reproductive potential as measured by the quantity of gametes,

particularly eggs, produced. Fecundity is of two types—potential fecundity and realized
fecundity. For example, the realized fecundity rate for an actual human population may be
only one birth per 8 years per female in the childbearing ages. Whereas the potential fecundity
rate for human is one birth per 9 to 11 months per female in the childbearing ages.
Natalityis of following twotypes:
i. Maximum natality (Also called absolute, potential or physiologicalnatality)
It is theoretical maximum production of new individuals under ideal conditions which simply
means that there are no ecological limiting factors and that reproduction is limited only by
physiological factors. Hence, absolute natality is constant for a species population. This is also
called fecundity rate.
ii. Ecological natality (Also called realized natalityor simply natality)
It refers to population increase under an actual, existing specific condition. Thus,
ecological natality takes into account all possible existing environmental conditions. This is

44
also called fertility rate. Ecological natality varies with the size and composition of the
population, and with environmental conditions.

Nn = production of new individuals Nn/ Dt = the absolute natality rate (B)

Nn/NDt = the specific natality rate (b) (i.e., natality rate per unit of population)
Where, N = the reproductive part (mature female) of the population or initial number of
organisms or total population
n = new individuals in the population t = time
= delta: a change invalue.
Further, the rate at which females produce offsprings is determined by the following three
population characteristics:
1. Clutch size or the number of young ones produced on each occasion;
2. The time between one reproductive event and the next, and
3. The age of first reproduction.

Fig. 3: Fecundity of female animals is usually low at the onset of sexual maturity,
then reaches a lengthy plateau, followed by a decline in old age. A-Milkweed bug
(Oncopeltus unifosciatellus) cultured in laboratory. B-African elephants
(Loxodonta africans) in a National Park, Uganda.
Thus, natality usually increases with the period of maturity and then falls again as the organism
gets older (Fig-2). But there are some trees which continue to increase fruit production as they
get older. Natality patterns differ in tropical and temperate populations.

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3.4 MORTALITY
It refers to death of individuals in the population. Like natality, mortality may be:
i. Minimum mortality
Also called specific or potential mortality, it represents the theoretical minimum loss under ideal
or non-limiting conditions. It is a constant for a population. Thus, even under the best conditions,
individuals would die of ‘old age’ determined by their physiological longevity.
ii. Ecological or realized mortality
It is the actual loss of individuals under a given environmental condition. It is, like ecological
natality, not a constant and varies with population and environmental conditions.
Like natality, mortality may be expressed as the number of individuals dying in a given period
(deaths per time), or as specific rate in terms of units of the total population or any part thereof.

A birth-death ratio is 100x Births is called vital index.

Deaths

For a population, the important thing is not which members die but which members survive.
Thus survival rates are of much interest than the death rates. Survival rates are generally
expressed by survivorship curves.
Ecologists construct life tables for plants and animals that show the likelihood of survival for
individuals at different times during their lives. Insurance companies originally developed life
tables to determine how much policies should cost; life tables show the relationship between a
client’s age and the likelihood the client will survive to pay enough insurance premiums to cover
the cost of the policy. Survivorship is the proportion of newborn individuals that are alive at a
given age.
The pattern of mortality with age is best illustrated by survivorship curves which plot the
numbers surviving to a particular age. There are three general types of survivorship curves
(Fig.5) which represent the different nature of survivors in different types of populations.
These are as follows:
Highly convex curves
Curve ‘A’ in the figure, is characteristic of the species in which the population mortality rate is
low until near the end of the lifespan. Thus, such species tend to live throughout their lifespan,
with low mortality. Many species of large animals as deer, mountain sheep and man etc. show

46
such curves.
Highly concave curve
This curve (‘C’ in figure) is characteristic of such species where mortality rate is high during the
young stages. Oysters, or other shell fish, oak trees etc. show this type of survivorship.

Fig-5. Different types of survivorship curves plotted on the basis of survivors

and age.
Diagonal curves
If age-specific survival is more nearly constant, the curve approaches a diagonal straight line
(curve B2 in the figure 5). It thus shows a constant proportion of organisms dying per unit time.

Probably, no population in the real world has a constant age specific survival rate throughout the
whole life span. Thus a slightly concave or sigmoid curve (B3 in the figure 5) is characteristic of

many birds, mice and rabbits. In these cases, the mortality rate is high in the young but lower and
more nearly constant in the adult (1 year or older). Still, in some halometabolous insects (insects
with complete metamorphosis), such as butterflies, there is expected generally a ‘stair step type
of curve (B3 in the figure 5). In such cases survival differs greatly in successive life history
stages. The shape of survivorship curve may vary with the density of the population.

3.5 AGE STRUCTURE

In most populations, individuals are of different ages. The proportion of individuals in each
age group is called age structure of that population. For instance an understory palm tree
population (Astrocayum mexicanum) in an evergreen forest of Mexico, had 50% individuals

47
as seedlings (less than 2-year-old), 19% as saplings (8-year-old), 5% as 30-year-old- adults
and so until 70-year old trees made up less than 2% of the population.
Age distribution is important, as it influences both natality and mortality of the population.
The ratio of the various age groups in a population determines the current reproductive
status of the population, thus anticipating its future. From an ecological view point there are
three major ecological ages (age groups) in any population. These are pre reproductive,
reproductive and post reproductive. The relative duration of these age groups in proportion to
the lifespan varies greatly with different organisms. In man, the three ‘ages’ are relatively
equal in length, about a third of his life falling in each class. Many plants and animals have a
very long pre reproductive period. Some animals, particularly insects, have extremely long
pre reproductive periods, a very short reproductive period and no post- reproductive period.
The model representing geometrically the proportions of different age groups in the population
of any organism is called age pyramid. The three hypothetical pyramid types are shown in Fig. 3.
which are:

Fig-7. Hypothetical diagram showing different types of age pyramids.

A pyramid with broad base

It indicates a high percentage of young individuals. In rapidly growing young populations birth
rate is high and population growth may be exponential as in yeast, house- fly, paramecium etc.
Under such conditions, each successive generation will be more numerous than the preceding
one, and thus a pyramid-with broad base would result (Fig. 7 A).

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A bell-shaped polygon

It indicates a moderate proportion of young to old. As the rate of growth becomes slow and
stable, i.e., the pre reproductive and reproductive age groups become more or less equal in size,
post-reproductive group remaining as the smallest, there results a bell shaped structure (Fig. 7
B).

An urn-shaped figure

It indicates a low percentage of young individuals. If the birth rate is drastically reduced the pre
reproductive group dwindles in proportion to the other two groups and it results in an urn-
shaped, figure (Fig. 7 C), which indicates that population is dying off.
While density reveals little about differences between populations in developed and developing
countries, age structure highlights some of the causes of rapid population growth in the latter.
Developing countries have a much greater predominance of young people, and the sides of
pyramids become concave. Such a shape means high population growth, not only at present but
also likely in future.
3.6 POPULATION GROWTH PATTERN
The simplest case of population growth is that which occurs when there are no limitations
on growth within the environment. In such situations two things occur
The population displays its intrinsic rate of increase
i. The population displays its intrinsic rate of increase
ii. The population experiences exponential growth

i. The population displays its intrinsic rate of increase

The intrinsic rate of population increase is the rate of growth of a population when that
population is growing under ideal conditions and without limits, i.e., as fast as it possibly can.
This rate of growth implies that the difference between the birthrate and death rate experienced
by a population is maximized. Note that the intrinsic rate of population increase is a
characteristic of a population and not of its environment. Indeed, in most environments a
population is not able to achieve this maximum rate of growth. However, a population that is
not growing maximally can still experience exponential growth. “A population with a higher
intrinsic rate of increase will grow faster than one with a lower rate of increase. The value of

49
rmax (intrinsic rate of population increase) for a population is influenced by life history features,
such as age at the beginning of reproduction, the number of young produced, and how well the
young survive.”

ii. The population experiences exponential growth

The accelerating population growth that occurs when optimal conditions allow a constant rate of
increase over time. When the increase in population number versus time is plotted on a graph,
exponential population growth produces a characteristic J-shaped curve. For example, if a
population increased in size per unit time in the following manner: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,64,128,
etc. (or, e.g., 1, 3, 9, 27…, or 1, 5, 25, 125, …, etc. then the population is displaying exponential
growth, each unit time the population is increasing by a factor of 2 (or 3 or 5 in the other
examples; note that exponential growth is occurring so long as the rate of increase per unit time
is greater than a factor of 1, e.g., 2 or 4 or 10 or 1.2, etc. When population size is graphed against
time (e.g., generations) a population growing exponentially displays a J- shaped curve (Fig. 8).
In a rich culture medium bacteria, grown under aerobic conditions, achieve a final concentration
of 2-5 × 109 cells per ml in about 12-18 hours. Although plotted on a different time scale the
human growth curve looks the same; when population size is graphed against time (e.g.,
generations) a population growing exponentially displays a straight line curve when graphed on
semi-logarithmic graph paper.

Fig. 4:Exponential Population Growth

The accelerating population growth that occurs when optimal conditions allow a constant rate of

50
increase over time. When the increase in population number versus time is plotted on a graph,
exponential population growth produces a characteristic J-shaped curve. For example, if a
population increased in size per unit time in the following manner: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,64,128,
etc. (or, e.g., 1, 3, 9, 27…, or 1, 5, 25, 125, …, etc. then the population is displaying exponential
growth, each unit time the population is increasing by a factor of 2 (or 3 or 5 in the other
examples; note that exponential growth is occurring so long as the rate of increase per unit time
is greater than a factor of 1, e.g., 2 or 4 or 10 or 1.2, etc. When population size is graphed against
time (e.g., generations) a population growing exponentially displays a J- shaped curve (fig-8). In
a rich culture medium bacteria, grown under aerobic conditions, achieve a final concentration of
2-5 × 109 cells per ml in about 12-18 hours. Although plotted on a different time scale the human
growth curve looks the same; when population size is graphed against time (e.g., generations) a
population growing exponentially displays a straight line curve when graphed on semi-
logarithmic graph paper.
Regardless of the species, whenever the population is growing at its intrinsic rate of increase,
population size plotted versus time gives a curve of the same shape. The only variable is time. It
may take longer for a lowland gorilla population than for a bacterial population to reach a certain
size (because gorillas do not reproduce as rapidly as bacteria), but both populations will always
increase exponentially as long as their growth rates remain constant. The J-shaped curve of
exponential growth is characteristic of populations that are introduced into a new or unfilled
environment, or whose numbers have been drastically reduced by acatastrophic event and are
rebounding.” In other words, a population that is in an environment lacking limits will grow
exponentially (indeed, a population that is capable of growing will tend to grow exponentially),
and the rate at which growth will occur will be a function of rmaxand the degree to which the
environment matches the ideal environment in which an organism is capable of achieving rmax.
3.7 POPULATION DISPERSION
Individuals of a population arrange themselves in a manner that is specific for each population
and these arrangements in space appear to be of great significance in the studies of the dynamics
of the ecosystems. In nature, due to various biotic interactions and influence of abiotic factors,
the following three basic population distributions can be observed: random distribution, clumped
dispersion, and uniform or regular dispersion (Fig. 5).

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 Fig. 5: Three basic patterns of population dispersion.

Random dispersion
Occurs when there is an equal probability of an organism occupying any point in space
(irrespective of the position of any others). The result is that individuals are unevenly distributed
because of chance events.
Uniform or Regular dispersion or even distribution or over dispersion
Occurs either when an individual has a tendency to avoid other individuals, or when individuals
that are especially close to others die. The result is that individuals are more evenly spaced than
expected by chance.
Aggregated dispersion contagious or clumped distribution or under dispersion
Occurs either when individuals tend to be attracted to (or are more likely to survive in)
particular parts of the environment, or when the presence of one individual attracts, or gives
rise to, another close to it. The result is that individuals are closer together than expected by
chance. How these patterns appear to an observer, however, and their relevance to the life of
other organisms, depends on the spatial scale at which they are viewed. Consider the
distribution of anaphid living on a particular species of tree in woodland. At a large scale, the
aphids will appear to be aggregated in particular parts of the world, i.e. in woodlands as
opposed to other types of habitat. If samples are smaller and taken only in woodlands, the
aphids will still appear to be aggregated, but now on their host tree species rather than on

trees in general. However, if samples are smaller still (25cm2, about the size of a leaf) and are
taken within the canopy of a single tree, the aphids might appear to be randomly distributed

over the tree as a whole. At an even smaller scale (c. 1 cm2) we might detect a regular
distribution because individual aphids on a leaf avoid one another.

52
Ecologists are often interested in the spatial distribution of populations because it provides
information about the social behaviour and/or ecological requirements of the species. For
example, some plants occur in clumped distributions because they propagate by rhizomes
(underground shoots) or because seed dispersal is limited. Clumped distributions in plants
may also occur because of slight variations in soil chemistry or moisture content. Many animals
exhibit rather uniform distributions because they are territorial (especially birds), expelling all
intruders from their territories. Random distributions are also common, but their precise cause
is more difficult to explain.
Populations have a tendency to disperse, or spreadout in all directions, until some
barrier is reached. Accordingly, population dispersion is the movement of individuals
into or out of the population area. It takes three forms: emigration—one-way outward
movement; immigration—one-way inward movement; and migration—periodic
departure and return. Dispersion supplements natality and mortality in shaping population,
growth form and density, and also it plays a significant role in the distribution of plants
and animals even to the areas previously unoccupied by the members of the population.
Most types of population dispersion occur due to a number of reasons such as for
obtaining food, avoiding predators, preventing overcrowding, result of action of wind
and water, environmental factors as light and temperature, breeding behaviour,
physiological reasons as secretion of some hormone or for interchange of genetic
material between populations.
Emigration
Emigration under natural conditions occurs when there is overcrowding in the migratory locust,
lemming, grouse, snowyowl, snow shoe rabbit, Arcticfox, gray squirrel and occasionally in
other species. This is generally regarded as an adaptive behavior that regulates the
population on a particular site and prevents over-exploitation of the habitat. Further, it leads
to occupation of new areas elsewhere. By dispersing into new localities, there is opportunity
gained for interbreeding with other populations leading to more genetic heterozygosity and
adaptability. It is, of course, population pressure that is responsible in large part for the
dispersal of the young and extension of ranges into new areas. Under normal conditions adult
animals, especially among the higher vertebrates, are well established on their territories and
the youngsare forced to seek homes elsewhere. Among insects, there is a relation between

53
emigration and inherited behaviour tendencies. Individual tent caterpillars, both larvae and
adults, differ innately in the extent to which they show activity even with in same colony. In
the development of populations of excessive size, spread of infestations of the insect into new
regions is largely by the more active individuals. The outbreak finally terminates when the
proportion of sluggish individuals comes to predominate in the population (Wellington,
1966). Continuous emigrations are rare and when they occur, result in depopulation.
Equilibrium of populations is maintained in such circumstances by enhancing the
reproductive ability as well as by decreased mortality among the populations.
Immigration
Immigration leads to a rise in population level, causing an overpopulation which may lead to
an increase beyond the carrying capacity. These immigrations result in increased mortality
among the immigrants or decreased reproductive capacity of the individuals. Both emigration
and immigration are initiated by weather and other abiotic and biotic environmental factors.
Migration
Migration is a peculiar kind of population dispersion which involves them as movement of
entire population. This can occur only in mobile organisms and best developed in insects
such as desert locust, Schistocercagregaria, migratory locust, Locustamigratoria, butterfly,
Danausplexippusand in the migratory dragonflies, Libellulaquadrimaculataand
Pantalaflavescens; in fishes like eels, in birds and in certain mammals. Most two-way
migratory movements are rhythmic processes of population and regular periodicity is a
common feature. Very often, environmental periodicities control these migratory
movements, as for example day and night rhythm, lunar periods, tides and changing
seasons. The monarch butterflies, Danausplexippus, travel very long distances and their
migrations are found to be pathed every year through their same conventional routes, and their
migratory movements are initiated by the oncoming winter and the return trip being influenced
by spring. In most cases, migration of population may occur for food, shelter, or reproduction.
Better utilization of uninhabited or hitherto untouched habitats and their resources are the
greatest benefits derived from the migratory movements. However, during migration of
population, mortality of numerous individuals may occur due to different ecological hazards
such as temperature fluctuations, scarcity of food, predation, etc. Anyhow, migration has
certain benefits for populations—as it enables wider dispersion of populations; it avoids

54
intraspecific competition for food, shelter or any other means.

3.8 SUMMARY
Population dynamics studies short- and long-term changes in the size and age composition
of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.
Population ecology deals with the numbers of a particular species found in an area and how
and why those numbers change (or remain fixed) overtime. All natural populations are
characterized by Population Size and Density, Natality, Mortality etc. Populations do
exhibit different patterns of growth and the same can be grouped into exponential and
logistic growth. Fluctuations are commonly seen in population densities. Dispersion is one of
the characteristics of population. Animals tend to distribute themselves variously in nature.

3.9 KEYWORDS
Population size Density Growth curve
Natality Mortility Survivorship

3.10 QUESTIONSFORSELFSTUDY
1. What do you mean by population dynamics? Discuss.
2. What are the characteristics of populations?
3. Write short notes on:
a. Population density b. Natality c. Mortality
d. Age structure e. Growth patterns in population f. dispersion
4. Explain the concept of biotic potential.

3.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. Sharma, P. D., 2010, Ecology and Environment. Rastogi publications Meerut.
2. Robert Leo Smith. 1996. Ecology and field biology, V edition. Addison-Wesley
educational publishers, inc.
3. Odum, E. P. 2005. Fundamentals of Ecology. V edition. Brooks/Colepub

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 UNIT 4: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Biogeochemical cycles
4.3 Sedimentary cycles
4.4 Gaseous cycles
4.5 Rock cycle
4.6 Hydrological cycle
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
4.9 Questions for self study
4.10 References and further readings

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 4.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• define biogeochemical cycle
• explain types of biogeochemical cycles
• discuss sedimentary cycles
• describe gaseous cycles
• explain individual elementary cycles

4.1 INTRODUCTION
All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that
make up organisms. These elements are moving from earth to the organisms and from
organisms to the earth again. Thus, the definition of biogeochemical cycle refers to the cyclic
movement of elements or nutrients in the biosphere termed as biogeochemical cycle or nutrient
cycle, where, bio refers to organisms, geo refers to earth and chemical refers to elements.
Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through
the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as
respiration, excretion, and decomposition.
There are more than 40 elements are needed for the various life processes of plants and
animals. These elements are continuously cycling in the ecosystem through biogeochemical
cycles. These nutrients are constant in the earth and there is no input in the planet unlike solar
energy. These nutrients are recovered by the wastes or dead remains of organisms by the
decomposers and made available to the producers. Thus, these nutrients never lost from the
ecosystem. Exchange of these nutrients between organisms and their environment is one of the
essential aspects of an ecosystem.
There are two important components of a biogeochemical cycle, the reservoir pool and the
cycling pool.

57
Reservoir pool stores the nutrients for long time Eg., rocks, atmosphere etc. The cycling pool
refers to the nutrients stored in the plants and animals and it is temporary, as these nutrients are
continuously moving in them through food chain.
4.2 TYPES OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
In nature, there are types of biogeochemical cycles exist.
1. Hydrologic or Water cycle: The cycling of water in various forms from earth to
atmosphere and return to earth termed hydrological cycle.
2. Gaseous cycle: The elements mainly in gaseous forms
3. Sedimentary cycle – It includes the cycles of Phosphorus, Sulphur and Calcium - Which
are present as sediments of earth.

4.3 SEDIMENTARY CYCLES

Sedimentary cycle is a cyclic process which leads to deposition of substances by
which the chemical substance moves through living and nonliving components of the earth.
The substances which move through a sedimentary cycle are iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulphur
etc.
In the atmosphere, there are different types of biogeochemical cycles, and are going around. It
includes sedimentary cycles of elements like iron, calcium, phosphorus; gaseous cycles include
nitrogen, carbon, oxygen cycle etc. In these cycles, the substance is absorbed or utilised from
the surrounding by plants, animals or microbes and returned back to the atmosphere. This leads
to cyclic flow of nutrients.
For example, phosphorus cycle, phosphorus moves in a cyclic manner through rocks, water,
soil and sediments and living organisms. Rain and weathering helps the rocks release the
phosphate ion and other minerals. These minerals are absorbed by the plants and animals for
carrying out their metabolic activities. When these organisms die, phosphorus decays and the
organic phosphorus returns back to the soil component.
The significance of sedimentary cycles are-
- The elements or the sediments are released from the nutrient reservoirs present in the
lithosphere through weathering.
- The sedimentary cycle is comparatively slower than the gaseous cycle.
- The elements like phosphorus, iron, sulphur are obtained from the earth crust hence they are

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 called sedimentary cycles.

4.3.1 Sulphur Cycle

Sulphur is one of the widely occurring elements on the earth. It is a yellow, brittle,
tasteless, odourless non-metal. Sulphur is present in all kinds of proteins. Plants directly absorb
sulphur-containing amino acids such as methionine, cystine, and cysteine.
Sulphur is released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, volcanic activities, and
decomposition of organic molecules. On land, sulphur is stored in underground rocks and
minerals. It is released by precipitation, weathering of rocks and geothermal vents.

Suphur Cycle

The process of sulphur cycle is explained below:

 Sulphur is stored in the rocks and is released by the weathering of rocks.
 Sulphur is oxidized into sulphates when it is exposed to air.
 Sulphates are absorbed by plants and microbes and are converted into organic forms.
 The organic form of sulphur is then consumed by the animals through their food and thus
sulphur moves in the food chain.
 After death of animals, upon decomposition, some sulphur enter the tissues of microbes.
 The processes of volcanic eruptions, evaporation of water, and breakdown of organic
matter in swamps, that release sulphur directly into the atmosphere. This sulphur falls on
earth with rainfall.
The sulphur cycle consists of the following important steps:

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i. Decomposition of Organic Compounds
Protein present in the organisms are degraded by Desulfotomaculum bacteria releases amino
acids that contain sulphur and converts sulphates to Hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
ii. Oxidation of Hydrogen Sulphide to Elemental Sulphur
Some of the photosynthetic bacteria belong to families Chlorobiaceae and Chromatiaceae initiate
the oxidation process, oxidises H2S to elemental sulphur.
iii. Oxidation of Elemental Sulphur
The soil consists of Elemental sulphur which cannot be utilized directly by the plants. Certain
chemolithotrophic bacteria, converts elemental sulphur into sulphates.
iv. Reduction of Sulphates
By Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, sulphates are reduced to hydrogen sulphide in two steps, viz.,
firstly suphates are converted to sulphites utilizing ATP, and secondly, sulphite to H2S by
reduction process.

4.3.2 Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is a very important nutrient found in the macromolecules of humans and
other organisms. The cycling of phosphorus is slow. Most phosphorus in nature exists in the
form of phosphate ion PO4, PO3-. Phosphorus is scarcely available and often it is a limiting
nutrient.
Natural cycling of phosphorus
The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to other biogeochemical cycles such as the water,
carbon, and nitrogen cycles. Phosphate compounds are found in sedimentary rocks, and as the
rocks weather wear down over long time periods the phosphorus they contain slowly leaches into
surface water and soils. Volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust can also be significant
phosphate sources, though phosphorus has no real gas phase, unlike other elements such as
carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Phosphate compounds in the soil can be taken up by plants and, from there, transferred to
animals that eat the plants. When plants and animals excrete wastes or die, phosphates may be
taken up by detritivores or returned to the soil. Phosphorus-containing compounds may also be
carried in surface runoff to rivers, lakes, and oceans, where they are taken up by aquatic
organisms.

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The global phosphorus cycle includes four major processes:

(i) tectonic uplift and exposure of phosphorus-bearing rocks such as apatite to surface
weathering;
(ii) physical erosion, and chemical and biological weathering of phosphorus-bearing
rocks to provide dissolved and particulate phosphorus to soils, lakes and rivers;
(iii) riverine and subsurface transportation of phosphorus to various lakes and run-off to
the ocean;
(iv) sedimentation of particulate phosphorus (e.g., phosphorus associated with organic
matter and oxide/carbonate minerals) and eventually burial in marine sediments (this
process can also occur in lakes and rivers).

In terrestrial systems, bioavailable P (‘reactive P’) mainly comes from weathering of

phosphorus-containing rocks. The most abundant primary phosphorus-mineral in the crust
is apatite, which can be dissolved by natural acids generated by soil microbes and fungi, or by
other chemical weathering reactions and physical erosion. The dissolved phosphorus
is bioavailable to terrestrial organisms and plants and is returned to the soil after their decay.
Phosphorus retention by soil minerals (e.g., adsorption onto iron and aluminum oxyhydroxides in
acidic soils and precipitation onto calcite in neutral-to-calcareous soils) is usually viewed as the
most important process in controlling terrestrial P-bioavailability in the mineral soil. This
process can lead to the low level of dissolved phosphorus concentrations in soil solution. Various
physiological strategies are used by plants and microorganisms for obtaining phosphorus from
this low level of phosphorus concentration.

Soil phosphorus is usually transported to rivers and lakes and can then either be buried in lake
sediments or transported to the ocean via river runoff. Atmospheric phosphorus deposition is
another important marine phosphorus source to the ocean. In surface seawater, dissolved
inorganic phosphorus, mainly orthophosphate (PO43-), is assimilated by phytoplankton and
transformed into organic phosphorus compound. Phytoplankton cell lysis releases cellular
dissolved inorganic and organic phosphorus to the surrounding environment. Some of the
organic phosphorus compounds can be hydrolyzed by enzymes synthesized by bacteria and
phytoplankton and subsequently assimilated.[15] The vast majority of phosphorus is remineralized
within the water column, and approximately 1% of associated phosphorus carried to the deep sea

61
by the falling particles is removed from the ocean reservoir by burial in sediments. A series of
diagenetic processes act to enrich sediment pore water phosphorus concentrations, resulting in an
appreciable benthic return flux of phosphorus to overlying bottom waters. These processes
include

(i) microbial respiration of organic matter in sediments,

(ii) microbial reduction and dissolution of iron and manganese (oxyhydroxides) with
subsequent release of associated phosphorus, which connects the phosphorus cycle to
the iron cycle, and
(iii) abiotic reduction of iron (oxyhydro) oxides by hydrogen sulfide and liberation of
iron-associated phosphorus.
Additionally,
(iv) phosphate associated with calcium carbonate and
(v) transformation of iron oxide-bound phosphorus to vivianite play critical roles in
phosphorus burial in marine sediments.

These processes are similar to phosphorus cycling in lakes and rivers.

Although orthophosphate (PO43-), the dominant inorganic P species in nature, is oxidation state
(P5+), certain microorganisms can use phosphonate and phosphite (P3+ oxidation state) as a P
source by oxidizing it to orthophosphate.[19] Recently, rapid production and release of reduced
phosphorus compounds has provided new clues about the role of reduced P as a missing link in
oceanic phosphorus.

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 Phosphorus Cycle

4.4 GASEOUS CYCLES

Gaseous cycles are a type of biogeochemical cycle in which the reservoir is the air or the oceans
(via evaporation). Such cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and water.
4.4.1 Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple
chemical forms as it circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The
conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmospheric nitrogen, making it the
largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological
use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.

The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect
the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human
activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of
nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle. Human modification

63
of the global nitrogen cycle can negatively affect the natural environment system and also human
health.
A. Processes
Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic
nitrogen, ammonium (NH+4), nitrite (NO−2), nitrate (NO−3), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO)
or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism,
humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes in the
nitrogen cycle is to transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are
carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a
form needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken
down by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used by plants. The diagram alongside shows how
these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
i. Nitrogen fixation
The conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial and
biological processes is called nitrogen fixation. Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or
"fixed", into a usable form to be taken up by plants. Between 5 and 10 billion kg per year are
fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known
as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen
with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic
compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in
a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-nitrogenase is a complex two-
component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic groups. An example of free-
living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live
in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form
a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates.
Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor
soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed
nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process, which uses high temperatures
and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into
ammonia.

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ii. Nitrogen Assimilation

Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it
is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids,
nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some
nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known
that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The
plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the
bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an
interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms
obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules,
other heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as
ammonium as sole N sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all
organisms.

iii. Ammonification

When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic.
Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH+4),
a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:

 GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)

 GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH-dependent)
 GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:
 Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.
 Important in amino acid catabolism.

iv. Nitrification

The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other
nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH+4) is
performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia
to nitrites (NO−2). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation
of the nitrites (NO−2) into nitrates (NO−3). It is important for the ammonia (NH3) to be converted
to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.

65
Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can
enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because
nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-
baby syndrome. Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can
contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially
blue-green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have
indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe
eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of
nitrogen fertilizer has been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is
occurring along the same lines as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is
normally considered essential to the recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.

v. Denitrification

Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2), completing the nitrogen
cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Paracoccus,
under anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen
during respiration. These facultatively (meaning optionally) anaerobic bacteria can also live in
aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The
denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce
nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants. Denitrification occurs in free-living
microorganisms as well as obligate symbionts of anaerobic ciliates.

vi. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium

Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), or nitrate/nitrite ammonification, is

an anaerobic respiration process. Microbes which undertake DNRA oxidise organic matter and
use nitrate as an electron acceptor, reducing it to nitrite, then ammonium (NO−3 → NO−2 →
NH+4). Both denitrifying and nitrate ammonification bacteria will be competing for nitrate in the
environment, although DNRA acts to conserve bioavailable nitrogen as soluble ammonium
rather than producing dinitrogen gas

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vii. Anaerobic ammonia oxidation

In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into
molecular nitrogen (N2) gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in
the oceans. The balanced formula for this "anammox" chemical reaction is: NH+4 + NO−2 →
N2 + 2 H2O (ΔG° = −357 kJ⋅mol−1).

viii. Other processes

Though nitrogen fixation is the primary source of plant-available nitrogen in most ecosystems, in
areas with nitrogen-rich bedrock, the breakdown of this rock also serves as a nitrogen
source. Nitrate reduction is also part of the iron cycle, under anoxic conditions Fe(II) can donate
an electron to NO−3 and is oxidized to Fe(III) while NO−3 is reduced to NO−2, N2O, N2,
and NH+4 depending on the conditions and microbial species involved. The fecal plumes of
cetaceans also act as a junction in the marine nitrogen cycle, concentrating nitrogen in the
epipelagic zones of ocean environments before its dispersion through various marine layers,
ultimately enhancing oceanic primary productivity.

Nitrogen Cycle

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4.4.2 Oxygen cycle
Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), Biosphere (plants
and animals) and the Lithosphere (the earth’s crust). The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free
oxygen is made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. The oxygen cycle is
the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen atoms between different oxidation states in ions, oxides,
and molecules through redox reactions within and between the spheres/reservoirs of the planet
Earth. The word oxygen in the literature typically refers to the most common oxygen allotrope,
elemental/diatomic oxygen (O2), as it is a common product or reactant of many biogeochemical
redox reactions within the cycle. Processes within the oxygen cycle are considered to
be biological or geological and are evaluated as either a source (O2 production) or sink
(O2 consumption

A. Reservoirs of Oxygen

Oxygen is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and represents a large portion of each
main reservoir. By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within
the silicate and oxide minerals of the crust and mantle (99.5% by weight). The Earth's
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere together hold less than 0.05% of the Earth's total mass
of oxygen. Besides O2, additional oxygen atoms are present in various forms spread throughout
the surface reservoirs in the molecules of biomass, H2O, CO2, HNO3, NO, NO2, CO, H2O2, O3,
SO2, H2SO4, MgO, CaO, AlO, SiO2, and PO4.

The atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen by volume, which equates to a total of roughly 34 ×

1018 mol of oxygen. Other oxygen-containing molecules in the atmosphere include ozone (O3),
carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), and sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO2, NO, N2O, etc.).
The biosphere is 22% oxygen by volume present mainly as a component of organic molecules
(CxHxNxOx) and water and molecule. The hydrosphere is 33% of oxygen by volume present
mainly as a component of water molecules with dissolved molecules including free oxygen and
carbolic acids (HxCO3). The lithosphere is 46.6% oxygen by volume present mainly as silica
minerals (SiO2) and other oxide minerals.

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B. Sources and Sinks

While there are many abiotic sources and sinks for O2, the presence of the profuse concentration
of free oxygen in modern Earth's atmosphere and ocean is attributed to O2 production from
the biological process of oxygenic photosynthesis in conjunction with a biological sink known as
the biological pump and a geologic process of carbon burial involving plate tectonics. Biology is
the main driver of O2 flux on modern Earth, and the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis
by bacteria, which is discussed as part of The Great Oxygenation Event, is thought to be directly
responsible for the conditions permitting the development and existence of
all complex eukaryotic metabolism

Biological production

The main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:

Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas as well as
the phytoplankton of the oceans. The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was
discovered in 1986 and accounts for up to half of the photosynthesis of the open oceans.[14][15]

Abiotic production

An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-
energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component
atoms. The free H and N atoms [clarify] escape into space, leaving O2 in the atmosphere:

Biological consumption

The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms
in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

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 Oxygen Cycle

4.5 ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic
time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type
is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. For example, an igneous rock such
as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the atmosphere, or melt as it
is subducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle, plate tectonics and
the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium and change as they encounter new
environments. The rock cycle explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and
how processes change from one type to another over time. This cyclical aspect makes rock
change a geologic cycle and, on planets containing life, a biogeochemical cycle.

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Transition to igneous rock

When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma. If the
conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it cools and solidifies into an
igneous rock. A rock that cools within the Earth is called intrusive or plutonic and cools very
slowly, producing a coarse-grained texture such as the rock granite. As a result
of volcanic activity, magma (which is called lava when it reaches Earth's surface) may cool very
rapidly on the Earth's surface exposed to the atmosphere and are called extrusive or volcanic
rocks. These rocks are fine-grained and sometimes cool so rapidly that no crystals can form and
result in a natural glass, such as obsidian, however the most common fine-grained rock would be
known as basalt. Any of the three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks) can melt into magma and cool into igneous rocks.

Secondary changes

Epigenetic change (secondary processes occurring at low temperatures and low pressures) may
be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-
forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations is in progress in the same
rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is
most common in felsic rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, etc. Kaolinization
is the decomposition of the feldspars, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks,
into kaolin (along with quartz and other clay minerals); it is best shown by granites and syenites.
Serpentinization is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is typical
of peridotites, but occurs in most of the mafic rocks. In uralitization, secondary hornblende
replaces augite; chloritization is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is
seen in many diabases, diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of this group,
and consists in the development of epidote from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase
feldspar.

Transition to metamorphic rock

Rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to
form a different rock, called metamorphic. Regional metamorphism refers to the effects on large
masses of rocks over a wide area, typically associated with mountain building events
within orogenic belts. These rocks commonly exhibit distinct bands of differing mineralogy and

71
colors, called foliation. Another main type of metamorphism is caused when a body of rock
comes into contact with an igneous intrusion that heats up this surrounding country rock.
This contact metamorphism results in a rock that is altered and re-crystallized by the extreme
heat of the magma and/or by the addition of fluids from the magma that add chemicals to the
surrounding rock (metasomatism). Any pre-existing type of rock can be modified by the
processes of metamorphism.

Transition to sedimentary rock

Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes
of weathering and erosion. Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller
fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is
buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of
rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary.
Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the lithification of these buried smaller fragments
(clastic sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by
living organisms (biogenic sedimentary rock - fossils), or lithification of chemically precipitated
material from a mineral bearing solution due to evaporation (precipitate sedimentary rock).
Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to
processes such as erosion or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate
rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

Forces that drive the rock cycle

Plate tectonics

In 1967, J. Tuzo Wilson published an article in Nature describing the repeated opening and
closing of ocean basins, in particular focusing on the current Atlantic Ocean area. This concept, a
part of the plate tectonics revolution, became known as the Wilson cycle. The Wilson cycle has
had profound effects on the modern interpretation of the rock cycle as plate tectonics became
recognized as the driving force for the rock cycle.

Spreading ridges

At the mid-ocean divergent boundaries new magma is produced by mantle upwelling and a
shallow melting zone. This juvenile basaltic magma is an early phase of the igneous portion of

72
the cycle. As the tectonic plates on either side of the ridge move apart the new rock is carried
away from the ridge, the interaction of heated circulating seawater through fractures starts
the retrograde metamorphism of the new rock.

Subduction zones

The new basaltic oceanic crust eventually meets a subduction zone as it moves away from the
spreading ridge. As this crust is pulled back into the mantle, the increasing pressure and
temperature conditions cause a restructuring of the mineralogy of the rock, this metamorphism
alters the rock to form eclogite. As the slab of basaltic crust and some included sediments are
dragged deeper, water and other more volatile materials are driven off and rise into the overlying
wedge of rock above the subduction zone, which is at a lower pressure. The lower pressure, high
temperature, and now volatile rich material in this wedge melts and the resulting buoyant magma
rises through the overlying rock to produce island arc or continental margin volcanism. This
volcanism includes more silicic lavas the further from the edge of the island arc or continental
margin, indicating a deeper source and a more differentiated magma.

At times some of the metamorphosed down going slab may be thrust up or obducted onto the
continental margin. These blocks of mantle peridotite and the metamorphic eclogites are exposed
as ophiolite complexes.

The newly erupted volcanic material is subject to rapid erosion depending on the climate
conditions. These sediments accumulate within the basins on either side of an island arc. As the
sediments become more deeply buried lithification begins and sedimentary rock results.

Continental collision

On the closing phase of the classic Wilson cycle, two continental or smaller terranes meet at a
convergent zone. As the two masses of continental crust meet, neither can be subducted as they
are both low density silicic rock. As the two masses meet, tremendous compressional forces
distort and modify the rocks involved. The result is regional metamorphism within the interior of
the ensuing orogeny or mountain building event. As the two masses are compressed, folded and
faulted into a mountain range by the continental collision the whole suite of pre-existing igneous,
volcanic, sedimentary and earlier metamorphic rock units are subjected to this new metamorphic
event.

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Accelerated erosion

The high mountain ranges produced by continental collisions are immediately subjected to the
forces of erosion. Erosion wears down the mountains and massive piles of sediment are
developed in adjacent ocean margins, shallow seas, and as continental deposits. As these
sediment piles are buried deeper they become lithified into sedimentary rock. The metamorphic,
igneous, and sedimentary rocks of the mountains become the new piles of sediments in the
adjoining basins and eventually become sedimentary rock.

An evolving process

The plate tectonics rock cycle is an evolutionary process. Magma generation, both in the
spreading ridge environment and within the wedge above a subduction zone, favors the eruption
of the more silicic and volatile rich fraction of the crustal or upper mantle material. This lower
density material tends to stay within the crust and not be subducted back into the mantle. The
magmatic aspects of plate tectonics tends to gradual segregation within or between the mantle
and crust. As magma forms, the initial melt is composed of the more silicic phases that have a
lower melting point. This leads to partial melting and further segregation of the lithosphere. In
addition the silicic continental crust is relatively buoyant and is not normally subducted back into
the mantle. So over time the continental masses grow larger and larger.

4.6 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Most of the water present on the Earth is saltwater found in oceans. Only a tine fraction is readily
available as freshwater, which is needed by humans. The water present on the Earth is cycling rapidly,
but much of the Earth’s water lies in ice, oceans, and underground reservoirs; this water cycles slowly.
The hydrological cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical
movement of water through and between ecosystems.
Groundwater is found underground in cracks of rocks and between soil particles. Aquifers are the
reservoirs of groundwater often tapped by wells.
The hydrological cycle is mainly driven by the solar energy. The sun warms the ocean and other
surface waters causing liquid water to evaporate, where liquid water get transferred to the gaseous or
vapour state and transported to the atmosphere and the process is called as evaporation. The main
factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation. Evaporation

74
takes place directly from snow and ice is called sublimation. From plants, water molecules evaporate
through tiny openings in the leaves of plants called stomata get evaporated in to atmosphere and this
process is called as transpiration. Transpiration and evaporation from snow, ice, vegetation and from
surfaces are get together and is called evapotranspiration. The transition of water vapour into liquid
water is called condensation. This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or the mixing
of air masses of different temperatures. On condensation, water vapous present in the atmosphere is
released to form precipitation. The water fallen on the Earth runoff in to surface waters and percolates
in to groundwater. The groundwater moved either to lakes or oceans through groundwater flow. Thus,
the movement of water from Earth to atmosphere and return to Earth and stored in different forms, this
cyclic manner termed hydrological cycle.

Hydrological Cycle
.
4.7 SUMMARY
Biogeochemical cycle refers to cycling of elements from earth to organisms and from organism
to earth again in two pools i.e., reservoir pool and cycling pool. There are three types of
biogeochemical cycles. Sedimentary cycle refers to the cycling of nutrients through living and

75
nonliving components of the earth. Examples are Sulphur, phosphorus etc. In gaseous cycles,
the main reservoir is the air or the oceans, examples are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and water.
Rock cycle, where minerals tend to change according to the condition of the environment, each
rock type is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions due to various driving
forces. Hydrological cycle refers to the movement of water molecules from one form to another
due to several processes like evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation etc.

4.8 KEYWORDS
Biogeochemical cycle Sedimentary cycle Gaseous cycle
Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus cycle Sulphur cycle
Oxygen cycle Carbon cycle Reservoir pool
Hydrological cycle Rock cycle Cycling pool

4.9 QUESTIONSFORSELFSTUDY
1. What is biogeochemical cycle? Explain.
2. Describe the sedimentary cycle with any one example.
3. Discuss the processes involved in nitrogen cycle.
4. What is rock cycle? Explain various steps involved in rock cycle.
5. What is hydrological cycle? Explain with a neat diagram.

4.10 REFERENCESANDFURTHERREADINGS
1. Sharma, P. D., 2010, Ecology and Environment. Rastogi publications Meerut.
2. Katerina Dontsova, Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, Gaël Le Roux, 2020. Biogeochemical
Cycles: Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impact. American Geophysical Union, USA.
3. Matthew R. Fisher, 2020. Environmental Biology. http://www.lulu.com/content/paperback-
book/environmental-biology/23350620.
4. Mohd Junaid Jazib, 2018. Basics of Environmental Science. Iqra Publishers, New Delhi.

76
KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

MUKTHAGANGOTHRI, MYSORE – 570 006

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

(FIRST SEMESTER)

Course: ESOEL Block II: Unit 5, 6, 7, 8

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

ii
 Karnataka State Open University

Mukthagangotri, Mysuru - 570 006

Department of studies in Environmental science

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

First Semester

Course: ESOEL
Basics of Environmental Science
Block II: Unit 5, 6, 7, 8

iii
iv
 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

COURSE DESIGN
Dr. Vidyashankar S. Chairman
Vice Chancellor
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006
Prof. Ashok Kamble Convener
Dean (Academic)
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

COURSE COORDINATOR & EDITOR

Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar
Chairman
Department of Studies in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

COURSE WRITERS
NAME BLOCK UNITS
Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar II 5-8
Assistant Professor & Chairman
Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru

PUBLISHER
Registrar
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006

Developed by Academic Section, KSOU, Mysuru

Karnataka State Open University (KSOU), 2022
© All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from Karnataka State Open University.
This courseware is printed and published by The Registrar, Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru
for limited use only. No individual or collaborative institution can use / print / distribute in any form
without the written permission from KSOU. For user rights of this content and for other queries contact
The Director, CIQA, KSOU, Mysuru 570 006.

v
 Contents Page No.

Block Introduction iv

Unit 5: Introduction to Biodiversity 1-9

Unit 6: Needs and Benefits of Biodiversity 10 - 23

Unit 7: Biodiversity Conservation 24 - 53

Unit 8: Wildlife Conservation Projects 54 - 69

vi
 Block II: Biodiversity Conservation and Management
Block Introduction

Biodiversity refers to variety and variability of life forms. Biodiversity is important in environment
and also to mankind, having various values and uses. Biodiversity is threatened due to various causes
and biodiversity loss having enormous impact on environment. Biodiversity is conserved through In-
situ methods viz., national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, Ex-situ methods vz.,
Zoos, Botanical Gardens, seed banks, cryopreservation etc. Biodiversity hotspots are helpful in
conserving endemic and threatened species. Wildlife is threatened due to various reasons, hence they
are protected and managed through wildlife projects. Biodiversity and environment are protected by
various laws and also analysed through various Committees set up to study the environment to protect
the nature like Gadgil Committee and Kasturirangan Committee.

Unit 5 gives you basic concepts of biodiversity, levels of biodiversity, and the role of biodiversity.
Unit 6 gives you details of needs and benefits of biodiversity, this unit describes the causes and
consequences of loss of biodiversity, and need of biodiversity conservation. Unit 7 explains the
strategies for biodiversity conservation, biodiversity hotspots, meaning and examples of endemic and
exotic species and their impacts on environment, Red Data Book and lows on biodiversity
conservation. In Unit 8, Conservation Projects like Project tiger, Project elephant, Ramsar convention
and other conservational projects have been given. This unit also explained some features of Experts
Committee Reports on environmental conservation.

Chairman
Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri,
Mysuru – 570 006

vii
 UNIT 5: INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY

STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Levels of Biodiversity
5.3 Measuring Biodiversity
5.4 Biodiversity at Global Level
5.5The role of biodiversity
5.6 Summary
5.7 Keywords
5.8 Questions for self study
5.9 References and further readings

1
5.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• define biodiversity
• explain different scales or levels of biodiversity
• discuss importance of biodiversity
• describe the role of biodiversity in environment

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The term ‘Biodiversity’ is an acronym for ‘biological diversity’. It refers to the variety and
the variability of all the living organisms (plants, animals or microbes) present in an area. It is
actually part of nature which shows differences at genetic, species or ecosystem level. Thus
The term biodiversity encompasses variety of biological life at more than one scale. It is not
only the variety of species (both plant and animal) but also the variety of genes within those
species and the variety of ecosystems in which the species reside. Differences can be seen
and studied among different individuals of same species, among different species in an
ecosystem or area or among various ecosystems in a region.

In simpler words Biodiversity is the variety of life on the earth that includes variation at all
levels of biological organization from genes to species to ecosystems. Thus genetic,
organismal and ecological diversity are all elements of biodiversity with each including a
number of components and sub-components.

An important and widely used definition of Biodiversity is one given in the Convention on
Biological Diversity which was signed by over 150 nations at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It defines biodiversity
as:

“The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia [among other
things], terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems”.

E. O. Wilson (1988) defines the term biodiversity as “the variety of life at every hierarchical
level and spatial scale of biological organisations: genes within populations, populations

2
within species, species within communities, communities within landscapes, landscapes
within biomes, and biomes within the biosphere”

The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist
Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country advocating
conservation. Theterm was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s
it came into commonusage in science and environmental policy.
Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology, introduced the term to
the scientific community. Until then the term “natural diversity” was common, introduced by
The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, “The
Preservation of Natural Diversity.” By the early 1980s TNC’s Science program and its head,
Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America
advocated the use of the term “biologicaldiversity”.
The term’s contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while
planning the 1986 National Forum on Biological Diversity organized by the National
Research Council (NRC). It first appeared in a publication in 1988 when sociobiologist E. O.
Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings of that forum. Since this period the term has
achieved widespread use among biologists,environmentalists, political leaders, and concerned
citizens.
It is only a thin layer of just one kilometer thickness on the surface of the earth life exists.
There occur millions of species of living organisms within this layer. There is a huge
biodiversity present in different parts of the earth from the driest deserts to the densest
tropical rain forests and from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the deepest of ocean
trenches.

This huge biodiversity present today is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution since the
first forms of life appeared on the earth. There is no exact idea of how many different species
of living organisms exists on the surface of the earth.

Scientists, however, believe it to be somewhere between 10 to 80 millions About 1.4 million

species have so far been enlisted.

Only 2.5 to 12% of the total number of species on the earth are described. Some estimates say
that about 1.5 million living and 300,000 fossil species have been actually described and
given scientific names. It is also believed that a large number of species may have become
extinct even before they are discovered and scientifically studied.

3
Biodiversity is not distributed evenly or uniformly on the earth. It varies greatly across the
globe as well as within regions. The richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic
conditions and area of the region. Generally, the tropical regions support more biodiversity
than the polar regions. Biodiversity is much more on land than in oceans. Tropical rain
forests are the richest in biodiversity. All species of plants taken together are known as flora
and about 70,000 species of plants are known till date. All species of animals taken together
are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans,
molluscs, etc.

5.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity includes genetic variation within species, the variety of species in an area, and
the variety of habitat types within a landscape. In order to understand biodiversity in an easier
manner it can be studied at different scales or levels of biological organization.
These include:
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a species. Each species is
made up of individuals that have their own particular genetic composition. They all differ
from one another despite belonging to same species. Genes are the basic units of all life on
Earth. Genetic level diversity is the basic source of biodiversity. The genes found in
organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which gives rise to some
variability. Each member of an animal or plant species differs from other individuals. It is
because of their genetic makeup which differs slightly from individual to individual in the
same species. All humans belong to same species Homo sapiens but they differ widely from
one another. This is due to their genetic differences.
Within a species, genetic diversity give rise to a number of varieties or races or strains which
slightly differ from each other in one, two or a number of characters such as shape, colour,
strength, resistance to pests, etc.
Species diversity: Species diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. The
number of species of plants, animals and microorganisms that are present in a region
constitutes its species diversity.
There are millions of living species present on the earth. A large number of species are also
believed to have disappeared for ever even before their discovery. Some habitats, such as

4
rainforests and coral reefs, have high species diversity that is there are found large number of
species. Others, such as salt flats or a polluted stream, may not be rich in species diversity
that is there may be fewer species present.
Ecosystem diversity: It refers the variety of ecosystems present in a region or on the whole
of the earth. There is a great variety of ecosystems on the earth. Each ecosystem has its own
distinctive geographic and ecological features which support different types of life forms.
This is, actually, the diversity of the ecological complexity showing variations in ecological
niches, trophic structure, foodwebs, nutrient cycling etc. The ecosystems show variations
with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.
Thus, there occurs tremendous diversity within the ecosystems, along these gradients.
The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept intact. This diversity has
developed over millions of years of evolution. If we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt
the ecological balance. We cannot even replace the diversity of one ecosystem by that of
another. Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot take up the function of the trees of tropical
deciduous forests and vice versa, because ecosystem diversity has evolved with respect to the
prevailing environmental conditions with well regulated ecological balance.

5.3 MEASURING BIODIVERSITY

In order to understand various aspects of biodiversity such as such as where it occurs, how
fast it is disappearing or how it can be maintained; we need to be able to measure it.
Numbers or Magnitude: It refers to the number of genes, populations, species or taxa in an
area.
Evenness or Distribution: Species evenness refers to how close in numbers each species in
an environment is. Mathematically it is defined as a measure of biodiversity which quantifies
how equal the community is numerically. So if there are 40 foxes, and 1000 dogs, the
community is not very even. But if there are 40 foxes and 42dogs, the community is quite
even.
Difference or Range: Some pairs of alleles, populations, species or taxa may be very similar
whilst others are very different. For example, if populations within a species are very
different they may be considered as different sub-species. Similarly, in an ecosystem there
may be 10 species of plants belonging to one or two genera whereas in another ecosystem
there are 10 species of plant belonging to 10 different genera. The latter is considered more

5
diverse. Algorithms for measuring biodiversity have been developed to connote species
diversity at different geographical scales as under:
Alpha Diversity
It indicates the number of species in a single community. The index can be used to compare
the number of species in different ecosystem type. It is, thus also called as local diversity.
Beta Diversity
It indicates the degree to which species composition changes along an environmental
gradient. It may also be referred to as the ratio between gamma (regional) and alpha(local)
diversities.
Gamma Diversity
It indicates the rate at which additional species are encountered as geographical replacements
within a habitat type in different localities. It is, thus, also called as regional diversity.

5.4BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL

Biodiversity is not distributed evenly across the globe. It varies greatly across the regions as
well as within the regions. Besides other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota)
depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other
species in a region.
Though nobody knows how many species exist in the biosphere. Some estimates of
different groups of living organisms are as follows:
220,000 vascular plants,
0.7-1 million marine species
10–30 million (of some 0.9 million we know today)
5–10 million bacteria
1.5-3 million fungi, Some 0.075 million species of fungi had been documented by 2001)
1 million mites
4.2.1. Mega-biodiversity regions of the world
A mega-biodiversity or megadiverse country is one that harbors the majority of the Earth’s
species and is therefore considered extremely bio-diverse. Conservation International
identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998. Many of them are located in, or partially in,
tropical or subtropical regions. In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are:
1. Australia 2. Brazil
3. China 4. Colombia

6
5. Democratic Republic of the Congo 6. Ecuador
7. India 8. Indonesia
9. Madagascar 10. Malaysia
11. Mexico 12. Papua New Guinea
13. Peru 14. Philippines
15. South Africa 16. United States
17. Venezuela

5.5 THE ROLE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biological communities perform a variety of functions within ecosystems, including
regulation of climatic processes, breakdown of waste, recycling of nutrients, maintenance of
soil fertility and provision of natural resources.

Climate regulation

Vegetation covers a considerable portion of the earth and has an effect on weather and
climate. Vegetation influences both albedo of the earth and the amount of water vapor and
carbon dioxide in the air. Plants process and release water vapor (necessary for cloud
formation) and absorb and emit energy used to drive weather. Plants also produce their own
micro-weather by controlling the humidity and temperature immediately surrounding their
leaves through transpiration. Most plants and forest soils have a very low albedo, (about .03
to .20) and absorb a large amount of energy. However, plants don’t contribute to overall
warming because the excess warmth is offset by evaporative cooling from transpiration.
Since climate is basically an average of the weather over a long period of time, vegetation is
important to climate.

Waste Degradation
Biodegradation is a natural process that happens when microorganisms, such as bacteria and
fungi, secrete enzymes that chemically break down or degrade dead plants and animals.
Living bodies assemble themselves by eating, drinking and breathing in nutrients. After the
death of the body, disassembly is performed by organisms called decomposers. Decomposers
are organisms that transform the bodies of both plants and animals back into the basic
constituents they were made from.
 Without them, no life can exist – including humans.

7
  Without these little recyclers, there would be no nutrients available for new lives to
grow.
 Without decomposers, our entire planet would be buried deep in dead plants and
animals.
Decomposers are mostly Bacteria and Fungi. They have helpers too. The BIG helpers are the
scavengers, while the little aides are the detritivores (also called detritus feeders).
Many decomposers are partners in interesting biological systems. For example, the bacteria in
the rumens (first stomachs) of cows, decompose grass that cows eat and pass on more easily
digestible substances to the real stomachs. Also, the microbes in the gut “tubes” of
earthworms partially decompose plant fragments, making elements and compounds available
to the worms and yield nutrient-rich residues that are passed back into the soil.
Recycling of Nutrients
Nutrient cycling is a cyclic process that encompasses the movement of nutrients from the
physical environment to living organisms and back to the environment. Nutrients are present
on the earth where they are recycled, transformed into different forms and reutilized. Various
organisms breakdown the complex chemical substances into simpler form and it is utilized by
the plants and animals. After the death of these organisms, decomposes and return to the
environment.
Maintenance of soil fertility
Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter.
When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the
organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they
can be taken up by plants.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is a significant source of nitrogen for agriculture and may
account for up to 80% of total nitrogen inputs. In the symbiosis, rhizobium bacteria fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and make it available to the legume. In exchange, they receive
carbon from the legume. Similarly, agricultural plants form a symbiosis with arbuscular
mycorrhizal (AM) fungi that can increase phosphorus uptake by the plant. The hyphal strands
of AM fungi extend from plant roots into soil and have access to phosphorus that plant roots
cannot reach. The AM fungi can provide phosphorus to plants and in return they receive the
carbon they need to grow.
The soil organisms are responsible for maintenance of soil structure, porosity and soil
fertility.

8
5.6 SUMMARY
Biodiversity refers to the variety and the variability of all the living organisms present in an
area. The biodiversity can be studied at different scales or levels of biological organization
viz., genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Biodiversity can be
measured by numbers or magnitude, evenness or distribution, difference or range.
Biodiversity is very important and provide direct and indirect benefits. Biodiversity is used as
food, drugs or medicines and also have productive, social and ethical values. Biodiversity is
also important in climate regulation, waste degradation, recycling of nutrients and
maintenance of soil fertility.

5.7 KEYWORDS

Biodiversity Levels of Biodiversity Productive value

Ethical value Consumptive value Waste degradation
Climate regulation Nutrient recycling Role of biodiversity

5.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. Define biodiversity? Give brief history of biodiversity.

2. How biodiversity can be studied at different scales or levels? Explain.
3. Mention the importance of biodiversity and describe the uses.
4. Explain the role of biodiversity in environment.

5.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. K V Krishnamurthy, 2003. Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers, USA.
2. Michael J. Jeffries, 2005. Biodiversity and Conservation, Routledge publication.
3. P.C. Joshi, 2004. Biodiversity and Conservation, APH Publishing Corporation.
4. Sharad Singh Negi, 1993. Biodiversity and its Conservation in India. Indus Publishing

9
 UNIT 6: NEEDS AND BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY

STRUCTURE
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Needs and Benefits of Biodiversity
6.3 Loss of Biodiversity
6.4 Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity
6.5 Need for Conservation of Biodiversity
6.6 Summary
6.7 Keywords
6.8 Questions for self study
6.9 References and further readings

10
6.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• explain the needs of biodiversity
• describe the benefits of biodiversity
• discuss the factors causing loss of biodiversity
• explain the consequences of biodiversity
• discuss the need of conservation of biodiversity

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The biodiversity contained in the ecosystem provides forest dwellers with all their daily
needs- food, building material, fodder, medicines and a variety of other products.
Biodiversity also provides us with lumber, granite, and marble – to name a few of the
building materials much human habitation depends upon – we would largely be without
shelter.
Biodiversity ensures health and food security, most of the plants and animals are main source
of food and are very important to maintain the health. Biodiversity helps fight diseases.
Several studies suggest that with the loss of biodiversity the transmission of diseases
increases. Thus biodiversity loss causes the loss of an important ecosystem service: buffering
the spreading of infectious diseases to humans, animals and plants.

5.4 NEEDS AND BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is immensely important on the earth. It has direct as well indirect benefits for the
mankind and for entire biosphere. We get benefits from other living organisms around us that
is biodiversity in innumerable ways. Very small, insignificant, apparently useless organism
may play a crucial role in the ecological balance of the earth. They may be a potential source
of some invaluable drug for dreaded diseases. The values of biodiversity for its multiple uses,
has been classified by McNeely et al in 1990 as recorded by Kaushak (2006) and are as
follows:
A. Consumptive Value: These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be
harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc.
1. Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About
80,000 edible plant species have been reported from wild. About 90% of present day food

11
crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants. Even now our agricultural scientists
make use of the existing wild species of plants that are closely related to our crop plants for
developing new hardy strains. Wild relatives usually possess better tolerance and hardiness.
A large number of wild animals are also our sources of food.
2. Drugs and medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant
extracts for medicines. The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a
fungus called Penicillium. Likewise, we get Tetracyclin from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure
for malaria is obtained from the bark ofCinchona tree, while Digitalin is obtained from
foxglove (Digitalis spp) which is an effective cure for heart ailments. Recently vinblastin and
vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained from Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant,
which possesses anticancer alkaloids. A large number of marine animals are supposed to
possess anti-cancer properties which are yet to be explored systematically.
3. Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum
and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals
is not normally marketed, but are directly consumed by tribals and local villagers, hence falls
under consumptive value.
B. Productive Value: These are the commercially usable values where the product is
marketed and sold. It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by
scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. These may
include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silk-
worm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac insects etc, all of which are traded
in the market.
Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of biodiversity e.g.-the Paper
and pulp industry, Plywood industry, Railway sleeper industry, Silk industry, Textile
industry, Ivory-works, Leather industry, etc. Despite international ban on trade in products
from endangered species, smuggling of fur, hide, horns, tusks, live specimen etc. Worth
millions of dollars are being sold every year.
Developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are the richest biodiversity centres
and wild life products are smuggled and marketed in large quantities to somerich western
countries and also to China and Hong Kong where export of cat skins and snake skins fetches
a booming business. Biodiversity when exploited for its consumptive and productive uses at
large scale itis known to be its commercial use
C. Social Value: These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and
psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in

12
our country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc. The leaves, fruits or
flowers of these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is worshipped.
The tribal people are very closely linked with the wild life in the forests. Their social life,
songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife. Many animals like Cow,
Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl etc. also have significant place in our psychospiritual arena and
thus hold special social importance. Thus biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with
different societies.
D. Ethical value: It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues
like all life must be preserved. It is based on the concept of Live and Let Live. If we want our
human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is valuable.
The ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the very fact that
this species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We all feel sorry when we learn that passenger
pegion or dodo is no more on this earth. We are not deriving anything direct from Kangaroo,
Zebra or Giraffe, but we all strongly feel that thesespecies should exist in nature. This means,
there is an ethical value or existence value attached to each species.
E. Aesthetic value: Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. No one of us would like
to visit vast stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and wide
spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic
value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as eco-tourism. The ‘Willingness
to pay’ concept on sucheco-tourism gives us even a monetary estimate for aesthetic value of
biodiversity. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12 billion dollars of revenue annually
that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
F. Option values: These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently
unknown and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential
cure for AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical
rainforest. Thus option value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources
existing on this biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something
important in the future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any species may
prove to be a miracle species some day. The biodiversity is like precious gifts of nature
presented tous. We should not commit the folly of losing these gifts even before unwrapping
them. The option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where a
variety of flora and fauna, or specifically some endemic, rare or endangered species exist.
G. Ecological value It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil
erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of

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nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of
the threat of global warming etc.Different categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate
that ecosystem, species and genetic diversity all have enormous potential and a decline in
biodiversity will lead to huge economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses.

6.4 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Jared Diamond describes an “Evil Quartet” of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced

species, and secondary extinctions. Edward O Wilson a renowned sociobiologist prefers to
use the acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, human
over population, and over-harvesting for the cause of biodiversity loss. The most authoritative
classification in use today is IUCNs Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted
by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, World
Wildlife Fund, Conservation International and Birdlife International.
6.4.1 Habitat destruction
As recently as 50 years ago, most of the regions in our country were inaccessible and remote.
Now, due to better infrastructure, contact of these areas with humans has increased. Activities
such as logging of wood, increased agriculture, increased human habitation has led to
destruction of forests. Many of our virgin forests are conquered and these regions are getting
polluted. Our rivers and oceans are also accessible and they are also getting polluted. These
factors are causing species ranges to reduce and habitats to become choppy.
More specifically the habitat loss could be assigned to deforestation. Deforestation occurs
because of cutting of forest trees for timber, removal of plants for industries (eg. bamboo is
used in paper industry), removal of trees for forest produce (eg. soapnut) etc. Forests are also
removed for road-building and construction of railway lines. For example, Amazon
Rainforest are of significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild
areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to biodiversity. In India for example
the construction of railway line in the Konkan railway project witnessed the destruction of
large part of forests in the coastal Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Although deforestation has a major role in habitat destruction there are other factors which
have indirect role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest destruction. Factors
contributing to habitat loss are: over population, grazing, conversion of forest land into
agriculture fields, (air pollution, water pollution and soil contamination) and global warming
or climate change.

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Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and
those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat
area. Conversion to “trivial” standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following
deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the
conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement
necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the
community).
Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or
decline in one accompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles. The government planned
to establish habitat corridors, but these plans have not yet materialized in most areas.
Activities such as mining, construction of large dams, highway construction has also caused
significant destruction of habitats. The natural habitats of many animals and plants have now
shrunken to small pockets.
6.4.2 Introduced and invasive species
Species which have originated, evolved and occupy a given area are called native species.
There are also species which have originated and evolved in one area and colonized new
areas during the course of their evolution. Such species are also able to adapt to the new area
if the environment is congenial. They can adapt harmoniously with the species that are
already present in that area. They also do not affect the survival of the species existing
before. Some species are introduced either by mankind or introduced by some other means.
Such species are called introduced species. There are also species which invade new areas
due to their overpopulation or due to their colonization quickly. Such species are called
invasive species. Such introduced and invasive species compete with the native species for
their food, shelter and other requirements. Usually these species are dominant and therefore
can lead to the depletion of native species. Following are some examples of loss of species
due to such invasion.

Male Lophura nycthemera (Silver Pheasant), a native of East Asia that has been introduced
into parts of Europe for ornamental reasons has been the cause of loss of many native
species.

Barriers such as large rivers, seas, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling
independent evolution on either side of the barrier. The invasive species occur when
those barriers are blurred. Without barriers such species occupy new niches, substantially
reducing diversity. Repeatedly humans have helped these species circumvent these barriers,

15
introducing them for food and other purposes. This has occurred on a time scale much
shorter than the eons that historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In
cases such as the zebra nussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other
cases, such as mongoose in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective
(nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil
palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits,
but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

An introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it
replaces. In Belgium, Prunus spinose from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West
European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which
feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species
unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may
be predators, parasites or may simply compete with indigenous species for nutrients, water
and light.

At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly
agricultural and ornamental plants which may outnumber their own indigenous fauna/flora.

6.4.3 Genetic pollution

Species which are adapted to live in a limited area are called endemic species. Such
species are highly sensitive both physiologically and genetically. Such endemic species
can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e.
uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to
homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or
fitness advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-
effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to
rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can
interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always
apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal
adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However,
hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species’
existence.
6.4.4 Overexploitation
Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs

16
on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture
and the illegal wildlife trade. Joe Walston, director of the Wildlife Conservation Society’s
Asian programs, called the latter the “single largest threat” to biodiversity in Asia. The
international trade of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking.
About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is
less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield. The overkill hypothesis explains
why earlier megafaunal extinctions occurred within a relatively short period of time. This
can be connected with over population and over exploitation.
6.4.5 Hybridization, genetic pollution/erosion and food security
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the green revolution popularized the use of
conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in
developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world
to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and
industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and
indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution.
This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.
Now a day’s lot of importance is given to the production of transgenic organisms.
Transgenic organism is a product of genetic engineering. A desirable gene from one species
is introduced into another species through recombinant DNA technology. The carrier of
new DNA (gene) is called transgenic individual. Such transgenics have their genomes
modified, therefore they are also called genetically modified organisms (GMOs). GMOs
are supposed to have high yield and economically more productive. However, GM crops
have become a common source for genetic pollution, not only of wild varieties but also of
domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization.
Genetic erosion coupled with genetic pollution may be destroying unique genotypes,
thereby creating a hidden crisis which could result in a severe threat to our foo d
security. Diversegeneticmaterialcouldceasetoexistwhichwouldimpactourabilityto further
hybridize food crops and livestock against more resistant diseases and climatic changes.
The Yecoro wheat cultivar is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross with
cultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to high salinity. Continuous cultivation of
W4910 could lead to loss of the native Yecoro breed.

6.4.6 Climate change

Due to atmospheric pollution most of the countries are witnessing climate change. Carbon

17
dioxide pollution is leading to ozone layer depletion and global warming. Sulphur and
nitrogen oxides lead to acid rains. Today we are witnessing unseasonal rains, drought, severe
summers and winters all due to various types of atmospheric pollution. This results in global
climate change. Organisms adapted to a particular climate in a particular area are affected
very much with such climate change. This leads to loss of biodiversity.

Global warming is considered to be a major threat to global biodiversity. For example, coral
reefs are not formed when the temperature is beyond 30 degree Celsius. These reefs are
considered as biodiversity hotspots because they contain lots of species of organisms. Global
warming leads to increase in temperature which in turn prevents the growth of corals. If the
current rate of global warming continues, in next 20 to 40 years all the coral reefs would
vanish.

If the global temperature keeps on increasing due to global warming, the ice caps found in
Himalayas and Polar Regions would melt. This would in turn lead to floods in the rivers and
famine on land. Floods wash away the aquatic species and famine leads to shortage of food
leading to loss of biodiversity

Although dire IPCC predictions of Himalayan glaciers melting by 2035 have been retracted,
there is no doubt that several Himalayan glaciers are melting. In the Western Ghats, studies
have shown that the deciduous and the evergreen forests of Karnataka are the most at risk.
Climate change may significantly affect the temperatures, rainfalls and water tables in the
Western Ghats, according to an assessment by the Government of India.
Acid rain means decrease of pH of rain water. This is caused due to oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen. Acid rain causes the decrease in the pH of soil. The fertility of soil also decreases.
When soil fertility is lost, the growth of forest vegetation is affected. Loss of plants in
forests would also leads to loss of animal species.

6.4.7 Human overpopulation

The global human population during 1900 was nearly 1.0 billion. It increased to 2.5
billion in 1950. Then onwards population increased at enormous rate and to day global
population is around 7 billion. From 1950 to 2011, world population has almost trebled.
This kind of sharp increase in population size is called population explosion. Sharp
increase in human population has necessitated more resources. Our natural resources
are overexploited. The demand for industrial produce, agricultural produce has also
increased. More industries have been established. Forest lands have been converted in to

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agricultural lands. This also has lead to the loss of biodiversity. According to David King,
former Chief Scientific Adviser to UK Government has told in a parliamentary inquiry “It is
self-evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has
had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor.”

6.4.8 Resource mismanagement

Due to human greed the forest and other natural resources are being over exploited.
Increasedtourismwithoutproperregulationhasledtopollutionandenvironmentaldegradation.
Prime examples are pilgrimage destinations like Rishikesh and hill stations like
Dehradoon. These spots, once nestled in the pristine ranges of the Himalayas, are now
dirty commercial destinations. Places like Dehradoon are even experiencing a construction
boom so large that illegal immigrants from Bangladesh are also flocking there. Religious
destinations in the Himalayas, where devotees flock in millions now, are also hot
destinations for medicinal plant trade, which has threatened plant life in the area. In
South, Aiyappa Swamy Temple, Mookambika Temple, Yana and many other places are
piligrimage centres which now are flooded with people. There are also many other tourist
spots which were inaccessible earlier are attracting people now and getting polluted.
The forest resources like valuable trees are being cut without any discrimination. Loss of
sandal wood trees, teak trees, rosewood trees are some examples. There was no regulation to
cut these trees until very recently. Harvesting minerals from earth crust from our mines is
also going on indiscriminately without any regulation. The loss of these resources indirectly
affect other animal and plant species.

6.5 CONSEQUENCES OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Loss of biodiversity has great impact on the ecosystems. First and foremost is the loss of
many precious species. You have learnt that the biodiversity is the product of evolution of
species over several million years. Such precious biological material is lost within a span of
short time. If it has to reestablish it would again require several million years which is
almost impossibility.

If biodiversity is lost the ecosystems are gradually turning into less diverse and finally
whole ecosystem will be consisting of only one or few species. Monotony would be the
consequence of loss of biodiversity. The evolution can occur only if there is variety.
According to Charles Darwin, variation is the source for natural selection to operate. Loss
of biodiversity also leads to reduction in variation. Evolution can come to a halt if there is

19
no biodiversity, particularly the genetic diversity.
Loss of ecological balance is another consequence of loss of biodiversity. When species of
certain trophic levels are lost the other organisms would suffer. For example, if the grasses
are destroyed in a forest, the herbivorous grazing animal would have no fodder. Similarly, if
herbivorous animals are lost, the carnivorous animals would die of shortage of food. There is
breakdown of entire food chain in the ecosystem. The extreme situation of the loss of
biodiversity could be even the total absence of living organisms in such areas leading to just
barren land.
You have already seen that loss of habitat is one of the reasons for the loss of biodiversity.
Loss of biodiversity itself could be the cause of habitat loss. Similarly, the other reason for
the loss of biodiversity is climate change. Loss of habitat, loss of biodiversity can also lead
to climate change. Particularly the plant biodiversity when lost it reduces the rate of
oxygenation in the atmosphere. It also reduces the rate of fixation of carbon dioxide. The
concentration of unwanted gasses would increase. This leads to atmospheric pollution.
Loss of biodiversity also can lead to loss of health of human and other domesticated
animals. Good atmosphere keeps the organisms in good health. Loss of biodiversity could
lead to increase of many pathogens in the atmosphere, thus causing many infectious
diseases. Pollution can induce many health hazards.
Loss of biodiversity could also lead to shortage of many resources. As you are aware, many
organisms or their products are essential for the survival of mankind or other organisms.
Only judicious use of them can maintain the ecological balance and also maintain
biodiversity. If the biodiversity is lost it means some of these essential resources are lost.
Moreover, oil and petroleum is the product of conversion of some of these biological
materials which lived in the past. Upon the death of organisms, they get fossilized and later
converted oil and petroleum deposits. Therefore, petroleum is considered as one of fossil
fuel. A few minerals also are formed in the same way. If biodiversity is lost today, it means
we are loose our petroleum and other minerals of future. These are some of the direct
consequences of loss of biodiversity. There are many indirect consequences also. Of course
the consequence in such cases depends which species is lost and how fast it is lost.

6.5 NEED FOR CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all equally important.
They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and
ethical. The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are obvious; humans

20
derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-food (cereals, pulses, fruits),
firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins,
perfumes) and products of medicinal importance. More than 25 per cent of the drugs
currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000species of plants
contribute to the traditional medicines used by native peoples around the world. Nobody
knows how many more medicinally useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to
be explored. With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular,
genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic importance),nations endowed
with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormous benefits.
The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem
services that nature provides. The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to
what we owe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we share this
planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realize that every species has an intrinsic
value, even if it may not be of current or any economic value to us. We have a moral duty to
care for their well-being and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future
generation.
Vulnerable species are being trafficked to the point of extinction, while our oceans are
plundered, and illegal logging devastates huge swathes of the last ancient forests. These
environmental crimes impact every nation on Earth and have a catastrophic effect on our
planet’s biodiversity, with far-reaching consequences for our climate, public health, and
international security and stability:
Wildlife crime frequently converges with other serious organised crimes, like human and
drug trafficking. Illegal logging accelerates climate change and habitat loss. Fisheries crime
poses a serious threat to ocean health. Every species preyed upon by the illegal wildlife trade
plays an important role in their habitat’s ecosystem.
Healthy ecosystems clean our water, purify our air, maintain our soil, regulate the climate,
recycle nutrients and provide us with food. They provide raw materials and resources for
medicines and other purposes. They are at the foundation of all civilisation and sustain our
economies. It's that simple: we could not live without these “ecosystem services”. They are
what we call our natural capital.
Biodiversity is the key indicator of the health of an ecosystem. A wide variety of species will
cope better with threats than a limited number of them in large populations. Even if certain
species are affected by pollution, climate change or human activities, the ecosystem as a

21
whole may adapt and survive. But the extinction of a species may have unforeseen impacts,
sometimes snowballing into the destruction of entire ecosystems.
The biological diversity of life on earth is the foundation of human existence and well-being.
Biodiversity and viable ecosystems protect us from natural disasters, regulate the climate, and
provide food, fertile soil, and medicine.
But biodiversity is declining and many of the world’s greatest biodiversity hotspots are
located in countries burdened by poverty, food insecurity, and intensifying climate change.
These underlying drivers of biodiversity loss are a result of unsustainable human activity and
behaviour. To protect biodiversity – and the prosperity of communities around the world –
we must adopt and spur demand for more responsible and sustainable practices that safeguard
soil, water, forests, and wildlife.
Therefore, there is need to conserve biodiversity to sustain life and coexistence of mankind.

6.6 SUMMARY

Biodiversity ensures health and food security, most of the plants and animals are main source
of food and are very important to maintain the health.Biodiversity is immensely important on
the earth. It has direct as well indirect benefits for the mankind and for entire biosphere.
Biodiversity is used for consumptive purpose, have productive, social, ethical and aesthetic
values in environment. Being so important, the biodiversity is mismanaged for its importance
and causing loss of biodiversity. Habitat destruction, introducing invasive species, genetic
alteration, pollution, overexploitation and climate change causing the loss of biodiversity.
Loss of biodiversity leads to imbalance in the ecosystem causing shortage of many resources.
Therefore, there is need to conserve biodiversity.

6.7 KEYWORDS

Importance of biodiversity Loss of biodiversity

Causes of biodiversity loss Consequences of biodiversity loss
Conservation of biodiversity

6.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. Discuss the needs and benefits of biodiversity in detail.

2. What are the causes and consequences of loss of biodiversity?
3. Explain why we need to conserve biodiversity?

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6.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
1. K V Krishnamurthy, 2003. Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers, USA.
2. Michael J. Jeffries, 2005. Biodiversity and Conservation, Routledge publication.
3. P.C. Joshi, 2004. Biodiversity and Conservation, APH Publishing Corporation.
4. Sharad Singh Negi, 1993. Biodiversity and its Conservation in India. Indus Publishing.

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 UNIT 7: BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

STRUCTURE
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Strategies of Biodiversity Conservation
7.3 Biodiversity Hotspots
7.4 Endemic and Exotic species
7.5 Red Data Book
7.6 Laws for biodiversity conservation
7.7 Summary
7.12 Keywords
7.13 Questions for self study
7.14 References and further readings

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7.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• explain the strategies of biodiversity conservation
• differentiate endemic and exotic species
• explain Red Data Book
• describe the concept of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves
• discuss the need of biodiversity hotspots
• explain various laws for conservation of biodiversity
• discuss the importance of wetlands and its conservation

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Important factors leading to extinction (or) eliminations of species and consequent loss of
biodiversity due to habitat loss and fragmentation, introduction of non-native species,
overexploitation, soil, waterand atmospheric pollution, and intensive agriculture and forestry
etc, there is much reduction in the biodiversity causing imbalance in the environment. There
is need to conserve biodiversity in order to sustain life on earth.
Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a
collective responsibility of all nations. The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (The
Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate
measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its benefits.
We know that ecosystems are undergoing change due to pollution, invasive species,
overexploitation by humans, and climate change. Most people are beginning to recognize that
diversity at all levels - gene pool, species and biotic community is important and needs to be
conserved.
Conservation of biodiversity is important to:
 Prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species,
 Save a species from becoming extinct, and
 Protect ecosystems damage and degradation.

7.2 STRATEGIES OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

We need to adopt proper strategy to effectively conserve biodiversity. Some of the important
points to be taken into consideration for this purpose include:
1. Unique and fragile ecosystems should be preserved.

25
 2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved.
3. All the varieties of food, forage and timber plants, livestock, animals and microbes
should be conserved.
4. Critical habitats for each species should be identified and protected.
5. Sustainable utilisation of resources should be encouraged and ensured
6. International trade in wild life should be discouraged.
7. The poaching and hunting of wildlife should be prevented.
8. Environmental pollution should be reduced to minimum possible levels.
9. Reserves and protected areas should be developed as far as possible.
10. Increase the awareness among public regarding biodiversity and its importance
11. Environment protection laws should be strictly implemented.

There are two strategies for conservation of biodiversity, namely In-situ conservation and Ex-
situ conservation.

Fig. 1. Strategies for the conservation of biodiversity.

7.1.1 In-situ Conservation Strategies

In-situ Conservation means the conservation of ecosystem and natural habitat and
maintenance and recovery of viable population of species in the surrounding where they have
developed their distinctive characteristics. In-situ Conservation methods pertain to conserving
animals and plants in their natural habitats. It emphasizes the preservation and protection of
total ecosystem at their original or natural environment.

26
The main objective is to recognize a particular biodiversity rich area and to preserve it si that
the biodiversity can continue to flourish and evolve. This involves establishment of protected
areas national parks and sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, reserve forests etc, over past few
decades there has been an increase in the number of such areas.
Advantages of In-situ Conservation methods
 It is a cheap and convenient method that requires people’s supportive role
 It maintains all organisms at different trophic levels from producers to top carnivores
in an ecosystem
 Requires only elimination of factors detrimental to the existence of the species and
allows the larger number of species to grow simultaneously and flourish in their
natural environment in which they were growing since a long time.

Disadvantages of In-situ Conservation methods

 It requires a large area
 Minimizes the space for inhabiting human population which is increasing
tremendously

A. National Parks
National parks are legally constituted protected areas for conserving both flora and fauna of a
region in India. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 empowers the state governments to declare an
area as a National Park. The is established for protecting, propagating and developing
wildlife and its environment under the Section 35 and 38 of the said Act.
National Park is an area of land set aside to conserve the environment, natural objects and the
wildlife therein. Under the Section 35 of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, whenever it
appears to the State Government that an area, where within a sanctuary or not, is by reason of
its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological or zoological importance, needed to be
constituted as a National Park for the purpose of propagating or developing wildlife therein or
its environment, it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such as a National
Park.
All kinds of destruction, exploitation and removal of wildlife and damage to the
habitat of any animal are strictly prohibited inside a National Park. Grazing of domestic
animals is also prohibited. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, after prior approval of

27
the state government, permit destruction, exploitation and removal of wildlife from the
National Park if necessary for the improvement and better management of wildlife therein.
There are 106 existing national parks in India covering an area of 44,372.42 km2,
which is 1.35% of the geographical area of the country, in Karnataka, there are 5 national
parks.
List of National Parks of Karnataka

Area
S.No. Name Established
(in km²)

1 Bandipur National Park 1974 874.2

2 Bannerghatta National Park 1974 260.51

3 Kudremukh National Park 1987 600.32

4 Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park 1988 643.39

5 AnshiNational Park 1987 417.37

Anshi National Park

This park is present in the Uttara Kannada district and spreads over an area of
250 km2. The altitude varies from 27 metres (89 ft) to 937 metres (3,074 ft), and temperatures
from 15.5 °C to 45 °C. Average annual rainfall is about 4,700 millimetres (185 in).

Flora: The area has semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. Some common tree species in the
area are
Calophylluum tomentosa,Calophyllum wightianum,Garcina cambogia,Garcinamorealla,Kne
ma attenuata,Hopea wightiana,Tetrameles nudiflora,Alstoniascholaris,Flacourtiamontana,M
achilis macarantha,Carallia brachiata,Artocarpushirsutus,Artocarpuslacoochaand Cinnamo
mum zeylanicum.

Fauna: Mammals - Indian elephant, gaur, wildboar, sambar, chevrotain,

muntjac, chital, gray langur, bonnet macaque, slender loris, Bengal tiger, jungle cat, Indian
leopard, leopard cat, small Indian civet, common mongoose, golden jackal, dhol, sloth
bear, Malabar giant squirrel, grizzled giant squirrel, Indian giant flying squirrel, and Indian
crested porcupine. King cobra, python, cobra, rat snake, viper and krait are among the snakes
that inhabit the park. Interesting birds include the great hornbill, Malabar pied
hornbill and Ceylon frogmouth.

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Bandipur National Park
It is situated within Chamarajanagar district covering an area of over 800 km2 and
adjoins the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In 1973, Bandipur became one of the first of
India's tiger reserves and became a part of Project Tiger. In 1974, intention was declared
under the Wildlife Protection Act to notify it as a national park.
Flora: The scrub jungles towards the eastern limits of the park consist of stunted trees,
interspersed with bushes and open grassy patches. Towards its north-western fringes, there is
a gradual shift in the vegetation from open dry deciduous forests to tropical mixed deciduous
forests. These diverse habitats support an enormous diversity of animal life.
Fauna: The mammals found here are Indian elephant (Elephasmaximus indicus), gaur
(Bosgaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital or spotted deer (Axis axis), muntjac
(Muntiacusmuntjak) or barking deer, mouse deer (Moschiolaindica), bonnet macaque
(Macacaradiata), slender loris (Loris tardigradus), red giant flying squirrel (Petaurista
petaurista), Bengal tiger (Pantheratigris), Indian leopard (Pantherapardus), common palm
civet (Paradoxurushermaphroditus), small Indian civet (Viverriculaindica), sloth bear
(Melursusursinus), dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuonalpinus), striped hyena
(Hyaenahyaena), golden jackal (Canis aureus), ruddy mongoose (Herpestessmithii), smooth-
coated otter (Lutrogaleperspicillata), Indian pangolin (Maniscrassicaudata).
Among the 230 species of birds identified here, some of the important groups include
herons, storks, egrets, ducks, kites, eagles, falcons, quails, partridges, wildfowl, lapwings,
sandpipers, pigeons, doves, parakeets, cuckoos, owls, nightjars, swifts, kingfishers, bee-eaters
and munias.
Reptiles like marsh crocodile (Crocodyluspalustris), Indian pond terrapin, starred
tortoise (Geocheloneelegans), common Indian monitor (Varanusbengalensis), Indian
chameleon (Chamaeleozeylanicus), skinks (Mabuya spp.), geckos (Hemidactylus), common
rat snake (Ptyasmucosus), Indian cobra (Najanaja), Russell's viper (Daboiarusselli), common
krait (Bungaruscaeruleus), Indian python (Python molurus), checkered keelback, green whip
snake, common Indian bronzeback (Dendrelaphistristis) and trinket snake (Elaphehelena) are
found here.
Bannerghatta National Park
It is located in South Bengaluru and covers over 260.51 km2 of area. Altitude varies
from 740 metres (2,428 ft) to 1,034 metres (3,392 ft), temperature from 20° to 35 °C and the
average annual rainfall is 700 millimetres (28 in).

29
Flora: The area has dry deciduous forests and thorny scrub, with patches of
moist deciduous forests along the streams. Tree species in the park include Anogeissus
latifolia, Schleichera oleosae, Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia arjuna, Grewialatefolia,
Santalum album, Shorea talura, Emblica officinalis, Vitex altissima, Wrightia tinctoria,
Randiasp., Ziziphus sp. And Albizzia sp..Bamboos are common in the park, the dominant
species being Dendrocalamus strictus. A smallarea of the park has plantations of Eucalyptus,
Bauhiniapurpurea, Samaneasaman and Peltophorum pterocarpum.
Fauna: Mammals in the park include Indian leopard, gaur, Indian elephant, golden
jackal, fox, wild boar, sloth bear, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, common langur, bonnet
macaque, Indian crested porcupine and hare. A Bengal tiger has recently been sighted in the
park
Kudremukh National Park
Spread over an area of 600.32 km2, it encompasses regions in the districts of Dakshina
Kannada, Udupi and Chikmagalur. Altitude varies from 134 metres (440 ft) to 1,892 metres
(6,207 ft). The park has a pleasant climate, with temperatures ranging from 17° to 28 °C.
Annual rainfall varies from 1,778 millimetres (70 in) to 6,350 millimetres (250 in), with an
average of 4,000 millimetres (157 in). The rivers Nethravati, Tunga and Bhadra are believed
to originate here at Ganga Moola.
Flora: The park has mostly evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Shola grassland habitat is
found at elevations above 1,400 metres (4,593 ft). Evergreen trees include Poecilo
neuronindicum, Holigarna arnottiana, Artocarpus sp., Calophyllum sp., Alstonia scholaris,
Canarium strictum, Syzygium cumini, Flacourtia montana, Symplocos spicata, Hopea
parviflora, Mesua ferrea and Evodia roxburghiana. There are also a few plantations
of Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Acacia auriculiformis.
Fauna: Mammals in the park include Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, dhole, golden jackal, lion-
tailed macaque, common langur, sloth bear, gaur, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer,
Malabar giant squirrel, Indian giant flying squirrel, Indian crested porcupine and mongoose.
Reptiles are represented by snakes and tortoises.
Bird species in the park include the Malabar trogon, great hornbill, Malabar whistling
thrush and imperial pigeon.
Nagarahole National Park
Also known as Rajiv Gandhi (Nagarahole) National Park gets its name from
the Nagara Hole (Snake River in Kannada) which runs eastwards through its centre.
Nagarahole river flows through the park before it joins the Kabini river that also acts as a

30
boundary between Nagarahole and Bandipur. The park covers an area of about 575 km2.
The Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary of Kerala adjoins to the Southeast.
Flora: These forests are dominated by teak and rosewood. The eastern limits of the park
consist of regenerating dry deciduous forests. The west region of the park contains tropical
moist and semi-evergreen forests. Interspersed with these forests are swampy fallows called
hadlus, which are dominated by grasses and are favoured grazing areas of many wild
herbivores.
Fauna: Some of the species of mammals found in this park are Indian
elephant (Elephasmaximusindicus), gaur (Bosgaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital or
spotted deer or axis deer (Axis axis), muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacusmuntjak), chevrotain
or mouse deer (Moschiolaindica), four horned antelope (Tetracerusquadricornis), giant fruit
bat (Pteropusgiganteus), Bengal tiger (Pantheratigris), Indian leopard (Pantherapardus),
leopard cat (Felisbengalensis), jungle cat (Felischaus), rusty spotted cat (Felisrubiginosa),
common palm civet (Paradoxurushermaphroditus), small Indian civet (Viverriculaindica),
sloth bear (Melursusursinus), dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuonalpinus) and flying fox
(Pteropusgiganteus), the largest Indian bat.
Among the 300 species of birds identified in this park include herons, storks, egrets,
ducks, kites, eagles, falcons, partridges, quails, peafowl, owls, lapwings, sandpipers, pigeons,
doves, parakeets, cuckoos, nightjars, swifts, kingfishers, bee-eaters, barbets, swallows, larks,
woodpeckers, shrikes and orioles.
Reptiles include marsh crocodile (Crocodyluspalustris), Indian pond terrapin, star
tortoise, common Indian monitor lizard (Varanusbengalensis), forest calotes, southern green
calotes, skinks (Mabuya spp.), geckos, spectacled cobra, Russell's viper, common krait,
Indian python (Python molurus), checkered keelback, green whip snake, common Indian
bronzeback, flying snake, wolf snake and trinket snake.

B. Wildlife sanctuaries
Wildlife sanctuaries established similar to National Parks under the section 18 to 34 and 38 of
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 to protect wildlife, but it considers the conservation of species
only and also the boundary of it is not limited by state legislation. Under Section 26-A(b) of
the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, the state government may declare any area comprised
within any reserve forest or any part of territorial waters which is considered to be of
adequate ecological, faunal, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the
purpose of propagating or developing wildlife or its environment included in a sanctuary.

31
As per provision of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, no person shall destroy, exploit or
remove any wildlife from a sanctuary, or destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or
deprive any wild animal from its habitat, except the permission granted by Chief Wildlife
Warden, after prior approval of the state government. Also, no person allowed moving freely
inside the sanctuary except with the permission of the authorities. The permanent residents of
the area are bound to perform certain duties such as helping in controlling fire damage, to
report about dead animals and render all kinds of help in resisting the offenders.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of Karnataka

Established Area
S.No. Name
Year (in km²)

1 Adichunchunagiri WLS 1981 0.84

2 Arabithittu WLS 1985 13.5

3 Attiveri WLS 1994 2.22

4 Bhadra WLS 1974 492.46

5 Bhimgad WLS 2010 190.42

6 BiligiriRangaswamy Temple (B.R.T.) WLS 1987 539.52

7 Brahmagiri WLS 1974 181.29

8 Cauvery WLS 1987 1027.53

9 Chincholi WLS 2012 134.88

10 Dandeli WLS 1987 886.41

11 Daroji Bear WLS 1992 82.72

12 Ghataprabha Bird WLS 1974 29.79

13 Gudavi WLS 1989 0.73

14 Gudekote Sloth Bear WLS 2013 38.48

15 MalaiMahadeshwara WLS 2013 906.19

16 Melkote Temple WLS 1974 49.82

32
 17 Mookambika WLS 1974 370.37

18 Nugu WLS 1974 30.32

19 Pushpagiri WLS 1987 102.96

20 Ranebennur Black Buck WLS 1974 119

21 Ranganathittu Bird WLS 1940 0.67

22 Ramadevara Betta Vulture WLS 2012 3.46

23 Rangayyanadurga Four-horned antelope 2011 77.24

24 Sharavathi Valley WLS 1974 431.23

25 Shettihalli WLS 1974 395.6

26 Someshwara WLS 1974 314.25

27 Talakaveri WLS 1987 105.01

28 Jogimatti WLS 2015 100.48

29 Thimlapura WLS 2016 50.86

30 YadahalliChinkara WLS 2015 96.36

Adichunchanagiri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Mandya district and is spread over
0.88 square kilometres (0.34 sq mi). This was created mainly for the conservation of
peacocks. It also houses nearly 250 species of birds.
Arabithittu Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Mysore district and is spread over 13.5
square kilometres (5.2 sq mi). This park consists of eucalyptus and sandalwood plantations.
Leopard, fox and spotted deer are some of the animal species found here. Also around 230
species of birds have been observed here over the years.
BiligirirangaSwamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in the Chamarajanagar
district and is spread over 539.58 square kilometres (208.33 sq mi). Some of the species of
flora found here are Anogeissus latifolia, Grewia tilaefolia and Syzygium cumini. Species of
mammals include elephants, tigers, leopards, sloth bear, gaur, barking deer and sambar.
Among the 215 species of birds found here include Nilgiri wood pigeon, Malabar whistling

33
thrush, yellow-throated bulbul, peregrine falcon, rufous-bellied hawk-eagle. An endangered
amphibian, Icthyophisghytinosus has been reported in this sanctuary.
Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located between the Chikkamagaluru and Shimoga
districts and is spread over 492.46 square kilometres (190.14 sq mi). Common species of
flora include Lagerstromia lanceolata, Adina cordifolia and Careyaarborea. Mammals
include tiger, leopard, elephant, gaur, slender loris and pangolin. Among the bird species
found here are ruby-throated bulbul, shama, Malabar whistling thrush and paradise
flycatcher.
Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over an
area of 181.80 square kilometres (70.19 sq mi). The evergreen forests in this sanctuary
include species like Cinnamomum zeylancium, Cedrelatoona and Alstonia scholaris.
Bamboos are dominant here and include species like Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus
strictus. Mammals include elephant, gaur, tiger, jungle cat, bonnet macaque and Nilgiri
marten. Also around 300 species of birds have been observed here over the year kaveri
Wildlife Sanctuary]]: It is spread across the districts of Bangalore, Mysore and Mandya and
is spread over 1,027.53 square kilometres (396.73 sq mi). Dry deciduous trees found in this
park include species like Terminalia arjuna and Syzgium cumini. Animal species found in
this park include leopard, elephant, sambar and common otter. This is also one of the last
refuge of the highly endangered grizzled giant squirrel in Karnataka. Also around 300
species of birds have been observed here over the years. This sanctuary is also famous for
mahseer fish (Tor species).
Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Uttara Kannada district and is spread over
475.02 square kilometres (183.41 sq mi). Common tree species found here are Dalbergia
latifolia, Terminalia paniculata, T. Tomentosa and Vitex altissima. Mammal species include
elephant, gaur, wild boar, slender loris, Malabar giant squirrel and barking deer.
Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary: This is located in Bellary district and is spread over 82.72
square kilometers (31.94 sq mi). This sanctuary was mainly created for the conservation of
sloth bears.
Malai Mahadeshwara Wildlife Sanctuary: Spread over 906 square kilometers (349.8 sq
mi), MM Hills wildlife sanctuary came to being on 7th May 2013. Contiguous with BRT
Tiger Reserve and Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary, the sanctuary boasts of tiger, elephant,
leopard, dhole, sambar, barking deer and others. The sanctuary is located in Chamarajanagar
district, Kollegala taluk.

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Melukote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Mandya district and is spread over
45.82 square kilometres (17.69 sq mi). An endangered species of flora, Cycas circinalis is
found here. Mammal species include wolf, leopard, blackbuck and pangolin. Also around 230
species of birds have been observed here over the years.
Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Udupi district and is spread over
370.37 square kilometres (143.00 sq mi). Some of the tree species found here
are Dipterocarpusindicus, Calophyllumtomentosum and Hopeaparviflora. An endangered
species of climber Coscinium fenestratum has been recorded here. Slender loris, lion-tailed
macaque, sambar and chital are some of the animals found here. The endangered cane turtle
is also found here.
Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Mysore district and is spread over 30.32 square
kilometres (11.71 sq mi). Common species of flora include Emblica officinalis, Santalum
album and Dendrocalamus strictus. Mammals include elephant, gaur, leopard, spotted deer
and common palm civet.
Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over 102.59
square kilometres (39.61 sq mi). Some species of flora found here
are Hopeaparviflora, Scheffleracapitata, Xanthalistomentosa and Ochlandrarheedii.
Mammals include elephant, tiger, slender loris, Nilgiri marten and bonnet macaque. Also
around 230 species of birds have been observed here over the years. Bird species include
great pied hornbill, Malabar trogon and Nilgiri blackbird.
Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary: This is located in Haveri district and is spread over
119.00 square kilometres (45.95 sq mi). Eucalyptus is the dominant species of trees found
here. Cassia fistula, Prosopsis julifora and Zizyphus mauritania are other tree species found
here. This sanctuary was created mainly for the conservation of blackbucks. This sanctuary is
also a habitat for the endangered great Indian bustard.
Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread
over 431.23 square kilometers (166.50 sq mi). Dipterocarpus indicus, Caryota
urens and Dillenia pentagyna are some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard,
mouse deer, bonnet macaque and common langur are some of the animal species found here.
Snakes are commonly found here. Paradise flycatcher, racket-tailed drongo and blue-throated
barbet are some of the bird species found here.
Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread over 395.60
square kilometres (152.74 sq mi). Cassia fistula, Kydia calycina and Wrightia tinctoria are

35
some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard, bonnet macaque and Malabar giant
squirrel are some of the animal species found here.
Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Udupi district and is spread over 88.40
square kilometres (34.13 sq mi). Machilus macrantha, Lophopetalum wightanium
and Artocarpus hirsuta are some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard, lion-tailed
macaque and spotted deer are some of the animal species found here.
Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over 105.00
square kilometres (40.54 sq mi). Albizzia lebbek, Artocarpus lakoocha, Dysoxylum
malabaricum and Mesua ferrea are some of the species of flora found here. Clawless otter,
elephant, tiger, striped-necked mongoose and mouse deer are some of the animal species
found here. Also around 300 species of birds have been observed here over the years. Fairy
bluebird, Malabar trogon and broadbill roller are some of the avian species found.
Attiveri Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Uttara Kannada district and is spread over
2.23 km2. white ibis, little cormorant, pied kingfisher, common grey hornbill are some of the
bird species found here.
Gudavi Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread over 0.73 km2.
The tree species that dominate this sanctuary are Vitex leucoxylon and Phyllanthus
polyphyllus. 191 species of birds are recorded here including white ibis, pheasant-tailed
jacana, purple moorhen and little grebe.
Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Mandya district and is spread over
0.67 km2. Among the tree species found here, is the unique Iphigenia mysorensis. Other tree
species include Derris indica and Barringtonia racemosa. This sanctuary houses nearly 170
birds. Birds like cormorants, darter, white ibis, great stone plover, cliff swallow, spoonbills,
lesser whistling teal roost here all through the year.
Mandagadde Bird Sanctuary: It is located near the little village Mandagadde which is
30 km from the Shimoga town and is based on a small island on the Tunga River. It is mainly
visited by migratory birds like median egret (Egretta intermedia), the little cormorant
(Microcarboniger), and the darter or snake bird (Aninganufa).
Kaggaladu Heronry: This is located in Tumkur district and is one of the largest painted
stork sanctuaries in South India. Some of the birds that nest here are painted storks, grey
herons, pelicans, black stilts and ducks.
Kokrebellur Pelicanry: This is located in the town of Kokkare Bellur in Mandya district and
is a haven for avian species like grey or spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) and
painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala). In fact the word Kokkare means stork in

36
the Kannada language. Apart from pelicans and storks, 250 species of birds have been sighted
here.
Magadi Bird Sanctuary:Magadi Bird Sanctuary created at the Magadi tank, in Magadi
village of Shirahatti Taluk, Gadag district. It is one of the Biodiversity hotspots of Karnataka,
in North Karnataka. From Gadag it is 26 km, it is located on Gadag-Bangalore Road, from
Shirahatti it is 8 km, and from Lakshmeshwara 11 km. Bar-headed goose is one of the bird
migrates to Magadi wetlands of Gadag district. Normally birds eat fish, amphibians,
molluscs, snakes etc., but migratory birds eating agricultural produce is both interesting and
curious too. Winter habitat is on cultivation, it feeds on barley, rice and wheat and damage
crops.
Bankapura Peacock Sanctuary: This is located in Haveri district and spread over an area of
139.10 acres (0.5629 km2). This sanctuary was created mainly for the conservation of
peacocks.
Bonal Bird Sanctuary: This is located about 10 km from Shorapur city in Yadgir district.
Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary: This is located in Ramanagara and is home of the
critically endangered Long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus).
Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Belgaum district and is spread over 20.78
square kilometers (8.02 sq mi). This sanctuary is known for migratory birds like Demoiselle
crane and European white stork.
C. Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves have been described as undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as
well as areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control. They have been set aside
for ecological research and habitat preservation.
Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems which are internationally
recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization)Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme launched in 1971.
These reserves are required to meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of
conditions before being admitted to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves designated by
UNESCO for inclusion in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The world’s major
ecosystems types and landscapes are represented in this Network, which is devoted to
conserving biological diversity, promoting research and monitoring as well as seeking to
provide models of sustainable development in the service of mankind.
The objectives of MAB programme are:
 conserve biotic diversity for ecological evidence

37
  safeguard genetic diversity for the process of evolution to act upon
 provide natural areas for basic and applied research in ecology and environmental
biology
 provide opportunity for environmental education and training
 promote international co-operation
 promote appropriate sustainable management of the available biotic resources
 disseminate the experience so as to promote sustainable development elsewhere.
These reserves are rich in biological and cultural diversity and encompass unique features of
exceptionally pristine nature. The goal is to facilitate conservation of representative
landscapes and their immense biological diversity and cultural heritage, foster economic and
human development which is culturally and ecologically sustainable and to provide support
for research, monitoring, education and information exchange. The scheme is a pioneering
effort at pursuing the increasingly difficult yet urgent task for conserving ecological diversity
under mounting pressures.
The main features of biosphere reserve are:
 They are representative areas of specific terrestrial and coastal environment of
country
 They are representative example of the natural or minimally disturbed ecosystem
 The extent and size of such areas is large enough to function as a unit of conservation,
and
 Biosphere Reserves remain and function as an open system; changes in land use are
not usually not allowed
There are different zones in biosphere reserve and are as follows:
1. Core (natural) zone – It is inner most zone which is legally protected and completely
undisturbed from human interference.
2. Buffer zone - In this zone limited human activity is allowed for research and education
purposes.
3. Transition (manipulation) zone – It is the outermost zone of biosphere reserve in which
large number of human activities are permitted, eg. Cultivation, domestication,
harvesting of natural product, grazing, forestry, settlement and recreation etc. In this
zone the traditional life style of tribals is protected with their live-stock.
4. Human settlement- Where humans live

38
 Fig. 1. Biosphere Reserve zones

There are 18 biosphere reserves are there in India. The country’s first biosphere reserve is
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve established on 1st August 1986 covering an area of 5520 km2 in
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

S.
Year Name State Type Key fauna Area
No.
Tamil Nadu,
Nilgiri Biosphere Western Nilgiritahr, tiger,
1 1986 Kerala and 5520
Reserve Ghats lion-tailed macaque
Karnataka
Nanda Devi
Western Snow leopard,
2 1988 Biosphere Uttarakhand 5860
Himalayas Himalayan black bear
Reserve
3 1989 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu Coasts Dugong 10500
Eastern
4 1988 Nokrek Meghalaya Red panda 820
hills
West Gangetic
5 1989 Sundarbans Royal Bengal tiger 9630
Bengal Delta
Asiatic elephant,
tiger, Assam roofed
Eastern
6 1989 Manas Assam turtle, hispid hare, 2837
Hills
golden langur,
pygmy hog
Deccan Gaur, royal Bengal
7 1994 Simlipal Odisha 4374
Peninsula tiger, Asian elephant
Arunachal Eastern Mishmi takin, musk
8 1998 Dihang-Dibang 5112
Pradesh Himalaya deer
Pachmarhi
Madhya Giant squirrel, flying
9 1999 Biosphere Semi-Arid 4982
Pradesh squirrel
Reserve
Achanakmar- Madhya Four-horned
Maikala
10 2005 Amarkantak Pradesh, antelope, Indian wild 3835
Hills
Biosphere Chhattisgarh dog, sarus crane,

39
 Reserve white-rumped
vulture, sacred grove
bush frog
Great Rann of
11 2008 Gujarat Desert Indian wild ass 12454
Kutch
Himachal Western
12 2009 Cold Desert Snow leopard 7770
Pradesh Himalayas
Khangchendzonga East Snow leopard, red
13 2018 Sikkim 2620
National Park Himalayas panda
Agasthyamalai
Kerala, Western Nilgiri tahr, Asian
14 2016 Biosphere 3500
Tamil Nadu Ghats elephant
Reserve
Great Nicobar Andaman
15 2013 Biosphere and Nicobar Islands Saltwater crocodile 885
Reserve Islands
White-winged wood
duck, water buffalo,
Eastern
16 1997 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam black-breasted 765
Hills
parrotbill, tiger,
capped langur
Andhra Eastern
17 2010 Seshachalam Hills Slender loris 4756
Pradesh Hills
Bengal tiger,
Moist
Madhya Chinkara, Nilgai,
18 2020 Panna deciduous 2999
Pradesh Sambhar, and Sloth
forest
bear

7.3 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS

A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity particularly of
endemic species that is under threat from humans. The term hotspot was introduced in1988
by Norman Myers. While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas
and most are located in the tropics. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000
edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two strict criteria:
 It must contain at least 1,500 species (or 0.5 percent of the world’s total) vascular
plants as endemics, and
 It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation or natural habitat.
Three factors that usually determine hotspots
1. The number of total species (species richness)
2. The number of unique species (endemism)
3. The number of species at risk (threat of extinction).

40
There are 36 biodiversity hotspots identified around the world and are as follows:
North and Central America
 California Floristic Province (8)
 Madrean pine–oak woodlands (26)
 Mesoamerica (2)
 North American Coastal Plain (36)
The Caribbean
 Caribbean Islands (3)
South America
 Atlantic Forest (4)
 Cerrado (6)
 Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests (7)
 Tumbes–Chocó–Magdalena (5)
 Tropical Andes (1)
Europe
 Mediterranean Basin (14)
Africa
 Cape Floristic Region (12)
 Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa (10)
 Eastern Afromontane (28)
 Guinean Forests of West Africa (11)
 Horn of Africa (29)
 Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands (9)
 Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany (27)
 Succulent Karoo (13)
Central Asia
 Mountains of Central Asia (31)
South Asia
 Eastern Himalaya (32)
 Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar (19)
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka (21)
Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
 East Melanesian Islands (34)
 New Caledonia (23)

41
  New Zealand (24)
 Philippines (18)
 Polynesia-Micronesia (25)
 Eastern Australian temperate forests (35)
 Southwest Australia (22)
 Sundaland and Nicobar Islands of India (16)
 Wallacea (17)
East Asia
 Japan (33)
 Mountains of Southwest China (20)
West Asia
 Caucasus (15)
 Irano-Anatolian (30)

7.3.1 Biodiversity Hotspots of India

There are two biodiversity hotspots in India, viz., Western Ghats and Eastern Himalaya
A. Western Ghats
The Western Ghats of southwestern India and the highlands of southwestern Sri Lanka,
separated by 400 kilometers, are strikingly similar in their geology, climate and evolutionary
history. The Western Ghats, known locally as the Sahyadri Hills, are formed by the Malabar
Plains and the chain of mountains running parallel to India's western coast, about 30 to 50
kilometers inland. The cover an area of about 160,000 km² and stretch for 1,600 km from the
country's southern tip to Gujarat in the north, interrupted only by the 30 km Palakkad Gap.

Western Ghats exhibit great diversity and endemism and are highlighted in the Table 2.

Table 2: Species Diversity and Endemism of Western Ghats

Taxonomic Group Species Endemic Species Endemism (%

Plants 5,916 3,049 51.5
Mammals 40 18 12.9
Birds 458 35 7.6
Reptiles 267 174 65.2
Amphibians 178 130 73.0
Freshwater Fishes 191 139 72.8

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B. Eastern Himalaya

The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world's highest mountains, including Mt. Everest. The
mountains rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial
grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular
plants have even been recorded at more than 6,000 m. The hotspot is home to important
populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants,
rhinos and wild water buffalo.

Highlights of Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspots

Hotspot Original Extent (km²) 741,706
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km²) 185,427
Endemic Plant Species 3,160
Endemic Threatened Birds 8
Endemic Threatened Mammals 4
Endemic Threatened Amphibians 4
Extinct Species† 0 0
Human Population Density (people/km²) 123
Area Protected (km²) 112,578
Area Protected (km²) in Categories I-IV* 77,739

Species Diversity and Endemism

Himalayas exhibit vast diversity and endemism in terms of plants, mammals, birds, reptiles
etc as shown in the Table 3.

Table 3: Species Diversity and Endemism of Himalayas

Taxonomic Group Species Endemic Species Endemism (%

Plants 10,000 3,160 31.6
Mammals 300 12 4.0
Birds 977 15 1.5
Reptiles 176 48 27.3
Amphibians 105 42 40.0
Freshwater Fishes 269 33 12.3

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7.4 ENDEMIC AND EXOTIC SPECIES
Endemic Species
The species of animals or plants which are found in a particular area and are not found
anywhere else are known as Endemic species. The feature of certain species being restricted
to a particular region is called as Endemism. India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus
possesses a large number of endemic species. Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our
country 7000 are endemic. Thus, Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora, restricted
mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats. Some of the important endemic flora
includes orchids and species like Sapriahi malayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes khasiana,
Pedicularis perroter etc.
About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats. Different species of
monitor lizards (Varanus), reticulated python and Indian Salamander and Viviparous toad
Nectophhryne are some important endemic species of our country.
Some species of plants and animals are narrowly distributed in a limited geographic area.
They do not exist anywhere else. Such species of plants and animals which are native to a
particular area or region are known as endemic species of that region. Species can be endemic
to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to a particular continent, some to part
of a continent, and others to a single island or a small region. Chinar (Platinus orientalis) is
endemic species of Kashmir. Box tree (Boxus walliciana) is endemic to PirPanjal region in
India.
The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. So species which are
distributed widely and are found almost everywhere are called as cosmopolitan species.
Exotic species are those species of plants or animals which are not native to an area but are
introduced from outside. Exotic species may be introduced by man intentionally or may reach
an area accidently or naturally. Eucalyptus is an exotic species in India. Such species are also
known as invasive species when they widely grow and pose threat to the native species in an
area.
Exotic species are those species of plants or animals which are not native to an area but are
introduced from outside. Exotic species may be introduced by man intentionally or may reach
an area accidently or naturally. Eucalyptus is an exotic species in India. Such species are also
known as invasive species when they widely grow and pose threat to the native species in an
area.
Some endemic species of Karnataka
Asiatic Lion, Gir Forest: Asiatic Lion is also known as the Indian Lion and can be only

44
found in and around Gir Forest National Park of Gujarat. These are listed as endangered
species. These are one of the five big cats found in India, the others being Indian Leopards
and Bengal Tigers.
Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley: Also known as Hangul, the Kashmir Stag is found in the
dense forests of Dachigum National Park, Kashmir Valley and Chamba district, Himachal
Pradesh.
Lion-Tailed Macaque, Western Ghats:It is the rarest, most threatened and endangered
primate species found only in the Western Ghats of Southern India.
Purple Frog, Western Ghats:The purple frog, also known as the Pignose frog, is only found
in the rainforests of western ghats in India. It spends most of its life underground.
Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake: It is also known as Brow Antlered Deer exclusively found in
KeibulLamjao National Park of Manipur. This park is a marshy wetland located in the
southern parts of Loktak lake.
NilgiriTahr, Nilgiri Hills:It is a wild sheep species, endangered and endemic to the Nilgiri
Hills of Western Ghats.
Other endemic species of India include:
 Pygmy Hog, Assam
 Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
 Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
 Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
 Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
 Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
 Indian Giant Squirrel
 Bonnet Macaque

Exotic species
Exotic species are those species of plants or animals which are not native to an area but are
introduced from outside. Exotic species may be introduced by man intentionally or may reach
an area accidently or naturally. Eucalyptus is an exotic species in India. Such species are also
known as invasive species when they widely grow and pose threat to the native species in an
area.

45
 Table 4: List of invasive flora and fauna in India
Name State / Region Native to Affected area
It is now found across country
Andaman and
African apple snail and is threatening the habitat
Nicobar
of several native species.
Mexico and Destroyed huge crops of
Papaya Mealy Bug Assam
Central America, Papaya
Cotton Mealy Bug Deccan North America Affected cotton crops
Amazon sailfin Fish population in the
West Bengal
catfish wetlands of Kolkata.
It is distributed in forests and
South East
Black Wattle Western Ghats grazing lands in high altitude
Australia
areas
Aggressive colonizer.
It is found
Abundant in still or slow
Water Hyacinth throughout Tropical America
floating waters. A nuisance
India
for an aquatic ecosystem.
Aggressive colonizer. It
Himalaya, Tropical North
Black Mimosa invades watercourses and
Western Ghats America
seasonally flooded wetlands.
Aggressive colonizer. A
Parthenium/ It is found common weed of cultivated
Tropical North
Congress grass, throughout fields, forests, overgrazed
America
Parthenium India pastures, wastelands, and
gardens.
Native to the
Cannibal Snail /
– southeastern Indian Ocean
Rosy wolf snail
United States.
Afghanistan,
Threat to marine species,
Andaman and Bangladesh,
Indian Bullfrog especial small endemic
Nicobar India, Myanmar,
vertebrates
Nepal, Pakistan
It hinders the growth of native
In the Bandipur vegetation that herbivores
Lantana camara National Park, South America such as deer and elephants
Karnataka feed on. Further, its fruit is
toxic to animals

Invasive, alien species, those which colonise, expand and out compete native species, are a
major threat to our habitats, terrestrial and aquatic species, and biodiversity. Agricultural and
leisure industries are affected as well as conservation welfare and the continued wellbeing of
man, flora and fauna. Whole ecosystems can be distorted and the economic cost of
awareness, prevention and eradication systems is substantial. Most invasive species have
been introduced by man deliberately or otherwise.

46
Negative invasive species can compete and overcome native species by competition for food
and shelter, non-native herbivores trample or overgraze vegetation and also alter the
interaction. These may eliminate native species.

7.5 RED DATA BOOK

Red Data Book refers to a document maintained by a state or a nation that is established to
record and document the rare and endangered species of plants and animals that exist within
the boundary of that respective state or nation. All the known endangered species and sub-
species of plants, fungi and animals are recorded to the Red Data Book.
The Red Data Book helps to provide detailed information for studies and research regarding
the endangered species and subspecies of animals. In addition to that it also helps in
coordinating and developing monitoring programs on these endangered and rare species. It is
of great help in designing effective measures that could help in protecting various endangered
species.
The Red Data Book is maintained by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of
Nature). This organisation had been founded in the year 1965 and works towards the
“conservation of nature and the sustainable use of the natural resources.”
The Red Data Book has been maintained by the IUCN since 1964 and has used a set of
criteria to evaluate the risk of extinction of thousands of endangered species and subspecies
around the world. The set of criteria is chosen such that they are relevant to all the species
and all regions of the world. It has been over the years recognised to be one of the most
authoritative sources regarding the current status of biological diversity in the world at any
given point in time. Apart from the centralised IUCN Red Data Book, other regional or
national red data books are maintained by individual states or nations that contain the
cumulative data regarding endangered species within their territorial boundaries.
The objectives of maintaining the Red Data Book, as provided by the IUCN (1996) are given
as follows:
 To provide scientifically based information on the status of species and subspecies at
a global level
 To draw attention to the magnitude and importance of threatened biodiversity
 To influence national and international policy and decision-making
 To provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity
The information detailed in the Red Data Book is provided in carefully colour-coded sections
depending on the level of endangerment that a species has been found in.

47
The specific meanings of the colour coding of the information have been provided below.
Black: Extinct species;
Red: Critically Endangered Species;
Orange: Endangered species;
Amber: Vulnerable Species;
White: Rare species;
Green: Out of Danger species;
Grey: Species that are “endangered, vulnerable or rare but with a lack of sufficient
information to precisely categorise them”
Advantages of the Red Data Book
 It can be used to estimate the total population of any given species of plant or animal.
 It can be used to evaluate the taxa at a pan-global scale.
 It can be used to find out the conservation status of any species.
 It can be used to evaluate the risk of endangerment of any species of animals, plants
or fungi at any given time.
 It can be beneficial in developing a conservation plan for an endangered species of
animals or plants.
Disadvantages of the Red Data Book
 The documentation regarding the sources of the data have not always been properly
maintained and as such the validity of the data can sometimes be brought to question.
 The Red Data Book is a work in progress and not all of the endangered or extinct
species have yet been identified or put in and as such may not provide the most
accurate data at any given point in time.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
According to the IUCN Red Data Book of India, the following categories for endangered
species have been identified.

48
 Fig. 3: IUCN Red Category of Threatened Species

Extinct (EX): The species in which the last individual has died or where systematic and
time-appropriate surveys have been unable to log even a single individual
Extinct in the Wild (EW): The species whose members survive only in captivity or as
artificially supported populations far outside their historical geographic range
Critically Endangered (CR): The species that possess an extremely high risk of extinction
as a result of rapid population declines of 80 to more than 90 percent over the previous 10
years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer than 50 individuals, or other
factors (such as severely fragmented populations, long generation times, or isolated habitats),
Eg. Malabar Civet (Viverracivettina), Spoon Billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus).
Endangered (EN):The species that possess a very high risk of extinction as a result of rapid
population declines of 50 to more than 70 percent over the previous 10 years (or three
generations), a current population size of fewer than 250 individuals, or other factors. Eg.,
Dhole / Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog (Cuonal pinus)Lion-tailed macaque / wanderoo
(Macaca silenus), Nilgiri langur / Nilgiri leaf monkey (Trachypithecus john), Nilgiri tahr
(Nilgiritragus hylocrius).

Vulnerable (VU): The species that possess a very high risk of extinction as a result of rapid
population declines of 30 to more than 50 percent over the previous 10 years (or three

49
generations), a current population size of fewer than 1,000 individuals, or other factors. Eg.
Gaur / Indian Bison, Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii).
Near Threatened (NT): The species that are close to becoming threatened or may meet the
criteria for threatened status in the near future. Eg., Diaspora day gecko (Cnemaspis
sisparensis).
Least Concern (LC): A category containing species that are pervasive and abundant after
careful assessment
Data Deficient (DD): A condition applied to species in which the amount of available data
related to its risk of extinction is lacking in some way. Consequently, a complete assessment
cannot be performed. Thus, unlike the other categories in this list, this category does not
describe the conservation status of a species.
Not Evaluated (NE): A category used to include any of the nearly 1.9 million species
described by science but not yet assessed by the IUCN.

7.6 LAWS ON BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

7.6.1 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

This act is a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in the country. it came into
existence on September 9, 1972. The major activities and provisions in the act can be
summed up as follows:
(i) It defines the wild-life related terminology.
(ii) It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their
powers, duties etc.
(iii) Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for the
first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
(iv) Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies
Slipper Orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
(v) The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
(vi) The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
(vii) There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for
sale, possession, transfer etc.
(viii) The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
(ix) It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
(x) It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species.

50
Several Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972) Tiger
(1973), Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were started under this Act. The
Act is adopted by all states in India except J & K which has its own Act. Some of the major
drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty to offenders, illegal wildlife trade in J & K,
personal ownership certificate for animal articles like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of
foreign endangered wildlife, pitiable condition of wildlife in mobilezoos and little emphasis
on protection of plant genetic resources.
7.6.2 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. It came into force on
December 27, 1980. Except J & K, the act is adopted all over India. The Act covers under it
all types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests or any forested land
irrespective of its ownership.
The salient features of the Act are as follows:
(i) The State Govt. has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry
purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of
central Government, after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve
forest for non-forest purposes (e.g mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees
and replacing them by economically important trees(reforestation).
(ii) It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is
an Advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the Central Government.
(iii) Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under
this Act. Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type
of plants/crops or any other purpose (except re-afforestation).However, some
construction work in the forest for wildlife or forest management is exempted from
non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water-holes, trench, pipelines, check posts,
wireless communication etc).
7.6.3 Biological Diversity Act 2002
The Biological Diversity Act, which came into force in February 2003, aims to promote
conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits arising from biodiversity
resources. National Biodiversity Authority established at Chennai as headquarters is the apex
body. The National Biodiversity Authority plays a regulatory role with regard to access to
biological resources by foreign citizens and grant of Intellectual Property Rights. It has
advisory role in matters relating to the conservation, sustainable use and equitable
distribution of biological resources.

51
Karnataka Biodiversity Board was established during August 2003. The act provides
for the establishment of Biodiversity Management Committees at Gram Panchayat,
Taluk Panchayat, Zilla Panchayat and Municipalities and other local bodies
The State Biodiversity Board advises the state Government on matters relating to
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, also regulates access
of biological resources by Indian Citizens. The act also provides for the documentation
of biological diversity and knowledge related to biological diversity at the local body
levels.

7.7 SUMMARY

There is need to conserve biodiversity due to its immense values in the environment. The
strategies for biodiversity conservation by two methods, In-situ and Ex-situ methods. In-situ
methods of biodiversity conservation are protecting the species in their own natural habitats,
examples include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves. In Ex-situ
strategy, conservation of species is carried out in the captivity examples include, Zoos,
Botanical Gardens, seed banks, cryopreservation etc. Endemic species are those native to that
particular area, where as exotic species are introduced species. The threatened species are
recorded in Red Data Book and have are colour coded, which is maintained by IUCN. For the
protection of biodiversity, there are laws enacted under the Union Government, examples are
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Forest Act, 1980, Biodiversity Act, 2000. Etc.
7.12 KEYWORDS

Biodiversity conservation Biodiversity Hotspots Endemic Species

Exotic species Red Data Book Wildlife Protection Act
Threatened Species Biodiversity Act Forest Act

7.13 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. Explain the strategies for biodiversity conservation.

2. What are In-situ conservation methods? Explain any three methods.
3. Differentiate the national park and sanctuary. Give examples.
4. What is national park? Explain some important national parks of Karnataka.
5. What is wildlife sanctuary? Explain some important wildlife sanctuaries of
Karnataka.
6. What is Red Data Book? Explain its features.
7. Write the salient features of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

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7.14 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. K V Krishnamurthy, 2003. Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers, USA.

2. Michael J. Jeffries, 2005. Biodiversity and Conservation, Routledge publication.
3. P.C. Joshi, 2004. Biodiversity and Conservation, APH Publishing Corporation.
4. Sharad Singh Negi, 1993. Biodiversity and its Conservation in India. Indus Publishing.

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 UNIT 8: WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PROJECTS

STRUCTURE
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Project Tiger
8.3 Project elephant
8.4 Wetland Conservation and Management
8.5 Other conservational projects
8.6 Experts Committee Reports on Environmental conservation
8.7 Summary
8.8 Keywords
8.9 Questions for self study
8.10 References and further readings

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8.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to

• explain the conservation projects
• discuss the salient features of Project Tiger
• explain Project Elephant
• discuss the importance of wetlands and its conservation
• describe other conservational projects
• identify the key factors associated with Experts Committee Reports

8.1INTRODUCTION

The Indian subcontinent is blessed with a natural habitat of a large and varied wildlife. We can find
some of the most magnificent as well as the rarest wildlife species of the world in the country. The
beauty and variety we see in the jungles of India is difficult to be expressed in words. However, the
past few decades have seen the greed and negligence of human beings leading to large-scale
poaching, habitat destruction, resulting in animal - human conflict with rapid decline in the
population of most of the wild animals and birds.

Conservation of Wildlife in India has slowly and gradually been understood by all. Today, efforts are
being made towards wildlife conservation to preserve this natural wealth. Numerous wildlife
conservation projects have been undertaken in India, both, at the government, as well as the
individual level, to protect the wildlife of the subcontinent.

The major threats being faced by the wildlife in India include increasing fatalities due to
tourism activities, forest fires, environmental pollution, climate change, poaching and many
others. Therefore, there is need to conserve wildlife and manage in the natural wild. The
measures have been taken to conserve these wildlife through wildlife projects. Some of these
projects are funded by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) while, others are funded by the
Government.

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8.2 PROJECT TIGER
Project Tiger is a tiger conservation programme launched in April 1973 by the Government of India
during Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's tenure. The project aims at ensuring a viable population of the
Bengal tiger in its natural habitats, protecting it from extinction, and preserving areas of biological
importance as a natural heritage that represent the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger's range in
the country. The project's task force visualized these tiger reserves as breeding nuclei, from which
surplus animals would migrate to adjacent forests. Funds and commitment were mustered to support
the intensive program of habitat protection and rehabilitation under the project. During the tiger
census of 2006, a new methodology was used extrapolating site-specific densities of tigers, their
copredators and prey derived from camera trap and sign surveys using GIS. Based on the result of
these surveys, the total tiger population was estimated at 1,411 individuals ranging from 1,165 to
1,657 adult and sub-adult tigers of more than 1.5 years of age. Owing to the project, the number of
tigers increased to 2,603–3,346 individuals by 2018.
Project Tiger's main aims are to:
 Reduce factors that lead to the depletion, of tiger habitats and to mitigate them by suitable
management. The damages done to the habitat shall be rectified to facilitate the recovery of
the ecosystem to the maximum possible extent.
 Ensure a viable tiger population for economic, scientific, cultural, aesthetic and ecological
values.
The monitoring system M-STrIPES was developed to assist patrol and protect tiger habitats.
It maps patrol routes and allows forest guards to enter sightings, events and changes when
patrolling. It generates protocols based on these data, so that management decisions can be
adapted.
Project Tiger was administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority. The overall
administration of the project is monitored by a steering committee, which is headed by a director. A
field director is appointed for each reserve, who is assisted by a group of field and technical
personnel.
 Shivalik-Terai Conservation Unit
 North-East Conservation Unit
 Sunderbans Conservation Unit
 Western Ghats Conservation Unit
 Eastern Ghats Conservation Unit
 Central India Conservation Unit

56
  Sariska Conservation Unit
 Kaziranga Conservation Unit
The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on the 'core-buffer' strategy:
 Core area: the core areas are free of all human activities. It has the legal status of a national
park or wildlife sanctuary. It is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations like a
collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not allowed
within.
 Buffer areas: the buffer areas are subjected to 'conservation-oriented land use'. They
comprise forest and non-forest land. It is a multi-purpose use area with twin objectives of
providing habitat supplement to spillover population of wild animals from the core
conservation unit and providing site-specific co-developmental inputs to surrounding
villages for relieving their impact on the core area.
For each tiger reserve, management plans were drawn up based on the following principles:
 Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance from the core
area and rationalization of activities in the buffer zone
 Restricting the habitat management only to repair the damages done to the ecosystem
by human and other interferences to facilitate recovery of the ecosystem to its natural
state
 Monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out research about
wildlife
By the late 1980s, the initial nine reserves covering an area of 9,115 km2 (3,519 square miles)
had been increased to 15 reserves covering an area of 24,700 km2 (9,500 sq mi). More than
1100 tigers were estimated to inhabit the reserves by 1984. By 1997, 23 tiger reserves
encompassed an area of 33,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi), but the fate of tiger habitat outside the
reserves was precarious, due to pressure on habitat, incessant poaching and large-scale
development projects such as dams, industry, and mines.

8.3 PROJECT ELEPHANT

Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment
and Forests to provide financial and technical support to wildlife management efforts by
states for their free-ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure
the long-term survival of the population of elephants in their natural habitats by protecting
them, their habitats and migration corridors. Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting

57
the research of the ecology and management of elephants, creating awareness of conservation
among local people, providing improved veterinary care for captive elephants.
The objectives of Project Elephant are
 To protect elephants, their habitat and corridors.
 To address issues of man-animal conflict.
 Welfare of captive elephants
 to promote not to harm elephants for their teeth
Project Elephant has been formally implementing MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal Killing of
Elephants) programme of CITES in 10 ERs since January 2004. It is mandated by COP
resolution of CITES. Project Elephant was started in South Asia in 2003 with the following
purposes:
 To measure levels and trends in illegal hunting of elephants.
 To determine changes in these trends over time.
 To determine the factors causing or associated with these changes and to try and
assess in particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken
by the Conference of the Parties to CITES.

Financial support is being provided to major elephant bearing States in the country. The
Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States / UTs, viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. Main
activities under the Project are as follows:
 Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants
are built better than before;
 Development of scientific and planned management for conservation of elephant
habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India;
 Promotion of measures for mitigation of man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats and
moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant
habitats;
 Strengthening of measures for the protection of Wild elephants from poachers and
unnatural causes of death;
 Research on Elephant management related issues;
 Public education and awareness programmes;

58
  Eco-development
 Veterinary care
 Elephant Rehabilitation/Rescue Centers

As of 2010, 32 Elephant Reserves (ERs) extending over about 58,000 square kilometers
(22,000 sq miles) have been formally notified by various State Governments. The list of
Elephant Reserves with area and elephant population is as follows:
S. Reserve Total
Range Estd. State Population
No. Name area (km²)
1 Mayurjharna East-Central 2002 West Bengal 414 96
2 Singhbhum East-Central 2001 Jharkhand 4,530 371
3 Mayurbhanj East-Central 2001 Orissa 3.214 465
4 Mahanadi East-Central 2002 Orissa 1,038 464
5 Sambalpur East-Central 2002 Orissa 427 336
6 Baitarni East-Central Orissa 1,755 108
7 South Orissa East-Central Orissa 1,049 138
8 Lemru East-Central Chhattisgarh 450
Badalkhol-
9 East-Central Chhattisgarh 4,216 138
Tamorpingla
Arunachal
10 Kameng Kameng-Sonitpur 2002 1,892
Pradesh
11 Sonitpur Kameng-Sonitpur 2003 Assam ,420 612
Dihing-
12 Eastern-South 2003 Assam 937 295
Patkai
South Arunachal
13 Eastern-South 900+ 129
Arunachal Pradesh
Kaziranga- Anglong
14 2003 Assam 3,270 1,940
Karbi Kaziranga
Dhansiri-
15 Kaziranga 2003 Assam 2,740 275
Lungding
16 Intanki Kaziranga 2005 Nagaland 202 30
Chirang- North Bengal-
17 2003 Assam 2,600 658
Ripu Greater Manas
Eastern North Bengal-
18 2002 West Bengal 978 300-350
Dooars Greater Manas
19 Garo Hills Meghalaya 2001 Meghalaya 3,500 1,047
20 Khasi Hills Meghalaya Meghalaya 1,331 383
Brahmagiri-
21 Mysore Nilgiri- Eastern 2002 Karnataka 6,724 4,452
Ghats
Brahmagiri-
22 Wayanad Nilgiri-Eastern 2002 Kerala 1,200 636
Ghats
Brahmagiri-
23 Nilgiri Nilgiri-Eastern 2003 Tamil Nadu 4,663 2,862
Ghats

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 Brahmagiri-
24 Rayala Nilgiri-Eastern 2003 Andhra Pradesh 766 12
Ghats
Brahmagiri-
25 Nilambur Nilgiri-Eastern 2002 Kerala 1,419 281
Ghats
Brahmagiri-
26 Coimbatore Nilgiri-Eastern 2003 Tamil Nadu 566 329
Ghats
Anamalai-
27 Anamalai Nelliampathy- 2003 Tamil Nadu 1,457 179
High Range
Anamalai-
28 Anamudi Nelliampathy- 2002 Kerala 3,728 1,547
High Range
Periyar-
29 Periyar 2002 Kerala 3,742 1,100
Agasthyamalai
Periyar-
30 Srivilliputtur 2003 Tamil Nadu 1,249 638
Agasthyamalai
31 Shivalik North-Western 2003 Uttarakhand 5,405 1,610
Uttar
32 North-Western 2009 Uttar Pradesh 744
Pradesh
Total 69,583 21,370

8.4 WETLAND CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

There are many water resources in the ecosystem and the most unique of them is the wetland
which is a transitional zone between aquatic and terrestrial. Based upon the wide range of
ecological and environmental functions, namely source of drinking water, flood control,
water purification and detoxification, replenishment of groundwater, crop production, erosion
control and climate stabilizers, wetlands have been considered as one of the most important
unique features of nature.

Ramsar Convention

It is an intergovernmental treaty, is the first Convention which was based on Wetlands

adopted at Ramsar in Iran, 1971 and came into existence in the year 1975. The convention
lays down the structure for international cooperation and national action for the conservation
and wise use of the resources of the wetlands. As of July 2021, there are 2424 Ramsar sites
around the world, protecting 254,603,549 hectares (629,139,070 acres), and 171 national
governments are participating.

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As per the Article 1.1 of Ramsar Convention, “Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low
tides does not exceed six metres”.

The Criteria set out below, are for identifying wetlands of international importance:

Group A: Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a
representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type
found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
Group B of the Criteria. Sites of international importance for conserving biological
diversity
Criteria based on species and ecological communities
Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports
vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological
communities.
Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports
populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the
biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant
and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge
during adverse conditions.
Specific criteria based on water birds
Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports
20,000 or more waterbirds.
Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports
1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
Specific criteria based on fish
Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a
significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-
history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of
wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological
diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important
source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on
which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Specific criteria based on other taxa
Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports
1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-
dependent non-avian animal species.

Ramsar Sites in India

India has a prolonged tradition and history of conservation of natural resources. In India,
being a land of religious and cultural diversity and rituals, people worship almost every river

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and wetland in every part of the country monitoring and management of natural resources and
environment.
In 1986, the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) came into operation in
bilateral collaboration with the Stage government aiming for their conservation and wise
utilization to prevent further degradation of wetlands. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History (SACON) was set up as a public-NGO partnership between Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MOEF) and Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) as a centre
for excellence working towards conservation of birds and the species, habitat and ecosystem
where avifauna coexist for their effective management and conservation. There are 26
Ramsar sites in India located in 15 different states of the country.
Table
S. Date of Area
Name of Site State Location
No. Declaration (in Sq. km.)
1 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 19.8.2002 901
2 DeeporBeel Assam 19.8.2002 40
3 Kabartal Wetland Bihar 21.07.2020 26.20
4 Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary Gujarat 13.04.2021 5.12
5 Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat 24.09.2012 120
6 Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary Gujarat 05.04.2021 6.99
7 Wadhvana Wetland Gujarat 05.04.2021 6.30
8 Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary Haryana 25.05.2021 4.12
9 Sultanpur National Park Haryana 25.05.2021 1.425
10 Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 0.49
11 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 19.8.2002 156.62
12 Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 0.2
13 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir 23.3.1990 189
14 Hokera Wetland Jammu & Kashmir 8.11.2005 13.75
15 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu & Kashmir 8.11.2005 3.5
16 Tsomoriri Lake Jammu & Kashmir 19.8.2002 120
17 Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 614
18 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 19.8.2002 3.73
19 VembanadKol Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 1512.5
20 Tso Kar Wetland Complex Ladakh 17.11.2020 95.77
21 Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 19.8.2002 32.01
22 Lonar Lake Maharashtra 22.7.2020 4.27
23 NandurMadhameshwar Maharashtra 21.6.2019 14.37
24 Loktak Lake Manipur 23.3.1990 266

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 25 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 19.8.2002 650
26 Chilka Lake Orissa 1.10.1981 1165
27 Beas Conservation Reserve Punjab 26.9.2019 64.289
28 Harike Lake Punjab 23.3.1990 41
29 Kanjli Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 1.83
Keshopur-Miani Community
30 Punjab 26.9.2019 3.439
Reserve
31 Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary Punjab 26.9.2019 1.16
32 Ropar Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 13.65
33 Keoladeo Ghana NP Rajasthan 1.10.1981 28.73
34 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 23.3.1990 240
Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird
35 Tamil Nadu 19.8.2002 385
Sanctuary
36 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 8.11.2005 2.4
37 Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 29.06.2021 28.94
38 Haiderpur Wetland Uttar Pradesh 8.12.2021 69.08
39 Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 19.9.2019 2.246
40 Parvati Agra Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2.12.2019 7.22
41 Saman Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2.12.2019 52.63
42 Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 3.10.2019 79.94
43 Sandi Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 26.9.2019 30.85
44 SarsaiNawarJheel Uttar Pradesh 19.9.2019 16.13
45 Sur Sarovar Uttar Pradesh 21.8.2020 4.31
Upper Ganga River
46 Uttar Pradesh 8.11.2005 265.9
(Brijghat to Narora Stretch)
47 Asan Conservation Reserve Uttarakhand 21.7.2020 4.444
48 East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal 19.8.2002 125
49 Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal 30.1.2019 4230

Wetland (Management and Conservation) Rules 2010, having replaced the ld Wetland Rules
1988, no area or part of the country was declared as a wetland. Wetland (Management and
Conservation) Rules 2017 has further led to the dilution of Wetland Rules enacted in 2010
where while discussing the restriction on activities within wetland, it has been clearly stated
that “No wetland shall be converted to no-wetland use unless the Central Government is
satisfied on the recommendation of the Authority that it is expedient in the public interest and
reasons justifying the decision are recorded. The new Wetland Rules 2017 have empowered
the State Governments by directing the setting up of State Wetland Authority comprising of
ministers from the state along with experts coming from different domains of environment,

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for identifying and notifying wetlands existing on their territories. The identification of
wetlands and their notification to the central government is the task of State Government
whose work will be overseen by National Wetlands Committee, which unfortunately, seems
to have only advisory role.
8.5 OTHER CONSERVATIONAL PROJECTS

Project Hangul: The Kashmiri stag also called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red
Deer native to Northern India. This deer lives in groups of two to 18 individuals in dense
riverine forests, high valleys and mountains of the Kashmir Valley and Northern Chamba, in
Himachal Pradesh. In Kashmir, it is found in the Dachigam National Park, at elevations of
3,035 meters. The population of these deers has fallen from 5,000 animals in the beginning of
the 20th century to about only about 150 animals by 1970. However, the state of Jammu &
Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of these
animals, named as Project Hangul. This brought great results and the population of this
species has now increased to over 340 by 1980.
Crocodile Conservation Project: The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project is considered
among the more successful of conservation initiatives in the world. It has pulled back the
once threatened crocodilians from the brink of extinction and placed them on a good path of
recovery. The Project has not just produced a large number of crocodiles, but has contributed
towards conservation in a number of related fields as well.
Project Sea Turtle: A significant proportion of world‘s Olive Ridley Turtle population
migrates every winter to Indian coastal waters, for nesting mainly at Eastern Coast I Orissa.
The Ministry of Environment & Forests in 1999 has initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation
Project in collaboration with UNDP, with the objective of conservation of Olive Ridley
Turtles and other endangered marine turtles. The Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun has
been designated as the Implementing Agency. The project is being implemented in 10 coastal
States of the country with special emphasis in the State of Orissa.
Vulture Conservation in India: India has nine species of vultures in the world. The
population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture and Long-
billed Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade. The decline of Gyps
genus in India has been put at 97% by 2005.Due to this evidence, all three vulture species
were listed by IUCN, the World Conservation Union, in 2000 as ‗Critically Endangered‘.
The workshop to prepare an Asian Vulture Recovery Plan held at Parwanoo in Himachal
Pradesh, India in February 2004 recommended the establishment of captive holding and

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captive breeding facilities for three species of Gyps vultures at six different places in South
Asia, besides implementing a ban on veterinary use of Diclofenac. These centres would serve
as source for reintroduction of the birds after removal of the cause of mortality from the
environment.
MoEF has also signed a protocol with Russian counterpart, for conservation of migratory bird
species between the two countries. It has been agreed to develop joint projects of mutual
interest on migration and nesting behaviour of Siberian Cranes and common cranes and also
to exchange scientific and official information on issues relating to wetland management,
conservation of avi-fauna etc.

8.6 EXPERTS COMMITTEE REPORTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

The Western Ghats is the home of many endangered plants and animals. Western Ghats host
India’s richest wilderness in 13 national parks and several sanctuaries. Recognised by
UNESCO as one of the world’s eight most important biodiversity hotspots, these forested
hills are also sourcing to numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. It is
an extensive region spanning over six States, 44 districts and 142 taluks. The Western Ghats
acts as a huge water tank supplying water to six states. Now there are many leakages and
there is a water shortage. All the rivers are running dry now. And wherever there is water, it
is highly polluted.
8.6.1 Madhav Gadgil Committee Report
The Western Ghats needs high attention in the sustainability aspect of whole India and
especially South India. Ministry of Environment and Forests of India set up in March 2010 an
expert panel (Gadgil commission) to find a strategy for conserving these Ghats. Gadgil
Commission, an environmental research commission is named after its chairman Madhav
Gadgil. The commission is formally known as Western Ghats Ecology Expert
Panel (WGEEP). The commission submitted the report to the Government of India on 31
August 2011.
Gadgil committee had eminent ecologists and their report too reflected that. The report was
labelled favourable to environment and environmentalists and not development (or illegal
mining). Remember, there is a never-ending debate between environment and development;
it’s tough to balance both without compromising the other.
The key points of WGEEP are as follows:
 The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire hill range
as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA).

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  The panel, in its report, has classified the 142 taluks in the Western Ghats boundary
into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 2 and 3.
 ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all developmental activities (mining, thermal
power plants etc) were restricted in it.
 Gadgil report recommended that “no new dams based on large-scale storage be
permitted in Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1. Since both the Athirappilly of Kerala and
Gundia of Karnataka hydel project sites fall in Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1, these
projects should not be accorded environmental clearance,” it said.
 Gadgil Committee report specifies that the present system of governance of the
environment should be changed. It asked for a bottom to top approach (right from
Gram sabhas) rather than a top to bottom approach. It also asked for decentralization
and more powers to local authorities.
 The commission recommended constitution of a Western Ghats Ecology Authority
(WGEA), as a statutory authority under the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
with the powers under Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Criticisms of Madhav Gadgil Report
 The major criticism faced by Gadgil Committee report was that it was more
environment-friendly and not in tune with the ground realities.
 Recommendations were cited as impractical to implement.
 Gadgil report has asked for a complete eco-sensitive cover for the Western Ghats
which hamper different states on energy and development fronts.
 There was a criticism against the constitution of a new body called WGEA. States
insist that protection can be given under existing laws.
 Gadgil report doesn’t give a solution for revenue losses due to the implementation of
its recommendations.
 Gadgil report is against dams in the Western Ghats, which is a crucial blow on the
ailing power sector. Considering the growing energy needs of India, critics argue that
this recommendation cannot be taken.
8.6.2 Kasturirangan committee Report
The the Kasturirangan committee was constituted to examine the WGEEP report. The
committee is often called HLWG – it denotes the 10 member high-level working group
(HLWG), headed by Kasturirangan.

The key points of Kasturirangan Committee Report are as follows:

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  Instead of the total area of Western Ghats, only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total
area be brought under ESA under Kasturirangan report.
 A complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in ESA.
 Distinguished between cultural (58% occupied in the Western Ghats by it like human
settlements, agricultural fields and plantations) and natural landscape (90% of it
should come under ESA according to the committee).
 Current mining areas in the ESA should be phased out within the next five years, or at
the time of expiry of mining lease, whichever is earlier.
 No thermal power be allowed and hydropower projects are allowed only after detailed
study.
 Red industries i.e. which are highly polluting be strictly banned in these areas.
 Kasturirangan report on the Western Ghats has made several pro-farmer
recommendations, including the exclusion of inhabited regions and plantations from
the purview of ecologically sensitive areas (ESAs).
 The Kasturirangan report had said 123 villages fall under the ESA purview.
Criticisms of Kasturirangan committee Report
 The Kasturirangan panel used remote sensing and aerial survey methods for zonal
demarcation of land in the Western Ghats. The usage of such techniques, without
examining the ground reality, has caused many errors in the report.
 The power is vested with the bureaucrats and forest officials and not with gram
sabhas.
 Many fear that the farmers would get evicted if the Kasturirangan Committee report is
implemented. Under this report, the mining and quarrying lobbies are expected to
flourish. When these lobbies and tourism flourish, it will be disastrous for the
environment. There will be a water shortage, there will be pollution. Finally, farmers
will have to quit the area. They will not be able to do farming there.
 The use of “erroneous method” had caused inclusion of many villages under
Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) though there were only rubber plantations and no
forest land!
 Kasturirangan report included ecologically non-sensitive areas under ESA, and left
out many ecologically sensitive areas
8.6.3 Comparison of Gadgil and Kasturirangan Committee Reports
Gadgil’s Western Ghats (Western Ghats landscape across 1,29,037 sq km.) is smaller than
that of Kasturirangan’s (Western Ghats landscape, according to Kasturirangan is 1,64,280 sq

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km). Gadgil report marked out 60 percent of the Western Ghats as the highest-priority
Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ -1).
Kasturirangan report marks only 37 percent area (but considers wider Western Ghat
boundaries) as ESA. Gadgil’s report proposed to declare this entire landscape as ESA,
creating three ESZs within it. He prescribed that the existing sanctuaries and ESZ-1 would
together cover 60 percent of this landscape. The 25 percent lowest priority areas would be
marked as ESZ-3 to allow all developmental activities with precautions. The remaining 15
percent area would become ESZ-2. For example, while no mining would be allowed within
ESZ- 1, existing mines could continue in ESZ-2 with a moratorium on new licences. In ESZ-
3, new mines could come up.
The Kasturirangan panel, on the other hand, adopted the criteria followed by the Western
Ghats Development Programme of the Planning Commission and identified 188 talukas as its
Western Ghats landscape, which worked out to 1,64,280 sq km. He marked 37 percent of this
stretch as ESA where hazardous industries, thermal plants or mines would not be allowed. In
effect, the restriction level of Kasturirangan’s ESA corresponds to that of Gadgil’s ESZ-1.
Now, according to the Gadgil report, the ESZ-1 areas add up to approximately 77,000 sq km
(60 percent of 1,29,037 sq km). Kasturirangan’s ESA, on the other hand, accounts for around
60,000 sq km (37 percent of 1,64,280 sq km). That is a reduction of 17,000 sq km in the top
priority segment.

8.7 SUMMARY

In India, wildlife is protected and managed through Conservation Projects like Project tiger,
Project elephant and other conservational projects. Wetlands are important transition zones
between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These are managed through some the rules made
at Ramsar convention held in Iran. and other conservational projects have been given. This
unit also explained some features of Experts Committee Reports on environmental
conservation.

8.8 KEYWORDS

Wildlife Projects Project Tiger Project Elephant

Ramsar Convention Kasturi Rangan Report Gadgil Report

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8.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. Explain the Project Tiger with their salient features.

2. Explain the Project Elephant with their salient features.
3. What are wetlands? Give their importance in the ecosystem.
4. Discuss the features of Ramsar Convetion for management of wetlands.

8.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. K V Krishnamurthy, 2003. Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers, USA.

2. Michael J. Jeffries, 2005. Biodiversity and Conservation, Routledge publication.
3. P.C. Joshi, 2004. Biodiversity and Conservation, APH Publishing Corporation.
4. Sharad Singh Negi, 1993. Biodiversity and its Conservation in India. Indus Publishing.

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