Czajkowska–González et al.

Food Production, Processing and Nutrition

(2021) 3:25
Food Production, Processing
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-021-00068-8 and Nutrition

REVIEW Open Access

Addition of phenolic compounds to bread:

antioxidant benefits and impact on food
structure and sensory characteristics
Yesica A. Czajkowska–González1, Emilio Alvarez–Parrilla1, Nina del Rocío Martínez–Ruiz1, Alma A. Vázquez–Flores1,
Marcela Gaytán–Martínez2 and Laura A. de la Rosa1*

Abstract
The use of flours or phenolic extracts obtained from non-traditional sources or agri-food industry by-products has
been a strategy used to formulate new bakery products with characteristics of a functional food. However, phenolic
compounds present great structural diversity, as well as the ability to interact in a complex way with the
macromolecules that constitute the bread matrix. Therefore, the addition of these flours, extracts or pure
compounds produces various effects on the microstructure of bread, and several of its sensory properties. This is
mainly due to interactions between phenolic compounds and gluten proteins. The objective of this review is to
analyze some of the most recent published works on the addition of phenolic compounds in wheat bread to
identify the type of positive and negative effects that have been observed and how they can be related to the
physicochemical interactions between phenolic compounds and the macromolecules that constitute the food
matrix, mainly gluten. The effect of monomeric and polymeric phenolic compounds on the strength of these
interactions and on the properties of dough and bread are discussed.
Keywords: condensed tannins, hydrolysable tannins, phenolic acids, gluten, food rheology, food texture, protein-
phenolic interactions, disulfide bonds, non-covalent interactions

Background human diet (Rosell 2011). However, traditionally bread

Cereals and cereal-based products are among the most elaboration is carried out with white wheat flour, which is
abundant components of the human diet, being wheat obtained after removing the wheat bran and germ where
and rice the most used for human consumption products. fiber, phytochemicals and important essential nutrients
Nutritionally, they are an important source of dietary pro- are usually found. Consequently, the final product con-
tein, carbohydrates, vitamin B, vitamin E, iron, trace min- tains less dietary fiber and phenolic compounds (Xu et al.
erals and fibers. Cereals have a wide variety of uses in the 2019). To compensate for this loss of nutrients and other
food area, being wheat characterized because of its exten- bioactive compounds, it has been sought to elaborate
sive use for the elaboration of a diverse range of bakery foods enriched with natural antioxidant compounds, such
products. To date, bread and cereal-based products con- as phenolic compounds, to improve their healthy proper-
stitute the base of the food pyramid and it has been esti- ties. These foods are known as functional foods, which,
mated that the contribution of wheat to the daily intake is when consumed as part of the normal diet, provide bio-
20 % of the energy and protein recommended in the logically active ingredients that confer specific health ben-
efits (McIntosh et al. 1998).
* Correspondence: [email protected] Phenolic compounds are a broad group of phytochem-
1
Departament of Chemical Biological Sciences, Institute of Biomedical
Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Anillo Envolvente del icals generated by plants as secondary metabolites, which
PRONAF y Estocolmo, s/n, C.P. 32310 Cd. Juárez, México are involved in functions such as defense against
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 2 of 12

predators, protection against UV light damage and en- epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and procyanidins (Man-
vironmental stress (Martínez-González et al. 2017). ach et al. 2004), strawberries that contain hydroxyben-
These compounds have been used to improve bread zoic acids and anthocyanins, red wine, which is rich in
antioxidant properties, through the addition of different flavonoids such as anthocyanins, quercetin, kaempferol,
by-products of plant extracts/flours such as green tea, catechin and epicatechin (Hasna 2009), blueberry that
black tea, grape seeds, quinoa, to name a few (Xu et al. possesses anthocyanins, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol
2019). These compounds have been investigated due to and flavan-3-ols (White et al. 2010) and wheat that has
their health benefits to humans, in addition, phenolic phenolic acids such as ferulic acid and glycosylated fla-
compounds can form different types of interactions, vonoids, isoflavones and stilbenes. These compounds are
such as hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and hydrophobic also important due to the organoleptic properties they
interactions, with the components of the food matrix, provide to foods, as discussed by de Camargo and
therefore, it has been sought to optimize the production Schwember (2019). For example, anthocyanins are re-
of phenolic compounds-enriched foods without altering sponsible for the red, blue, and violet colors of many
its organoleptic and structural characteristics. For ex- fruits such as strawberries, plums, grapes, radishes,
ample, the addition of phenolic compounds to a food among others. Flavanones provide a bitter taste as in the
can help reduce the risk of suffering diseases caused by case of olives, proanthocyanidins give astringency to
free radicals, however, its characteristics can be affected, foods as in the case of wine, and simple phenols provide
causing a macroscopic change, either in texture, taste, or aromas as in the case of eugenol to bananas (Manach
odor, which can be desirable or undesirable. Because of et al. 2004).
this, it is important to know the interactions that phen- They have been studied for their health benefits, such
olic compounds have with macromolecules present in as its antioxidant, antiallergic, antiviral, anti-
the food, in order to prevent or minimize negative inflammatory and antimutagenic capacity (Peng et al.
effects on the structure of the food, and the sensory 2010a, b). However, due to their complexity and struc-
acceptance of the product (Dziki et al. 2014). Sensory tural diversity, these compounds can also present ad-
requirements are an important factor in food quality as verse health effects such as interference in protein
they are determinant for the acceptance of the product absorption (Velickovic and Stanic-Vucinic 2018) and, in
by the consumer (Peri 2006). Recently, our research high amounts, pro-oxidant effect (Vázquez-Flores et al.
group published a review on the interaction of phenolic 2012).
compounds with dietary fiber obtained from agri-food It has been shown that different subgroups within
industrial by-products, and their effect on bakery phenolic compounds differ significantly in their stability,
products (Subiría-Cueto et al. 2021). bioavailability, and physiological functions related to
The objective of this review was to analyze some of health benefits (Tsao 2010). One of the ways to classify
the most recently published works on the addition of the subgroups is depending on the number of phenolic
phenolic compounds in wheat bakery products to iden- rings it contains, as well as the structural elements that
tify the type of positive and negative effects that have link one ring with another (Hasna 2009).
been observed and how they can be related to the physi- Phenolic compounds are classified into two major
cochemical interactions between phenolic compounds groups, flavonoids and non-flavonoids. Flavonoid com-
and the macromolecules (mainly proteins) that consti- pounds share a base structure composed of two phenyl
tute the food matrix. rings (A and B) linked through a heterocyclic pyran ring
(C) (Fig. 1) (de la Rosa et al. 2019). More than 5,000 dif-
Classification of phenolic compounds ferent compounds are known from this group alone,
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites synthe- which are subdivided into 13 groups (Ou et al. 2019) in-
sized by plants, they are essential for the plant´s bio- cluding anthocyanins, flavonols, flavanones, flavones,
logical functions, defense mechanisms against chalcones, dihydrochalcones, isoflavones and flavan-3-
environmental stress, among others (de la Rosa et al. ols (Barberan and Andrés-Lacueva 2012). While non-
2019). These compounds are widely distributed in plant flavonoid compounds present the phenolic ring, with at
foods such as fruits, cereals, and vegetables, in addition, least one hydroxyl group, that may or may not be linked
they are especially abundant in non-edible parts of to two to four carbon skeletons, among them are hydro-
plants that are considered as food by-products (peel, xybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, and stilbenes
seeds, etc.). The occurrence of phenolic compounds in (Vázquez-Flores et al. 2012).
plants and their by-products, has recently been reviewed Phenolic compounds also include tannins, which are
(de Camargo et al. 2018; Shahidi et al. 2019). Some ex- defined as water-soluble phenolic compounds with a
amples of products rich in phenolic compounds are molecular weight between 500 and 3000 D. These com-
grape seed, which possess flavan-3-ols such as catechin, pounds present multiple hydroxyl groups in their
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 3 of 12

Fig. 1 Classification of phenolic compounds. R1 through R4 may be -H, -OH or -OCH3 depending on the specific compound in each class

structure that can form covalent and non-covalent and proteins. Tannins are present in many plant foods
bonds with proteins and other macromolecules (Chung such as bananas, spinach, grapes, wine, coffee, and cocoa
et al. 1998). They can also be also defined as the only (Wang et al. 2014).
group of high molecular weight phenolic metabolites Tannins are divided in hydrolysable and condensed
capable of forming strong complexes with carbohydrates tannins. Hydrolysable tannins are derived from non-
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 4 of 12

flavonoid compounds (mainly gallic and ellagic acids), resulting in a loss of mouth lubrication (Versari et al.
while condensed tannins are derived from flavan-3-ols. 2013).
Hydrolysable tannins (mainly gallotanins and ellagita-
nins) are found in berries, pomegranate, nuts and wine, Structure and characteristic of wheat bread
among other vegetable foods (Shahidi et al. 2019). Con- Bread is one of the most common staple foods. The type
densed tannins also called proanthocyanidins (PAC) are of flour used for bread production varies around the
found in different foods and their content varies depend- world, however, in North America it is traditionally
ing on the part of the plant that is analyzed, being usu- baked with white wheat flour, which is obtained by re-
ally more abundant in the skin and seeds of fruits such moving fiber and germ fractions from the wheat kernel,
as grapes and apples, and in the skins of nuts and pea- together with most of the phenolic compounds found in
nuts (de Camargo et al. 2017; Shahidi et al. 2019). Some wheat. Therefore, white bread presents low content of
of the fruits with the highest content of PAC are wild phenolic compounds (150–167 mg/kg in fresh weight)
forest berries, followed by blueberries. Regarding nuts, compared to whole wheat bread (1342 mg/kg in fresh
hazelnuts and pecans have been found to have the high- weight) (Xu et al. 2019). Due to this characteristic, stud-
est content of PAC (Vázquez-Flores et al. 2012). PAC ies have been developed that add phenolic compounds
are a subclass of polymeric phenolic compounds com- to bread, to compensate for the loss of fiber and germ
posed of flavan-3-ol units, mainly catechin and epicate- and increase the antioxidant activity present in bakery
chin. They can bind through A–type bonds, which products. However, several authors have found that the
consist of two bonds: C4 → C8 and O7 → C2, while B- addition of these compounds produces relevant changes
type bonds consist only of one bond in position C4 → in the structure and sensory characteristics of bread (Xu
C8 (Fig. 2) or C4 → C6 (Kimura et al. 2011). PAC type, et al. 2019, Subiría-Cueto et al. 2021), as will be dis-
polarity and solubility are characteristics that can modify cussed in the following sections.
their interaction with proteins and therefore alter their Bread making process consists in mixing wheat flour,
biological activity and their effects when incorporated water, salt, sugar, and yeast. These ingredients are
into foods in the design of new functional foods (Aron kneaded to form a viscoelastic dough which is then sub-
and Kennedy 2008). It has been reported that condensed jected to a leavening process and finally is baked. Each
tannins have a great impact over the sensory properties of these steps has unique importance for the final prod-
of foods, mainly by increasing their astringent and bitter uct. In the mixing and kneading of the ingredients, the
properties. Astringency refers to the drying sensation in structure of the dough itself is formed, since the visco-
the mouth, due to the interaction between condensed elastic properties are developed by incorporating hy-
tannins and salivary proteins, which leads to the aggre- drated gluten proteins and starch, as well as air which,
gation and precipitation of the protein-tannin complex, thanks to the structure of the wheat proteins, is retained

Fig. 2 Chemical structure of proanthocyanidins (PAC), showing the two possible types of bonds between flavan-3-ol monomers and two degrees
of polymerization: type A dimer and type B trimer
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 5 of 12

in the food matrix. In the leavening process, the air inte- Glutelins are divided into high molecular weight
grated in the mixing process expands within the mesh (HMW) and low molecular weight (LMW) fractions
formed by the proteins, thus determining the final volume (Tatham et al. 1985).
and texture of the final product, this expansion limit will be All gluten fractions are important as they contribute
closely related to the stability of the dough (Dobraszczyk to the rheological properties of the dough, gliadins, due
and Morgenstern 2003). Finally, during baking, the to their monomeric structure, provide viscosity and ex-
combination of heat, humidity and baking time allows tensibility, while the glutenins are polymers responsible
the starch to swell and gelatinize (Goesaert et al. 2005). for the strength and elasticity (Wieser 2007). When the
The structure of dough and bread depends mainly dough is mixed, both proteins hydrate and interact,
on proteins, which confer unique viscoelastic proper- transforming into a continuous, cohesive, and viscoelas-
ties that give the necessary quality characteristics to tic matrix stabilized mainly by disulfide bridges (Zhang
the final product; therefore, it is important to identify et al. 2010). However, there are factors that can affect
these proteins and the role that they play within the gluten structure, such as the distribution of the poly-
food matrix. The structural characteristics of a food mers, the density of covalent and non-covalent bonds,
depend on the physical characteristics of each con- the number of disulfide bridges between proteins, or
stituent, and are related to the deformation, disinte- whether polymers are linear or strongly linked to an
gration, and flow in response to the application of a individual protein, a complex, or between polymers
force. The understanding of food properties is funda- (Shewry and Tatham 1997).
mental for the development of new products and the Another biopolymer that plays an important role in
improvement of processes, these properties are closely the structure of wheat dough and bread is starch, which
related to the physicochemical and functional proper- makes up about 63 to 72 % of flour and is constituted by
ties of each ingredient in the food (Rodríguez amylose and amylopectin (Sivam et al. 2012), which are
Sandoval et al. 2005). Structurally, wheat dough is a glucose polymers (Fig. 4). Amylose is a linear molecule
complex system formed by hydrated proteins, a starch which consists of α-(1,4)-linked glucoses with an average
matrix and protein-starch interactions that will influ- degree of polymerization of 500–600 glucose residues,
ence the rheological properties of the dough (Islas while amylopectin is a branched molecule consisting of
et al. 2005). Food rheology is a branch of physics, α-(1,6) and α-(1,4)-linkages, possessing a degree of
which is defined as the study of the deformation and polymerization around 3 × 105 − 3 × 106 glucose units
flow of raw materials, intermediate products and fin- (Goesaert et al. 2005). This biopolymer provides fer-
ished products in the food industry. Textural and mentable sugars to the yeast present in the bread dough
rheological information is important in the design of and has a significant impact on rheology, because during
food transformation processes, in the determination baking and cooling of bread, multiple processes take
of the functionality of ingredients for product devel- place such as gelation, deformation, fragmentation, dis-
opment, quality control of intermediate and final integration, solubilization and re-aggregation which are
products, evaluations of textural properties related to generated mainly by the behavior of starch within the
sensory tests, among others. matrix (Rosell 2011). Within this matrix, the starch-
The proteins present in wheat flour are albumins, starch interactions are given by non-covalent bonds such
globulins, prolamins (or gliadins) and glutelins, the latter as hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces, so its gel-
two being the proteins that form gluten when hydrated ation is affected by the presence of other ingredients
(Islas et al. 2005). Gluten proteins interact with each within the matrix which interfere with its water activity,
other via disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds and hydro- since, for example, sugar, salt and proteins create a com-
phobic crosslinks, which will be the basis for the forma- petition for the available water in the matrix, thus affecting
tion of the mesh that will allow gas retention in the its gelatinization (Mohamed and Rayas-Duarte 2003).
wheat flour dough (Rodríguez Sandoval et al. 2005). In this way, the final structure of the bread will depend
Gluten proteins can also be classified as monomeric and on the interaction between three key components: glu-
polymeric. Monomeric gluten proteins are gliadins that ten proteins (gliadins and glutenins), starch and water.
are associated to the matrix by hydrogen bonds or During kneading, conformational changes occur in the
hydrophobic interactions, while glutelins are polymeric proteins, for example, the formation and breaking of co-
proteins covalently linked to each other by disulfide valent bonds such as disulfide bridges and non-covalent
bonds. Within these two proteins there is a subclassifica- bonds such as hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interac-
tion (Fig. 3). Gliadins are divided into three groups ac- tions. In the baking process, denaturation of wheat pro-
cording to their primary structure and the abundance of teins takes place, together with starch gelatinization, all
sulfhydryl groups: ω-gliadins (low sulfhydryl prolamins), due to the release and absorption of water (Rosell 2011).
γ-gliadins and α/β gliadins (high sulfhydryl prolamins). Therefore, the structural characteristics of the dough are
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 6 of 12

Fig. 3 Classification of gluten proteins by type of protein and content of sulfhydryl groups. (adapted from Shewry and Tatham 1997)

determinant for the structural and sensory characteris- conducted to understand how phenolic compounds mod-
tics of the finished bakery product. ify the structure of dough and wheat bread (Table 1).
Many of these works have analyzed the interactions be-
Addition of phenolic compounds to the wheat bread tween wheat proteins and phenolic compounds consider-
The addition of phenolic compounds that seek to increase ing some variables such as the type or source of phenolic
the antioxidant capacity of wheat bread may affect several compound, its molecular weight, as well as particular
rheological properties of the dough, such as gumminess, characteristics of gluten proteins in certain varieties of
strength, adhesiveness, elasticity, chewiness, among others. wheat flour, while the interaction between phenolic com-
Consequently, the sensory properties of the final product pounds and starch or their effects on the protein-starch
are also modified, and several studies have been interface have not yet been studied.

Fig. 4 Polymers that constitute starch: (A) amylose, (B) amylopectin

Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 7 of 12

Table 1 Effect of the addition of byproducts on the sensorial, rheological, antioxidant and health beneficial properties of wheat
bread
Source and amount of phenolic compounds Observed results Reference
Grape seed extract with 95 % proanthocyanidins including The grape seed extract improved the antioxidant activity with Peng
catechins and epicatechins. 300 mg, 600 mg and 1 g of grape respect to the control bread and a decrease et al. (2010)
seed extract were added to the flour. in carboxymethyllysine, a compound present in the crust of
bread, known to cause oxidative stress, was observed. The
addition of the extract also caused a color change in the bread
without significantly affecting other sensory properties.
Prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) mucilage added at 5.62 to The substitution of water with prickly pear mucilage did not Liguori
1.38 % to the flour affect the fermentation process or the sensory acceptance by et al. (2019)
the trained panel. An enrichment of antioxidant compounds was
observed
Pomegranate seed powder in 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 % substitutions With a 10 % substitution of wheat flour with pomegranate seed Pamisetti
flour, a slight decrease in rheological properties such as volume et al. (2019)
and crumb hardness were observed. An increase in the content
of punicic acid antioxidant activity was observed.
Hazelnut and walnut flours, in 1, 3, 6 and 9 % substitutions The addition of hazelnuts and walnuts to the formulation Pycia &
increased the fiber and fat content of the bread, as well as a Ivanisova (2020)
decrease in the loaf volume, which resulted in a harder and
chewier consistency. On the other hand, it increased the
antioxidant activity of bread, as well as its nutritional value.
Defatted apple seed flour in 5 and 20 % substitution Partial substitution of wheat flour with defatted apple seed flour Puric et al.
had a significant impact from a nutritional, sensory and texture (2020)
point of view. The 20 % substitution had the highest nutritional
value. While the 5 % substitution had better sensory acceptance
and higher soluble fiber content.
Tannic acid at levels of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 g/kg The addition of tannic acid increased water absorption, dough Zhang
stability, increasing its resistance and extensibility. The best et al. (2010)
rheological characteristics were observed at 0.03 g/kg. The loef
volume increased while the free sulfhydryl groups
decreased. Which may indicate the formation of new bonds
between tannic acid and gluten proteins.
Phenolic acids: caffeic, ferulic, syringic and gallic at 4.44 mmol L- The addition of phenolic acids decreased the mixing time, as Han & Bong-
1 g-1 well as the tolerance to mixing, spread and the volume of the Kyung (2011)
loaf.
Tannin solution at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 % The 0.3 % solution showed the best mixing properties. The Wang
addition of tannins was found to promote the polymerization of et al. (2014)
gluten proteins, thus resulting in improved mixing properties.
Addition of sorghum and grape seed proanthocyanidins at 0.8, Two types of proanthocyanidins (PAC) from two different natural Girard
1.6 and 2.5 mg of PAC/ g of flour sources were added. Sorghum PAC increased the elasticity and et al. (2016)
strength of a weak gluten which made it acquire the rheological
behavior of a strong gluten. While grape seed PAC showed a
slight increase in the elasticity of the dough. Which indicates
that the molecular weight of PACs is a key factor in the
interaction between these compounds and gluten proteins.
Green coffee bean flour at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 % substitution Phenolic compounds present in the green coffee bean flour Swieca et al.
interacted with the bread matrix, as observed by the protein- (2018)
phenol complexes formation, observed through chromatography
and electrophoresis. Results also showed a decrease in starch
and protein digestibility.

There are several studies in which the addition of they are added. Pop et al. (2016) conducted a literature
phenolic compounds to different foods has been evalu- review on the enrichment of wheat bread with extracts
ated to observe how they affect their antioxidant cap- from various sources, including green tea (Camellia
acity before and after processing, as well as changes in sinensis), an Indian herb called “Shatavari” (Asparagus
their sensory and texture characteristics. Within these racemosus), the spice turmeric (Curcuma longa), pom-
studies, various natural sources of phenolic compounds egranate (Punica granatum) and onion (Allium cepa)
have been used, studying the differences in the chem- peels. In all cases, the addition of extracts increased the
ical structure of the compounds, and analyzing how antioxidant capacity of the bread (evaluated by in vitro
these differences uniquely impact the foods in which studies), without altering the sensory properties, when
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 8 of 12

maintaining the fortification levels at a maximum of times in FRAP assay with respect to the control bread,
5 %. When spice extracts were used, the sensory charac- the difference found is interpreted as a synergistic effect
teristics were even better. On the other hand, the between the antioxidant compounds present in the
addition of flours obtained from by-products rich in bread with those present in the prickly pear. The sensory
phenolic compounds were able to increase antioxidant properties affected were intensity of the odor, as well as
capacity and fiber content, although in these cases sen- in the color of the crust, however, the results obtained
sory acceptability decreased (Pop et al. 2016; Subiría- by the sensory panel showed that the substituted bread
Cueto et al. 2021). presented acceptable quality and attributes. These
Grape seed extract has been commonly used as a changes are possibly attributed to interactions between
nutraceutical product because it is an abundant source antioxidants compounds and mucilage carbohydrates
of catechins and proanthocyanidins with antioxidant ac- (Liguori et al. 2020).
tivity. Peng et al. (2010a, b), conducted a study in which In another study, the addition of walnut and hazelnut
they used a grape seed extract to fortify bread and evalu- flour, nuts rich in unsaturated fatty acids, proteins, car-
ated the carboxymethyllysine (CML) content in bread bohydrates, minerals and vitamins, as well as bioactive
during cooking. CML is formed during bread baking, compounds such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds
but its presence is undesirable because it has been linked and other substances with high antioxidant potential
to oxidative stress, atherosclerosis, and diabetes, so a low were evaluated (Pycia and Ivanisova 2020). The authors
level of this compound is considered an important qual- evaluated the effect of enriching wheat bread with wal-
ity parameter in bread. The authors added three differ- nut and hazelnut flours with 1, 3, 6 and 9 g/100 g substi-
ent concentrations of grape seed extract (300 mg, tution on the physicochemical characteristics, texture
600 mg, and 1 g), evaluating the sensory and antioxidant profile and antioxidant activity of the bread. It was de-
properties. It was observed that the antioxidant activity termined that the samples added with walnuts and
of the extract of grape seed extract decreased during hazelnuts increased almost twice the average level of
baking, probably due to induced reactions between PAC minerals, and an increase in protein, fat and fiber con-
with proteins and/or starch or due to thermal degrad- tent was also observed in the substituted samples com-
ation of PAC. However, compared to control bread, the pared to the control bread. Regarding the
antioxidant activity was higher in all treatments and in- physicochemical characteristics, a decrease in the vol-
creased in a dose-dependent manner. CML content de- ume of the loaf was observed. In the case of the sample
creased by 30 and 50 % when 600 mg and 1 g of grape added with hazelnut a 19 % decrease compared to the
seed extract was used. It was also demonstrated that control, while the bread added with walnut presented a
with appropriate levels of addition, a positive change in 25 % reduction. Authors explained these reductions be-
bread color could be obtained, without causing signifi- cause the replacement of wheat flour by hazelnut and
cant changes in the sensory properties of the bread. walnut flours reduces the amount of wheat proteins
Therefore, it was concluded that the addition of grape (gluten) which in turn affects gas retention within the
seed extract is a viable alternative to reduce CML and matrix reducing thus the volume of the loaf. Regarding
the risks associated with its presence. the sensory characteristics, the walnut-enriched bread
Liguori et al. (2020), evaluated the effect of the showed a darkening of the loaf color due to the color of
addition of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) mucilage the walnut flour. The hazelnut-enriched bread presented
in wheat bread dough, to observe if it generated any greater hardness, due to the higher fiber content of this
interference with the yeast and to analyze the leavening, nut. The walnut-enriched bread presented greater cohe-
sensory and antioxidant capacity using ABTS and FRAP siveness while the hazelnut-enriched bread had greater
assays. Two types of doughs were evaluated, the control elasticity and gumminess. Walnut-enriched bread pre-
dough which was prepared with wheat flour and water, sented a higher total phenolic content and antioxidant
and the treatment dough to which 150 mL of prickly activity (analyzed by ABTS assay). Authors concluded
pear mucilage was added replacing water. It was found that the addition of hazelnut and walnut flours has a sta-
that the prickly pear mucilage does not modify the tistically significant effect on nutritional value, textural
dough development during the leavening process. As to properties, and antioxidant potential, as well as an in-
the physical characteristics of the bread, the mucilage crease in fiber and fat. This allows consider these nuts as
positively modified the firmness, obtaining a firmer active ingredients for both the nutritional value and the
bread compared to control. No differences were found antioxidant activity of the enriched breads.
in the volume of the bread, however, the bread added Purić et al. (2020) analyzed the addition of defatted
with mucilage was much lighter and firmer. Likewise, an apple seed flour, which is a by-product of the agri-food
increase in the antioxidant capacity of the bread was ob- industry (mainly juice industry), for the enrichment of
served, being 1.6 times higher in ABTS assay and 2.3 wheat bread. Apple seed is a rich source of oils, proteins,
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 9 of 12

and dietary fiber. Therefore, different amounts of defat- phenolic acids alter gluten proteins, because, during
ted apple seed flour were added as a partial substitute bread making, proteins are restructured while phenolic
for wheat flour, determining its nutritional, textural, acids reduce high molecular weight proteins and in-
antioxidant and sensory value. It was found that samples crease the amount extractable proteins, modifying the
added with 20 g/100 g defatted apple seed flour had a rheological properties of the dough. Authors proposed
higher nutritional value mainly due to the high content that the mechanism of interaction between phenolic
of insoluble dietary fiber and protein, it also had a high acids and wheat dough is that phenolic acids interact
content of total phenolic compounds, antioxidant poten- with the free radicals formed in gluten proteins during
tial and a lower energy value. However, the sample kneading.
substituted with 5 % defatted apple seed flour showed Wang et al. (2014) evaluated how tannins affect the
better sensorial characteristics. Taking this into account, mixing properties of wheat dough, as well as the changes
defatted apple seed flour can be a viable additive for the in the physicochemical properties and structural proper-
formulation of enriched bread, which considering that ties of gluten. Authors evaluated the effect of three com-
apple seed is a by-product, its use could be a viable alter- mercial tannin concentrations (0.1 %, 0.2 and 0.3 % w/w)
native to obtain a functional food and give added value added to the dough. Total phenolic content, mixograph
to this by-product of the agri-food industry. analysis, sulfhydryl content, hydrophobic surface, and
There are other studies, in which instead of flours or Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were deter-
extracts from natural sources, pure bioactive compounds mined for the study. It was observed that the addition of
were added, to analyze the impact of these compounds 0.3 % tannins improved mixing properties by promoting
within the food matrix and provide a better understand- tolerance to overmixing, which indicated that tannins
ing of the interactions that occur in between these com- promoted the polymerization of gluten proteins, modify-
pounds and the wheat dough and bread matrix (proteins ing their microstructure and increasing dough strength.
and carbohydrates). An example of such studies is that They also found that dough added with tannins pre-
of Zhang et al. 2010, who evaluated the effect of tannic sented a reduction of disulfide bridges and an increase
acid in dough properties and bread quality. For this pur- in the content of free sulfhydryl groups. Authors also
pose, they added different amounts of tannic acid (0.01, observed that the addition of tannins increased gluten β-
0.02 and 0.03 g/kg) during the kneading process. It was turn and α-helix conformation, while the β-sheet con-
found that the stability and water absorption in the mix- formation decreased. Despite this, there was no decrease
ing was greater in the case of the dough added with in the dough quality, which can be explained considering
0.03 g, suggesting the interaction of these compounds that this modification in disulfide bonds contributes to a
with the proteins during gluten formation. At this con- decrease in beta-sheets within the secondary structure of
centration, strength and extensibility were increased, proteins. While in the hydrophobic surface, no signifi-
resulting in a stronger and more elastic dough. The cant changes were observed between treatments. How-
addition of tannic acid had a directly proportional effect ever, in the protein analysis it was observed that as the
with loaf volume, increasing as the tannic acid concen- tannin concentration increased, there was an increase in
tration increased, while hardness decreased with increas- larger polymers protein units, while smaller oligomeric
ing tannic acid content. The authors explained this peptides decreased, which indicates that tannins induce
behavior of tannic acid because it is an antioxidant that aggregation or polymerizing the gluten proteins that
reacts with the disulfide bonds present in the gluten net- compensate the decrease in disulfide bonds, preventing
work and converts them into free sulfhydryl groups, the loss of the microstructure of the matrix.
which affects the rheological properties of gluten, since Condensed tannins are polymeric phenolic compounds
when tannic acid is added, the amino groups are re- formed by flavan-3-ols, which can have various degrees
duced and new bonds are created between amino and of polymerization in their structure, so they could
carboxyl groups, suggesting that although the disulfide present very variable effects when integrated into the
bonds are essential for the gluten formation, there may bread matrix. In 2016, Girard et al. conducted a study in
be other compounds that, through covalent bonds or which the effect of the molecular weight of condensed
hydrogen bridges, could help reduce the rheological tannins on the wheat dough rheology was evaluated. For
impact. this, they used sorghum and grape seed PAC with differ-
Han and Bong-Kyung (2011) studied the effect of ent degree of polymerization. In the case of sorghum
phenolic acids, such as caffeic, ferulic, syringic and gallic which contained 158 mg PAC/g extract with 93 % poly-
on dough properties. It was found that the addition of mer PAC, and increase in gluten elasticity and strength
phenolic acids decreased mixing time, mixing tolerance was demonstrated in contrast to grape PAC, which con-
and resistance to dough extension, affecting the quality tained 577 mg PAC/g extract with 45 % polymeric PAC.
of bread. These authors suggested that the addition of It was concluded in this study that high molecular
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 10 of 12

weight PAC could be used as a natural gluten strength- gluten films. PAC were also better than tannic acid and
ener, since the higher the molecular weight of the PAC, catechin in improving dough stability and increasing the
the greater the strength of the gluten, which in practical viscosity of dough subjected to heating/cooling cycles.
terms could help to stabilize gluten films or help for These differences were attributed to the polymeric and
volume enhancement of wheat-free baked goods. elongated structure of PAC, which presents a greater
The effect of phenolic compounds on the properties of flexibility to form multiple crosslinks with gluten, inter-
dough has been explained in terms of the non-covalent acting mostly with gliadins through hydrophobic interac-
phenolic-gluten interactions. The main reported interac- tions, whereas tannic acid presents a more compact
tions are hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions structure complicating its interaction with gluten proteins.
(Tolve et al. 2021). In the case of monomeric phenolic
compounds, these interactions normally reduce the Conclusions
strength of the dough, reducing the mixing time and im- The formulation of wheat breads partially substituted
proving its flexibility (Girard et al. 2018). Condensed with food by-products, flours, or extracts rich in
tannins have shown greater binding interactions with phenolic compounds has shown to be a successful
proteins than hydrolysable tannins, mainly because of strategy to improve the antioxidant and health prop-
their structural differences. While condensed tannins erties of bread while satisfactory modifying certain
show elongated and flexible structure, hydrolysable tan- sensory characteristics, including texture, color, odor
nins present a globular and dense conformation which and flavor, without losing product acceptability. Sen-
limits protein interactions (Girard & Awika, 2020). Con- sory modifications related to texture are largely due
sequently, condensed tannins increase gluten strength to the interactions of phenolic compounds or other
and viscosity to a greater extent compared to hydrolys- antioxidants present in extracts/ flours, with gluten
able tannins. proteins, mainly due the ability of these antioxidants
to reduce the disulfide bonds that are an essential
Potential applications of the interaction between part of the gluten matrix. However, the structure of
phenolic compounds and gluten the phenolic compounds themselves, mainly their de-
Beyond the improvement of the antioxidant capacity gree of polymerization, is decisive for the final effects
and health beneficial properties of bakery products, that their addition will have on the gluten matrix:
the interaction of phenolic compounds with gluten oligomeric and polymeric compounds such as tannins,
could have different applications, including the devel- and especially condensed tannins or PAC, and to a
opment of films for various uses such as packaging or lesser extent tannic acid (example of a hydrolysable
biodegradable and edible coatings. Such films may tannin), can compensate with covalent or noncovalent
have suitable viscoelastic and hydration properties, in crosslinks the loss of disulfide bonds, so their effects
addition to being transparent, flexible, colorless, and on the gluten matrix tend to be stabilizing and thus
odorless. Hager et al. (2012) evaluated the influence the effect on final product can be favorable. However,
of gallic and tannic acid on the properties of gluten low molecular weight phenolic compounds, such as
films. The addition of tannic acid produced stiffer phenolic acids, have the effect of weakening the glu-
and thicker films, less resilient and flexible, with ten matrix and thus the structure of the baked prod-
lower vapor permeability and a reddish-brown color, uct. However, it is still necessary to study how
while gallic acid had no effect on visual appearance phenolic compounds interact with other components
or thickness and the films were more elastic. This of the bread matrix such as starch, or how they affect
may be due to the fact that gallic acid is smaller and the starch-gluten-water interactions. It is also import-
can generate fewer interactions with gluten than those ant to analyze the effect of phenolic compounds on
of tannic acid which, by forming a larger number of other parts of the bread production process, including
bonds with gluten, generates an increase in film fermentation, leavening and baking, to understand
strength, which is linked to a decrease in flexibility. more comprehensively the effects on the sensory
Girard et al. (2018) conducted another study, in which properties of the final product.
they compared the effects of hydrolysable and condensed
tannins on the strength and stability properties of gluten Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
films and dough. For this, they used sorghum PAC, tan-
nic acid and catechin as monomeric control. Sorghum Authors’ contributions
polymeric PAC increased the strength of the films and YAC–G has written the first draft of the manuscript and substantively revised
their resistance to degradation by proteases, it also re- it. NRM–R, AAV–F and MG–M have made substantial contributions to the
conception of the work. EA–P and LAD have made substantial contributions
duced their water solubility, whereas tannic acid and cat- to the conception of the work and substantively revised the manuscript. All
echin had no significant effect on these properties of authors have revised and approved the submitted version of the manuscript.
Czajkowska–González et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2021) 3:25 Page 11 of 12

Funding Girard, A. L., Teferra, T., & Awika, J. M. (2018). Effects of condensed vs hydrolysable
This review was written as part of the project “Specific and non-specific inter- tannins on gluten film strength and stability. Food Hydrocolloids, 89, 34–43.
actions between proteins and proanthocyanidins” funded by Mexico´s Na- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.10.018
tional Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT, SEP CB 2016–286449). Girard, A. L., & Awica, J. M. (2020). Effects of edible plant polyphenols on gluten
Y.A.C.-G. is a recipient of a CONACYT scholarship for graduate studies. protein functionality and potential applications of polyphenol–gluten
interactions. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 19,
2164–2199. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12572
Availability of data and materials
Goesaert, H., Brijis, K., Veraverbeke, W. S., Courtin, C. M., Gebruers, K., & Delcour, J.
Not applicable.
A. (2005). Wheat flour constituents: how they impact bread quality, and how
to impact their functionality. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 16(1–3),
Declarations 12–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2004.02.011
Hager, A. S., Vallons, K. J. R., & Arent, E. K. (2012). Influence of acid gallic and
Ethics approval and consent to participate tannic acid on the mechanical and barrier properties of wheat gluten films.
Not applicable. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 6157–6163. https://doi.org/10.1
021/jf300983
Han, H. M., & Bong-Kyung, K. (2011). Effect of phenolic acids on the rheological
Consent for publication
properties and proteins of hard wheat flour dough and bread. Journal of the Science
Not applicable.
of Food and Agriculture, 91(13), 2495–2499. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4499
Hasna, E. G. (2009). Polyphenols: food sources, properties and applications –a
Competing interest review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 44, 2512–2518
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Islas, R. A., Finlay, M., Somayajulu, G., & Hou, G. (2005). Relationship of protein
composition and dough rheological measurements with breadmaking
Author details performance of wheat flours (Relationship of protein composition and
1
Departament of Chemical Biological Sciences, Institute of Biomedical dough rheological measurements with breadmaking performance of wheat
Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Anillo Envolvente del flours). Revista Fitotecnia, 28(3), 243–251
PRONAF y Estocolmo, s/n, C.P. 32310 Cd. Juárez, México. 2Programa de Kimura, H., Ogawa, S., Akihiro, T., & Yokota, K. (2011). Structural analysis of A-type or B-type
Posgrado en Alimentos del Centro de la República (PROPAC), Research and highly polymeric proanthocyanidins by thiolytic degradation and the implication in
Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad their inhibitory effects on pancreatic lipase. Journal of Chromatography A, 1218(42),
Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, 7704–7712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2011.07.024
C.P. 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico. Liguori, G., Gentile, C., Gaglio, R., Perrone, A., Guarcello, R., Francesca, N. …
Settanni, L. (2020). Effect of addition of Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage on the
Received: 30 June 2021 Accepted: 29 July 2021 biological leavening, physical, nutritional, antioxidant and sensory aspects of
bread. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 129(2), 184–191. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.08.009
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