UNIVERSITY OF BURUNDI

ROHERO CAMPUS

A/Y: 2023-2024

INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED PEDAGOGY:

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

LEVEL: BAC1

COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

By Alfred Irambona, PhD

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 COURSE OUTLINES

I. OVERVIEW OF AN ACADEMIC PAPER

II. NON-LIBRARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION
III. BIBLIOGRAPHY
IV. THE NOTION OF LIBRARY

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 1. Introduction

This course aims to familiase BAC 1 students with various sources of information and
equip them to find relevant writing for their needs. Additionally, this course will
provide students with both skills and strategies for combining the "how to" of
information seeking with the "why" and “when. Furthermore, students will learn about
different ways of quoting that go along with the bibliography.

I. OVERVIEW OF AN ACADEMIC PAPER

I.1. Definition of an academic research

In the academic arena, research is viewed as one of several approaches to knowledge

or comprehension. It is distinct from other ways of knowing, referred to as non-
research activities, such as insight, divine inspiration, and acceptance of authoritative
commands.

The difference between research and non-research activity is in the way we find
answers: the process must fulfill specific criteria in order to be classified as research.
By looking through some definitions of research, we may determine these
requirements.
The word research is made up of two syllables: re and search.
The prefix "re" means "again," "anew," or "over again."

“Search” is a verb that can mean to investigate, examine, or attempt something

closely. When combined, they form a noun that describes a careful, systematic, and
thorough investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish facts or
principles.

According to Mertens (2010: 2), “research is defined as a process of systematic inquiry

that is designed to collect, analyze, interpret, and use data.” It can also be perceived as
a methodological, organised way to go about answering questions. We start our study
by formulating questions, conducting our investigation in an orderly and methodical

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manner, and then offering responses. To put it briefly, research is the act of gathering,
evaluating, and interpreting data in order to provide answers to questions.
Finding answers is the end of all research, whether it is the answer to a simple question
or to research hypotheses. Research will be considered successful if the researcher has
found answers to his or her research questions. It is important to note that those
answers could be positive or negative.

I.2. Why do people conduct research?

There are many reasons why people conduct research. The planet we live on is full of
many phenomena that need to be searched for for a variety of purposes. Mertens (op.
cit.) mentioned a variety of reasons why people conduct research. According to him,
research can be carried out in order to:

 Understand;
 Describe;
 Predict;
 Control an educational or psychological phenomenon and empower individuals
in such contexts.

In the same way of thinking, Fatihudin & Holisin (2011: 19) mentioned three research
objectives:

1. Finding out: get something that is new (in a given context, area, culture, etc.).

1. Justification: justify one’s doubts or qualms about a given knowledge.

2. Development: to deepen the existing knowledge, widen it.

1.3. Usefulness of research.

Fatihudin & Holisin (2011: 24) observed that there are three benefits of research in our
daily lives (nationally or internationally):

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 To look for true information
 To develop, widen, or spread knowledge (scientific) or theory that already
exists
 Serve as a basis or foundation for taking judicious decisions (marked by the
exercise of good judgment or common sense in practical matters).

I.4. Characteristics of a research paper

Producing a research paper is not an easy task. A good academic paper must be
thorough and have compelling information, which is very challenging. It must
adhere to a number of accepted academic guidelines for creating quality
work. However, to be qualified as research, the process must fulfill a few
requirements: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic,
valid and verifiable, empirical, and critical.
Controlled: In real life, there are many factors that affect an outcome.
Depending on the kind of research being carried out, some research requires
controlling its variables (quantitative research). In qualitative research, there
are no variables to control because such research does not have or imply
variables that influence one another.
Thus, the concept of control here implies that, in exploring causality in relation
to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the
effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
This can be achieved largely in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as
most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences
(Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on
issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not
possible.
Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors,
you attempt to quantify their impact.

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Rigorous: It is your responsibility as a researcher to make sure that the methods used
to obtain answers to questions are suitable, justified, and relevant. Once more, there
are significant differences in rigor between the physical and social sciences as well as
within the social sciences.
Systematic: This suggests that the procedure adopted to conduct an investigation
adheres to a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a
haphazard manner. Some procedures or protocols must be followed before others.
Valid and verifiable: this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be independently verified by you and others.
Empirical refers to the fact that any conclusion drawn is supported by concrete
evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or
observations.
Critical: critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial
to a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. For a research journey, there
are two important decisions to make:
1) What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to
find answers to
2) How to go about finding their answers.
There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in
order to find answers to your research questions. The path to finding answers to your
research questions constitutes research methodology.At each operational step in the
research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures
and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your
objectives. This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial
role.

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  Steps in Research Process:

Conducting a research is done systematically. To that end, there are some steps to
follow. Some of the main proposed steps are the following:

1. Formulating the research problem

2. Extensive literature review
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the research design including sample design
5. Collecting the data
6. Analysis of data
7. Generalization and interpretation
8. Preparation of the report or presentation of results-formal write-ups of
conclusions reached.

Step1. Formulating the research problem:

Identifying a research problem is the first and most crucial step in the research process.
It refers to some difficulty / need, which a researcher experiences in the context of
either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. In
other words, research problems are those topics the researcher “would like to address,
investigate, or study, whether descriptively or experimentally” (Shoket, 2014). They
are therefore the foci or reasons for which researchers engage in any given research
enterprise. Research problems are characteristically motivated by incomplete
knowledge or flawed understanding.

It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. In the absence

of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest – or indeed any – route.
Similarly, in the absence of a clear research problem, a clear plan is impossible. To use
another analogy, a research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and
design of the building are dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well
designed and strong you can expect the building to be also. The research problem
serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, you can expect a
good study to follow.

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According to Kerlinger (1986: 17): Find your area of interest, choose a topic, read the
related literature to your topic, formulate your research problem, start your research. If
one wants to solve a problem, one must generally know what the problem is. It can be
said that a large part of the problem lies in knowing what one is trying to do.

- Main function is to decide what you want to find out

- The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows.
Sources of research problems
In social sciences research, research problem usually hinges around:
• People: a group of individuals,
• Problems: examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives;
to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue,
• Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention,
• Phenomena: to establish the existence of a regularity.

Research problem can also be drawn from academic experience, daily experience,
needs of the present, and exposure to field situations, etc.

What are the main considerations to take into account in selecting a research
problem?
If you as a researcher want your study to remain manageable throughout the research
period, there are some considerations to take into account.
1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work
and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain
the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within
the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.

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4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task
you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges
current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest
in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical
problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating
stage.
These considerations assist the researcher to ensure that his/her study will remain well
organized and consequently, he/she will remain motivated. At this stage, the next stage
for the researcher is to follow different steps in formulating the research problem as
follows.

Steps in formulation of a research problem

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad
subject area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge, it is
difficult to clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.
Step 1: Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step 2: Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4: Raise research questions.
Step 5: Formulate objectives.
Step 6: Assess your objectives.
Step 7: Double check.

The literature review

Literature review is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the
available body of knowledge in your area of interest. It is an integral part of entire
research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step. Reviewing

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literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. In
academic research, it has a number of functions mainly to:

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem.

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better
and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It
also helps you to understand the relationship between your research problem and the
body of knowledge in the area.

b. Improve your methodology

A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to
the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for
them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus, you will be better
positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your
research questions.

c. Broaden your knowledge

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct
your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps
fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how the findings of your study
fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d. Contextualise your findings

How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer
these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.

II. NON-LIBRARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

In any scientific research, data can be collected from a number of resources. They are
collected through what is called “data collection instruments” or “data collection tools”

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which may be “questionnaire” “interview” “observation” “documentation” just to
mention few.

A. Questionnaire
This is an instrument that consists of a set of questions to which the informants
respond in writing. Like any other good test, a good questionnaire must be composed
of good questions, written in a very good language. In that way, the respondents will
answer without assistance. They must be formulated around the research questions,
which are in connection with the research hypotheses. Irrelevant questions must be
avoided. To that end, it is necessary to make a tryout of those questionnaires just to
check the validity of questions before handling them to the respondents.
 The advantages of a questionnaire are that it is easy to administrate and
facilitates to collect information from many people in a short time. The
respondents also will feel free as they will take their own time to answer
and will be less stressed.
 The disadvantages of a questionnaire are that they cannot be used for an
illiterate population. It is not also easy to get back all the copies from the
respondents and in due time. Sometimes, it takes longer than expected. It is
also impossible to explain a difficult or an ambiguous item to the
respondents. Moreover, if a given question is not answered, the researcher
cannot know the reason why it is like that. It is not also possible to see the
attitude of the respondents towards a given item as long as they are not
distantly related.

B. Observation
An observation plays an important role as it brings additional information the
respondents cannot provide themselves. It is another type of instrument which
gives the researcher a chance to collect the data directly or indirectly. To that end,
the researcher will use what we call a standardized observation, i.e. there must be
some standards on which the observation will be based on. The researcher may
observe by smelling, hearing, listening, touching why not tasting.

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  The advantages of observation
With observation, the researcher gets firsthand information. With
observation, the researcher can also cross check the information got from
other sources of information.
 The disadvantages of observation
As other data collection instruments have disadvantages, observation also
presents some. We can say for example that direct observation cannot be
used effectively to record past events. In case it is possible, it will always
be expensive and time consuming. In addition, the observation of human
behavior can be tricky to carry out, as it is different from the observation of
natural phenomena. The subject observed may change easily his/her
behavior.

C. Interview
An interview is a conversation in which an interviewer tries to get information
from an interviewee. The method assumes that the interviewee has the information
the researcher is looking for. The researcher expects that his/her respondents
provide correct information. Interview is very practical if the respondents cannot
read or write or if the researcher is investigating complex and sensitive issues.
There are two types of interview: a structured interview and an unstructured one
- A structured interview
A structured interview is the one which is similar to a questionnaire. In a
structured interview, questions must be identical to all interviewees since
they must be asked the same questions without following up questions. The
researcher must only ask the written questions.
- An unstructured interview is a type of questionnaire which only gives a
schema or a frame of points the discussion or the conversation is going to
be based on. The questions are not elaborated in advance. To collect the

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 information, a traditional method is to record the responses during the
interview. In that case, tape recorders are used.
 Advantages of an interview
An interview can be used for illiterate respondents. During the interview,
the researcher may repeat the questions which are not clear. In an
interview, a researcher may come across a new idea which requires follow
up questions for clarity. Apart from the information given by the
respondent, the researcher may be able to discover and record a lot of
information on the part of the respondent like social information, physical
one without forgetting the attitude of them.
 Disadvantages of an interview
As far as the disadvantages are concerned, interviews are very expensive
and time consuming. During an interview, most of the respondents are not
free to answer naturally if the questions are very sensitive or difficult to
answer as they require enough time to ponder. That can also be true if the
respondents are shy.
D. Documentation
Documentation is another tool, which is used to collect data. It consists of
collecting data from books, portfolios, or other documents related to the subject
understudy. The researcher must make a kind of elements the documentation will
be based on. The data got through documentation are called secondary data
because they are data which are already there. For instance, if the researcher wants
to know the number of students who succeeded in the national test in Burundi
private schools between the academic years of 2021-2022 and 2022-2023 in
Burundi, he/she will consult documents/reports in one of the departments of the
Ministry of Education and Scientific Research.

III. BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography is defined as a list of the books and other sources like articles that
are referred to in a scholarly work-such as an essay, thesis, dissertation, or a book.

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The bibliography comes at the end of the work. A bibliography has to be well
selected. It has to be related to the topic understudy. In any academic writing/work,
it is important to evaluate the information you find in the book, journals, etc. if you
want to get a reputable and accurate work at the end because not all information
sources authoritative, reliable are well researched. After collecting all the sources
of information you want to refer to, what is left is to order them alphabetically.
There is no need to put pages as footnotes and do not use numbers to list the
authors used. Some researchers use bibliography instead of references. It is up to
the supervisor to tell you which one to use.
In evaluating the sources of information, the researcher has to make an initial
critical assessment by asking some of the following questions:
- Are the sources selected relevant to the subject understudy? Which ones
seem most relevant and useful?
- Is the source a scholarly or a popular publication? Is the publisher a
reputable one in this discipline? What are his/her credentials?
- When was the document written? Is it not out-of-date? Is it relevant enough
to your topic?
- Is the reasoning of the sources logical? Are the generalisation qualified and
supported by accurate representative data?
If all those questions are not fulfilled, the sources will be questionable
/questionable and will finally cause the whole work to become unreliable.
Thus, you as a student researcher need to check whether or not your
materials are valid and reliable or useful for your writing if you want your
work to be reputable.

There are multiple styles available for citing resources from your research. For
instance,
APA, MLA, Chicago, and Turabian styles.
APA stands for American Psychological Association and MLA stands for the
Modern Language Association whereas Chicago documentation is a citation style

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 that has been published by the Chicago University Press since 1906. The choice of
style to use depends on the teacher or supervisor of your work. Its choice may also
be influenced by the academic discipline or field involved. As an example, the
APA style is the most commonly used at Burundi National University. Here are
some guidelines for how APA style is used in writing the bibliography.
(NB: The title has to be italicised when typed or underlined when
handwritten)
a. If you are quoting a book, the bibliography will follow format
below:
- If you are quoting only one author, the bibliography or reference format
will look like:
Author Last Name, First and Middle Initials’ Names. (Year of Publication). Title.
Publisher Location: Publisher.

Welch, K.E. (1999). Electric rhetoric: Classical rhetoric, oralism, and a new literacy.
Cambridge: MIT Press.

- If you are quoting two or more authors, the format of the bibliography or
reference will look like:
Author Last, First Initial, & Author Last, First Initial. (Year of Pub).Title.
Location of Publisher: Publisher.
Example:
Lunsford, A., & Ede, L. (1990). Singular texts/plural authors: Perspectives on
collaborative writing. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Masters, W.H.,Johnson, V.E., & Levin, R.J. (1974). The pleasure bond: A new look at
sexuality and commitment. Boston: Little, Brown.

b. Journal or article (Print)

Format: Author Last name, First name Initial. (Year of Publication).
Article title. Journal Title, volume # (issue number), start page-end page.

Example:

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Welch, K.E. (2005). Technical communication and physical location: Topoi and
architecture in computer classrooms. Technical Communication Quarterly, 14(3),
335-344.

c. Magazine or other periodicals (Print)

Format: Author Last, First Initial. (Year, Month Day of Pub). Title.
Magazine Name, volume number (issue number), inclusive page numbers.

Example:
Swartz, M. (2002, May 6). An Enron yard sale. New Yorker, 78(10), 50-52.

d. Magazine or other periodicals (Online)

Format: Author Last, First Initial. (Year, Month Day of Pub). Title. Magazine Name.
Retrieved from URL

Example:
Leonard, A. (2005, May 18). Embracing the dark side of the brand. Salon. Retrieved
from
http://www.salon.com/mwt/feature/2005/05/18/star_wars_lego/index_np.html

e. Electronic books:
Format: Author Last, First Initial. (Year). Title. Available from URL

Example:
Dickens, C. (1910). A tale of two cities. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/
books?id=Pm0AAAAAYAAJ
f. Journal or article
Format: Author Last, First Initial. (Year of Publication). Article title. Journal Title,
volume number(issue number), start page-end page. Retrieved from URL

Example:
Fisher, D., Russell, D., Williams, J., & Fisher, D. (2008). Space, time & transfer in
virtual case environments. Kairos, 12(2), 127-165. Retrieved from http://
kairos.technorhetoric.net/12.2/binder.html?topoi/fisher-etal/articleIntro.html

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IV. THE NOTION OF LIBRARY

The Library

‘Library’ is an establishment or public institution; it has a building, room, or set of

rooms; contains collection of books and other documents like periodicals
(magazines or newspapers); takes care of its collection; makes arrangement to
access documents to people who require to use them.

A researcher has to read many works related to his/her subject he/she is going to
undertake in order to get sufficient background and find out information from other
studies on a similar topic.

Before tackling with the types of classification of books and other publications, let
us first try to understand what a library classification means. As a definition, a
library classification is understood as a system of knowledge organization by
which library resources are arranged according to subject. Library classification
systems group related materials together, typically arranged in a hierarchical tree
structure. In other words, library classification can be understood as the
arrangement of books on different shelves or descriptions of them, in the way
which is most useful to those the library users or patrons. It is related with the
arrangement of documents in the library in a manner that the library users are
served in the best possible way.

In a nutshell, library classification can be considered as a process of putting books

and other reading material about a given subject in a logical sequence on the shelf,
which could be of immense help to the users.

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 So, what books and other publications are arranged in the libraries of Burundi
University?

The typical classification plan of works on the shelves in the library of Burundi
University is like the following:

 000: General works or periodicals

 100: Philosophy- Psychology
 200: Religion
 300: Social sciences - Law
 400: Cf 800
 500: Exact and Natural sciences
 600: Medicine - Applied Sciences
 700: Fine Arts & Sport
 800: Linguistics - Literature
 900: Geography – History
Note: It is very important to mention that there are many types of classification of

books in libraries. There are some English language universal classification systems

which are mostly used in different libraries. Those ones are the following:

 Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)

 Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
 Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)

In our libraries, the books are arranged or classified according to the Universal
Decimal Classification (UDC) system or Classification Décimale Universelle
(CDU) in French.

In the main library of the University of Burundi, those works are subdivided into
different groups, i.e. three different areas that are:

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 2. Books related to the specific fields;
3. Reference books (dictionary, encyclopedias, newspapers, bibliographies);
4. Periodicals (journals, magazines, newspapers, etc.).

The main library at the University of Burundi is organized as follow:

 The ground level contains all periodicals which include magazines and
articles (000-099).
 Reserve Room where are kept books which are rare (few copies like
memoirs, theses or other books in a very limited number)
 The first level encompasses books of:

- Exact and Natural Sciences (500-599);

- Medicine –Applied Sciences (600-699);

- Arts and Sports (700-799);

- Language, Linguistics and Literature (800-899)

- Geography-History (900-999).
 The second level includes books of:
- Philosophy and Psychology (100-199);
- Religion (200-299)
- Social Sciences and law (300-399).

Talking about periodicals which are only found on the ground level, they are not
arranged universally, but in the local conventionally classification. They are in the
following order where Y stands for periodicals and the other letters like A, B, C, E etc.
stand for different domains:

 YA: Philosophy and Anthropology

 YB: Mathematics
 YC: Physics

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 YE: Chemistry
 YG: Geography-Agriculture
 YH: Biology
 YK: Botany
 YL: Zoology
 YP: Psychology- Educational Sciences
 YQ: Linguistics
 YR: Sociology
 YS: Politics
 YT: Law
 YU: Economy
 YV: Literature- Fine Arts
 YW: History

 YX: General Interest- Publication of International Organizations

 What are the targeted objectives of university libraries to serve its

patrons?
1) To give continuing support to the teaching and learning programmes and
provide impetus to educational change;
2) To ensure maximum access to the widest possible range of resources and
services;
3) To equip students with basic skills to obtain and use wide range of resources
and services;
4) To lead them (students) towards a lifetime use of libraries for recreation,
information and continuing education.

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REFERENCES

Fatihudin, D., & Holisin, I. (2011). Cara Praktis Memahami Penulisan Karya
Ilmiah, Artikel Ilmiah dan Hasil Penelitian Skripsi, Tesis dan Disertasi. UPP
STIM YKPN: Yogyakarta

Mertens, M. D. (2010). Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology.

Integrating Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods (3rd
Ed). London: Sage

Shoket, M. (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation.

International Journal of Research (IJR) Vol-1, Issue-4, 512 – 518.

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