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Ch. 1

The document discusses topics related to physical metallurgy including annealing, recovery, recrystallization, grain growth, strengthening mechanisms, composite materials, and properties of metals and alloys. It provides details on these topics with definitions and explanations supported by references.

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13 views

Ch. 1

The document discusses topics related to physical metallurgy including annealing, recovery, recrystallization, grain growth, strengthening mechanisms, composite materials, and properties of metals and alloys. It provides details on these topics with definitions and explanations supported by references.

Uploaded by

mhmdramdan.208200
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physical Metallurgy

3rd year Met. Eng.


Second semester

Chapter 1
References:

1. R. E. Reed – Hill, "Physical metallurgy principles", Van Nostrand Co.


2. A. G. Guy, "Elements of physical metallurgy", Addison – Wesley Co.
3. H. W. Hayden, W.G. Mofatt and John Wulff, "The structure and properties
of
materials", John Wiley & sons.
4. K. M. Ralls, T. H. Courtney and John Wulff, "Introduction to materials
science and
engineering", John Wiley & Sons.
5. S. L. Kakani, A. Kakani, : Material Science, New age international pu
blishers, New
Delhi.
Contents

1. Annealing: Recovery, Recrystallization and grain growth.


2. Strengthening mechanisms.
3. Composite materials.
4. Wear of metals & alloys.
5. Electrical conduction.
6. Semiconductors.
7. Magnetism and magnetic materials.
8. Thermal and optical properties.

Exams & Reports: 60 pts Final exams: 90 pts


Total: 150 pts Time of final exam: 3 hrs
Annealing, Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain
growth
 Stored energy of cold work:

• When a metal is plastically deformed at temperatures that are low relative


to its melting point, the metal is said to be cold worked.

• A rough rule is to assume that plastic deformation corresponds to cold working if


1
it is carried out at temperatures lower than Tm, where Tm is the melting point in
2
K°

• The amount of stored energy can be increased by increasing the amount of


deformation, lowering the deformation temperature and changing the pure metal
to an alloy.
• The stored energy is associated with the creation of defects. This is
because cold work increase the density of dislocations (from about
106 /m2 to 1012/m2).
• Since each dislocation represents a crystal defect with an
associated lattice strain, increasing dislocation density increases the
strain energy of the metal. Also, the creation of point defects will
increase the strain energy.

 The amount of energy retained in the metal depends on:


1. the amount of Plastic deformation.
2. Composition of the metal.
3. Temperature of deformation.
 The release of this stored energy can be studied by two methods:
1. Anisothermal Anneal:
• The cold worked metal is heated from lower temp. to high
temperature and the energy release is determined as a function of
temperature. A comparison is made to determine the power
difference required to heat two similar specimens at the same rate.
• The first specimen is cold worked before heating and the second one
serves as standard & is not deformed.
• During heating, cold worked specimen release heat & thus lower the
power needed to heat it in comparison with that required to heat the
standard specimen.

 2. Isothermal anneal:

• In this method, the specimen is maintained at constant temperature and


the energy needed for each specimen is measured.

• There will be difference in the energy needed to heat each of the two
specimens.

• The energy needed for the deformed specimen will be less because it
gradually release its stored energy of cold work in form of heat.
• The maximum in the above two figures correspond to the
growth of new grain structure. (i.e.) Recrystallization.

 In the annealing process there are three stages:


1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
1. Recovery
• When a metal is cold worked, changes occur in its physical and
mechanical properties.
• Work hardening increases strength, hardness and electrical resistance.
• In recovery stage of annealing, the physical and mechanical properties
that suffered changes tend to recover their original values.
• One of the important processes occur during recovery is the process
of Polygonization.
• It is associated with crystals that have been plastically bent.
Rearrangement of edge dislocations will take place during Polygonization.
 A crystal physically deformed contains an excess of edge dislocations.

• The dislocation structure in figure 1 is one of high strain energy.


• A different arrangement of the same dislocations possessing a lower strain energy is shown
in figure 2.
• In this case the excess edge dislocations are formed in arrays that run in direction
normal to the slip planes.
• The strain fields of the dislocations which are arranged vertically will cancel each
other, for the tensile strain on the region below the extra plane of one dislocation
overlaps the compressive strain field of the next lower dislocation.
• Thus the main effect for Polygonization is the lowering of the strain energy. Since
dislocation climb depends on the movements of the vacancies, the rate of
Polygonization increases rapidly with temperature.
• The purity of the material is important factor.
• Solute atoms can slow down the rate of climb of dislocations by segregating to jogs and
this will retard the motion of dislocation.
2. Recrystallization
• The process causes the mechanical and physical properties of the deformed
metal to return completely to those of the annealed state. It consists of two
stages:
a) Nucleation
b) Growth
• The process starts very slowly and builds
up to a maximum reaction rate, after which
It finished slowly.

• The figure gives the relation between the % age recrystallized and time.
• The data in the above figure are obtained by holding a number of
identical cold worked specimens at constant temperatures for different
periods of time. After removal from the furnace and cooling to the
room temperature, each specimen is examined metallographically to
determine the extent of recrystallization.
• The higher the temperature, the shorter the time needed to finish
recrystallization.
• If the time needed for certain % age of recrystallization(s) is determined
1
and this is plotted as function of , a straight line is obtained and can be
𝑇
represented by:

Where, Qr: activation energy for recrystallization.


Recrystallization temperature:

is the temperature at which a particular


metal with a particular amount of cold work
will completely recrystallize in a finite period
of time usually one hour.

The factors affecting recrystallization process:


1) Strain ( amount of cold work).
2) Temperature.
3) Purity.
4) Grain size.
1. Effect of strain:
In general, as the degree of the cold work is increased the metal recrystallizes
more readily. (i.e.) at lower temperature or after a shorter time at fixed
temperature.

• Also, the activation energy for


recrystallization decreases with the
increase in the amount of cold work
(amount of strain).
2. Temperature:
For a particular prior deformation, recrystallization will occur more rapidly
as the temperature is raised. The process of recrystallization is thermally
activated process where the time (t), for a given % age transformation, (e.g.)
50%, is related to temp. T.

Where, Qr: activation energy for recrystallization.

% age elongation is const.


3. Purity:
• New grains will nucleate near the grain boundaries.
• Solute atoms interact with the grain boundaries. Thus the presence of solute
atoms in the atmosphere associated with these boundaries strongly retards
their motion, and therefore the recrystallization rates. Thus pure metals
have very rapid rates of recrystallization.

4) Grain Size:
• Recrystallization occurs more readily in fine grained metals because there
is a larger grain boundary area /unit volume than in coarse grained material
• The small grain size increases the number of possible sites for nucleation and
therefore the smaller the grains of the metal before cold work the
greater will be the rate of nucleation and the smaller the recrystallization
grain size.
Recrystallization kinetics
 The process of recrystallization can be treated as nucleation and
growth process in which the basic quantities are:
• nucleation rate N ,
• growth rate G.

 The theory of recrystallization was based on the following assumptions:


1. Nucleation occurs randomly through the matrix.
2. Nucleation rate N expressed as the number of nuclei forming per
second in unit volume is constant.
3. Growth rate is constant.
4. The growing nuclei are in the form of spheres .
• The fraction transformed in time t can be expressed as:

• EX: for the change in properties with annealing temperature:


 Hot working processes as:
Rolling, hot drawing, hot extrusion, forging
 Advantages of hot working processes:
1) Less danger of cracking.
2) Due to pressing together cavities and cracks, porosity will be less.
3) Large deformation is possible without fracture.
4) Economical and rapid (for the production).
5) Power required is less.

 Limitations of hot working:


1) Oxidation of the metal surface which lead to loss in metal.
2) Poor surface finish.
3) Controlling Temperatures is difficult (as for thin sheets, and light sections).
4) Costly equipment are used to withstand high temperature operations.
5) Life of tools used in these processes is reduced due to their uses at high
temperatures.
Grain growth
• In a completely recrystallized metal the driving force for grain growth
lies in the surface energy of the grain boundaries.
• As the grain growth in size and their numbers decrease, the grain
boundary area decrease and the total surface energy is lowered.

• Main diameter grows as the square root of the time

• In case of grain growth in metals, the driving force for


the reaction lies in the surface energy of the
grain boundaries.
• If metallic grain growth is assumed to occur as a result of surface energy
consideration and the diffusion of atoms across the grain boundary:

• From equation No 1:
• From equation No 2:

• Many of the experimental grain growth data


correspond to the equation

• Where n is the grain growth exponent,


• this exponent increases with temperature and
1
approaches the value ( ).
2
 The factors affecting Grain Growth:

1. Presence of impurities:

• Impurity atoms may be found in the lattice of the metal in the form of solid solution or
inclusion.
• These atoms can interact with grain boundaries.
• The presence of these atoms at the boundaries retards their motion.
• In order for the boundaries to move, it must carry its atmosphere along with it.
• In case of the presence of second phase (inclusions), the boundary must pull itself
through the inclusions that lies in its path.
• In either case, an increase in temperature lowers the retarding effect of the solute
atoms and grain growth occurs, the effect of increasing the temperature on the value
of n can be explained by assuming that the grain boundary solute atmosphere are
broken up by thermal vibrations at high temperatures.
• from the figure by increasing the value of % solute concentration the value of
n will decrease which means smaller grain growth.

2. Temperature:

3. Time:
4. Thermal Grooving:

• At high temperatures , grooves may form on the surfaces at these places where grain
boundaries intersect the specimen surface.
• These grooves are due to surface tension factors.
• G.B grooves tend to anchor the end of the boundaries.
• These grooves restrains the movement of the boundary and decrease the grain growth
rate.
• The effect of these grooves is very important for large grain sizes which approach the
1
thickness of the specimen when the G.S of metal sheets becomes larger than of
10
thickness, the growth rate decreases.

 Secondary recrystallization:

• When grain growth stopped as a result of the presence of inclusions or size effects,
a secondary recrystallization will take place it behaves as the primary one and is induced by
raising temperature above that at which grain growth occurred.

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