‭Exploring The History Of Striking:‬

‭A Brief Review of Historical Striking Trends and Contemporary Effectiveness‬

‭Christobal Velez‬

‭Masters in Communication Program, Clark University‬

‭MPA 3820: Labor Relation and Collective Bargaining‬

‭Professor McCall‬

‭April 14, 2024‬

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‭Introduction‬

‭Historically, union strikes have worked as a symbol of workers' collective action and‬

‭empowerment. Throughout the decades, union striking has been a crucial tool used by labor‬

‭organizations to negotiate aspects of their work-life, from working conditions to wages and‬

‭benefits, union striking has been an integral aspect of the workforce. The history of striking is‬

‭complex, with various intersectional avenues affecting the kinds of workers that striked and the‬

‭reasons for those strikes.‬

‭This research paper will focus on the historical precedents of union striking by examining‬

‭some of the earliest striking manifestations, their efficiency, and participants and ultimately‬

‭understanding their impact, and whether or not union striking is a viable union strategy in the‬

‭modern era.‬

‭Striking Definition‬

‭Union striking, often referred to as striking, is an action taken collectively by employees‬

‭of an organization to reach an agreement with their employer regarding any demands they might‬

‭have (Cornell Law School LII, 2021). Within this general concept of a strike, there is what is‬

‭known as a lawful, sometimes referred to as an official strike, and an unlawful strike. A lawful‬

‭strike is often defined as being conducted by union members and endorsed by a union‬

‭organization (Chappelow, 2021). This strike holds the purpose of disrupting or stopping work‬

‭done by employees to have grievances or demands met. Generally, a lawful union strike follows‬

‭a set of “legal requirements” and is voted upon by union members (Chappelow, 2021). It is also‬

‭important to recognize that “the lawfulness of a strike may depend on the object, or purpose, of‬
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‭the strike”, but also be contingent “on its timing, or [the] conduct of the strikers” (National Labor‬

‭Relations Board, 2012).‬

‭It is also important to note that a strike, by definition, will be different from a boycott or a‬

‭protest, despite some similarities that they may share. For example, a boycott and a strike both‬

‭share the function of disrupting the flow of operations of any corporation or agency. Participants‬

‭in a boycott, however, do not have to be workers of an organization or agency (Yasiejko, 2020).‬

‭Additionally, although strikes might involve some form of protest, a protest in itself is not the‬

‭same as a strike since non-employees of a company can protest, and protests do not inherently‬

‭involve work stoppage (BussinessTech, 2018).‬

‭Brief History of Striking‬

‭Earliest Record of a Strike‬

‭One of the earliest recordings of striking comes‬‭from before unions were legally codified.‬

‭The earliest strike in the United States took place in New York in 1768 before unionization‬

‭became a right for workers. During the late 1760s in New York, tailors were in demand as the‬

‭post-World War II era created a market for unique and eccentric fashion styles (Rzigalinsky,‬

‭2018). It was also during this time that rumors of potential wage reductions for tailors in New‬

‭York spread leading to a group of journeymen tailors orchestrating what is generally considered‬

‭the first strike in American history (Onion et al., 2020). Ultimately, business owners decided to‬

‭comply with tailors' demands as their skills were in high demand and protests were disrupting‬

‭their business.‬
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‭Despite union strikes being traced back to the mid-1700s, it wasn’t until 1794 that the‬

‭first union was formed by shoemakers and bootmakers. By the end of the 1700s, the footwear‬

‭industry was booming with new industry developments leading to craftsmen expanding their‬

‭businesses and hiring workers to mass produce shoes and boots. Mass production of footwear led‬

‭to the creation of a “standardized line” and wholesale exports to neighboring cities. The mass‬

‭production of footwear products created a demand for a “cheaper line of footwear” and‬

‭employers wanted to reduce the cost of production by reducing the wages of journeymen or‬

‭“cordwainers” (Swartz, 2004).‬

‭Shoemakers in Philadelphia were considered the first to form the first labor union in the‬

‭United States. The Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers was formed to prevent the‬

‭decrease in wages for cordwainers but also to protect the overall interest of footwear employees‬

‭(Swartz, 2004). Over the following decade, the union engaged and endorsed what were called‬

‭“turn-outs” which can be considered some of the earliest forms of union striking. During this‬

‭time, as workers striked for fair wages, there was a section of employees who took it as an‬

‭opportunity to either gain employment at the lowered wage or continue working despite the‬

‭strikes (Swartz, 2004). These journeymen became known as “Scabs”, a term that is still used in‬

‭modern-day striking.‬

‭The unionization of Cordwainers, however, did not last long without pushback from‬

‭employers. In 1806, members of the Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers were brought‬

‭to trial for suspicions of criminal activity and what many characterized as “conspiring” to keep‬

‭wages high (Swartz, 2004). During the trials, some witnesses claimed to have been explicitly‬
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‭threatened if they did not join the union or the strikes the union endorsed. There were also claims‬

‭of destruction of property which was the breaking of a single window with a potato. Employers‬

‭were also known to have paid the prosecution lawyer higher wages than the one the union‬

‭received (Swartz, 2004). Not only does this trial mark one of the first instances of preferential‬

‭treatment for employers by the government but it is also one of the first cases of union busting in‬

‭American courts.‬

‭Ultimately, the government sided with business owners on the notion that they had‬

‭conspired to regulate the price of their labor. Fundamentally, the court decided that workers‬

‭could not judge their economic value. But perhaps the most important aspect that resulted from‬

‭Commonwealth v. Hunt, was that unions were affirmed in their right to strike as a legal entity‬

‭which paved the way for unions to be codified.‬

‭First African American Strike‬

‭Racism has existed in the United States since it was founded, these sentiments have been‬

‭passed down by the racial majority and affected every aspect of American life, including the‬

‭unionization of African American workers and the development of unions.‬

‭One of the earliest documentation of African American striking efforts takes place in‬

‭Washington, DC. in 1835. During this time both freed and enslaved African Americans‬

‭participated in what was known as the “caulking trade” (Sharp, n.d.). This trade industry was‬

‭specifically important for shipbuilding as ships would not be considered fit for use commercially‬

‭if they were not caulked, which prevented water leakage (Sharp, n.d.). In 1835, a strike by‬

‭African American shipyard workers took place in the Washington Navy Yard, the strike‬
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‭supported the establishment of a 10-hour workday and fair wages (Sharp, n.d.). African‬

‭American workers also made up roughly 10 percent of the caulk trade in the Washington Navy‬

‭Yard (Sharp, n.d.). The growing population of freed African slaves raised concerns for racist‬

‭white workers and was ultimately the catalyst for what became known as the “Snow Riots” in‬

‭which white Americans attacked various freed African Americans and their businesses (Sharp,‬

‭n.d.). This ultimately led to the strike being unsuccessful as the strikers' demands were not met‬

‭and attention shifted to the development of the snow riots.‬

‭Not all hope was lost, in 1838, African American ship workers in Baltimore founded‬

‭what is often considered one of the earliest African-American trade unions in the United States‬

‭known as the Caulkers Association (American Public Workers Association, 2019). However, the‬

‭fight for inclusivity by African American workers continued as various national union‬

‭organizations did not allow African Americans to join their unions or even support their striking‬

‭efforts (American Public Workers Association, 2019). One such example of this was the National‬

‭Labor Union. In 1869 during a National Labor Union convention, African American union‬

‭delegates, such as Isaac Myers, were invited to speak and state their plea for being included in‬

‭the National Labor Union (African American Registry, 2015). They were ultimately rejected as‬

‭racial tensions were still rampant between white and African American workers. This ultimately‬

‭led to the creation of the Colored National Labor Union in 1869 (African American Registry,‬

‭2015).‬
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‭First Women’s Strike‬

‭During the late 1800s and early 1900s, women's suffrage was making waves in the‬

‭United States. In the late 1800s, Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton created the National‬

‭Woman Suffrage Association, in that same time frame the American Woman Suffrage‬

‭Association was also founded (Library of Congress, 2022). Both of these organizations were‬

‭founded to generate social reforms as well as economic and political equality (Library of‬

‭Congress, 2022). However, women’s political activity can be traced back to the early 1800s.‬

‭In the early 1800s textile work was a significant industry in the US market, and young‬

‭women were a significant portion of its workforce. The work was not easy and the pay that “mill‬

‭girls” received was low (Library of Congress, 2022). The work conditions that mill girls operated‬

‭in were also less than ideal with strict restrictions that forbade them from even talking with one‬

‭another (Library of Congress, 2022).‬

‭In addition, the work hours were long and significantly dangerous with reports of‬

‭women's hands being injured in machinery and their hair getting stuck in looms leading to‬

‭scalping (Library of Congress, 2022). It was also the case that women in the mill were paid‬

‭significantly less than their male counterparts. This eventually led them to enact what is largely‬

‭considered one of the first women's strikes with nearly 600 mill girls walking out of the mill‬

‭factories and protesting in the streets (Library of Congress, 2022). Following the strike, the mill‬

‭girls released their grievances asking for fair or equal pay and better working conditions. In their‬

‭grievances they were cited stating the following:‬

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‭“We view this attempt to reduce our wages as part of a general plan of the proprietors of‬

‭the different manufacturing establishments to reduce the females in their employ to that‬

‭state of dependence on them in which they openly, as they do now secretly, abuse and‬

‭insult them by calling them their "slaves".” (Library of Congress, 2022).‬

‭Despite their best efforts, the strike ended shortly as their employers began advertising‬
‭for new workers to fill in the positions of the workers that were striking, this ultimately led to‬
‭protests ending within a month and workers returning to work at the same pay and working‬
‭conditions (Library of Congress, 2022).‬
‭Modern Day Striking‬

‭Striking is and has been a significant part of labor relations in the United States, with‬

‭various union strikes taking place every year. In 2023, the number of union members increased‬

‭by almost 200,000 from 2022 (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). One example of a strike that took place‬

‭in 2023 was the United Auto Workers union strike. Auto workers from 3 major vehicle‬

‭corporations went on what they called a “stand up” strike to advocate for better wages and‬

‭benefits (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).‬

‭The union strategized their strike to occur among 3 top automobile companies with only a‬

‭portion of their members striking and the rest waiting ready to “stand up.” After two months, the‬

‭union and the 3 automobile companies reached an agreement to increase wages by 33% and‬

‭re-open a manufacturing plant (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). The effects of the new agreement also‬

‭trickled down to companies such as Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, and Tesla with increases in their‬

‭base pay despite their workers not being unionized (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).‬
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‭Another example of a strike in 2023 was the Kaiser Permanente healthcare workers'‬

‭strike in October. Over 75 thousand workers comprised of nurses, medical technicians, and‬

‭support staff led a 3-day strike in various Kaiser facilities in different states (Poydock & Sherer,‬

‭2024). Different union coalitions endorsed the Kaiser health workers’ strike which was notably‬

‭the largest healthcare strike in United States history (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).‬

‭The 3-day strike focused on unions' grievances and focused specifically on the “lagging‬

‭pay” of health workers and low staffing levels (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). After the strike,‬

‭workers reached an agreement with healthcare employers to raise wages by 21% “across the‬

‭board” (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). The new agreement also cited “additional bonus and‬

‭performance sharing pay; and new training, education, and hiring initiatives to increase staffing‬

‭levels” (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).‬

‭In June 2023 another strike took over social media with the center of attention being‬

‭Starbucks. Baristas conducted a mass strike in dozens of Starbucks locations after various rumors‬

‭spread regarding Starbucks managers removing “rainbow flags and decorations [meant to‬

‭support] LGBTQ+ Pride month.” Dozens of workers took to the streets and formed picket lines‬

‭outside locations in New York. Union members were seen discouraging people from entering the‬

‭Starbucks locations.‬

‭Starbucks representatives responded to the allegations of managers taking down flags and‬

‭decorations by stating that the company supports the queer community and has not changed its‬

‭policy regarding decorations. Despite the attention that the strike generated, little action came‬
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‭from it. With virtually no actionable demands made by strikers, the matter lost traction and‬

‭public outcry faded away.‬

‭Another significant strike that took place last year was the hotel workers' strike in July‬

‭2023. Hotel workers in Southern California walked off their jobs demanding better wages and‬

‭benefits (Dovarganes, 2023). Thousands of workers ranging from front desk employees and‬

‭room attendants to servers and dishwashers gathered outside numerous hotels (Dovarganes,‬

‭2023). The strike was endorsed by the Unite Here Local 11 union with 96% of their members‬

‭voting for the authorization of the strike (Dovarganes, 2023).‬

‭As of March of this year, workers reached a new agreement with 34 hotels in South‬

‭California (Antczak, 2024). The agreement met all 3 of the union demands by increasing‬

‭workers' wages, pension contributions, and fairer workload. Non-tipped workers were also set to‬

‭receive a 40% to 50% increase in wages and tipped workers would receive better wages and‬

‭benefits such as double overtime for holidays, and vacation and sick days (Antczak, 2024).‬

‭Efficacy and Impact of Union Strikes‬

‭In 2023, there were close to 400 strikes in the United States with over 500 thousand‬

‭workers participating in various forms of strike activity (Malinsky, 2023). Union strikes‬

‭increased significantly in 2023 with more workers actively participating in each strike since‬

‭2013. Striking sentiments have also been growing over the decades. In 2009, 25% of Americans‬

‭wanted unions to hold more influence in the American workforce, today roughly 43% of‬

‭Americans want unions to hold more influence (Saad, 2023). It is also the case that union activity‬

‭has also made significant advances in 2023. A Bloomberg Law analysis found that in the first‬
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‭quarter of 2023, union workers had a roughly 7% increase in pay within the first year of their‬

‭contracts (Malinsky, 2023).‬

‭Union activity and strikes have also been shown to have significantly more impact on‬

‭minority groups in the United States. In the past decade, women have been exponentially joining‬

‭the workforce like never before (Nast, 2023). They have also been at the forefront of union‬

‭organization and activity. Striking and union activity has impacted women's wages and benefits,‬

‭one such example can be seen in the leisure and hospitality industry. Women make up half of the‬

‭workforce in this sector and directly benefit from union strike wins (Nast, 2023). Studies have‬

‭shown that unions have a significant impact on the reduction of the wage gap, this is even more‬

‭evident for black and Latina women (Robbins, 2023). Studies have also shown that black and‬

‭Latino men receive higher “union wage premiums” than their non-unionized counterparts‬

‭(Washington Center, 2023). They also tend to have “higher median levels of wealth thus‬

‭reducing the economic inequality gap experienced by minorities (Washington Center, 2023).‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭Historically, union striking has been a significant tool utilized by unions to generate‬

‭changes in labor relations within the United States. From some of the earliest strikes in the‬

‭tailor's industry to more recent healthcare and leisure workers' strikes, union activity has helped‬

‭secure fair wages, benefits, and working conditions. In the modern world, strikes continue to be‬

‭an effective tool. Marginalized groups, including women and racial minority groups, tend to see‬

‭significant benefits through unionization. With growing support for unions, it is clear that as a‬

‭strategy, union striking has and will continue to be an effective bargaining tool.‬
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‭References‬

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‭American Public Workers Association. (2019, May 28).‬‭Isaac Myers: Pioneer of the‬
‭African-American Trade Union Movement‬‭. American Postal Workers Union.‬
‭https://apwu.org/news/isaac-myers-pioneer-african-american-trade-union-movement‬
‭Antczak, J. (2024, March 25).‬‭Hospitality workers ratify new contract with 34 Southern‬
‭California hotels, press 30 others to sign‬‭. AP News.‬
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‭BussinessTech. (2018).‬‭A legal expert explains the major difference between a strike and‬
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‭Dovarganes, D. (2023, July 3).‬‭Workers strike at major Southern California hotels over pay and‬
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‭Onion, A., Sullivan, M., & Mullen, M. (2020, March 31).‬‭Labor Movement‬‭. History.com; A&E‬
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