The Key Roles of Cell Division

• The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind best distinguishes living
things from nonliving matter.

• The continuity of life is based on there production of cells, or cell division.

• In unicellular organisms,division of one cell reproduces the entire organism;

• Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:

• Development from a fertilized cell

• Growth
• Repair

• Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from formation to
its own division.

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material

• All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome.

• A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells)

or a number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells).

• DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes.

Eukaryotic chromosomes

• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that

condenses during cell division.

• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell

nucleus.

• Somatic cells(nonreproductive cells)havetwosetsofchromosomes.

• Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes.
Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense;

• Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids (joined copies of the
original chromosome), which separate during cell division,

• The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached.

• During nuclear division,a kinetochore forms at the centromere.

• Kinetochores are binding sites for microtubules that attach to chromatids.

Chromatids During Cell Division

• During cell division, the two sister

chromatids of each duplicated chromosome
separate and move into two nuclei;

• Once separate, the chromatids are called

chromosomes.

• Eukaryotic cell division consists of:

• Mitosis, the division of the genetic material in the nucleus.

• Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm.

• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis.

• Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes,
half as many as the parent cell.

Phases of the cell cycle

• The cell cycle consists of:

• Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes

in preparation

for cell division).

• Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).

Interphase

• Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases:

• G1 phase (“first gap”)

• S phase (“synthesis”)

• G2 phase (“second gap”)

• The cell grows during all three phases, but chromosomes are duplicated only during
the S phase.
Phases of the Mitosis

• Mitosis is divided into five phases:

1.Prophase; 2. Metaphase; 3. Anaphase; 4. Telophase.

• Cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of mitosis.

*Mitosis in an Animal Cell

Interphase:

• A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus.

• The nucleus contains one or more nucleoli

(singular, nucleolus).
• Two centrosomes have formed by duplication

of a single centrosome.

• Centrosomes are regions in animal cells that

organize the microtubules of the spindle. Each

centrosome contains two centrioles.

• Chromosomes, duplicated during S phase,

cannot be seen individually because they have not yet condensed.

Prophase:
• The chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled, condensing into
discrete chromosomes observable with a light microscope.

• The nucleoli disappear.

• Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister

chromatids joined at their centromeres .
• The mitotic spindle (named for its shape) begins to form. It is composed of the
centrosomes, the asters and the microtubules that extend from them.

• The nuclear envelope fragments.

Metaphase:

• The centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell.

• The chromosomes have all arrived at the

metaphase plate.

• The chromosomes’ centromeres lie at the

metaphase plate.

• For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids are

attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles.

Anaphase:

• The two sister chromatids of each pair part suddenly. Each chromatid
thus becomes an independent chromosome.
• The two new daughter chromosomes begin moving toward opposite
ends of the cell.
• By the end of anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equivalent and
complete collections of chromosomes.

Telophase:

• Two daughter nuclei form in the cell.

• Nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments of the parent cell’s nuclear envelope
and other portions of the endomembrane
system.
• Nucleoli reappear.

• The chromosomes become less condensed.

• Mitosis, the division of one nucleus into two genetically identical

nuclei, is now complete.
 Cytokinesis

In animal cells:

• Cytokinesis occurs by a process known as

cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow.

• On the cytoplasmic side of the furrow is a contractile ring of actin

microfilaments associated with molecules of the protein myosin.

• The actin microfilaments interact with the myosin molecules,

causing the ring to contract.
• The cleavage furrow deepens until the parent cell is pinched in
two, producing two completely separated cells.

In plant cells:

•A cell plate forms during cytokinesis during telophase, vesicles

derived from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the
middle of the cell, Where they coalesce, producing a cell plate.

Cytokinesis in plant cell

*Mitosis in a plant cell

Binary Fission in Bacteria

• Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell
division called binary fission.
• In binary fission, the chromosome replicates, and the two
daughter chromosomes actively move apart.

• The plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell into

two.
Overview: Variations on a Theme

• Living organisms are distinguished by their ability to reproduce their own kind.

• Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation.

• Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

• Variation is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from

parents and siblings.

Inheritance of Genes

• Genes are the units of heredity, and are made up of segments of DNA;
• Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called gametes

(sperm and eggs).

• Each gene has a specific location called a locus on a certain chromosome;

• Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes.

Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Genes

• In asexual reproduction, a single individual passes genes to its offspring without the
fusion of gametes.

• A clone is a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent.

• In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to offspring that have unique
combinations of genes inherited from the two parents.
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

• Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete) have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• The two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous chromosomes, or

homologs.

• The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of the individual, are called X and
Y.

• Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes(XX).

• Human males have one X and one Y
chromosome.

• The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes

are called autosomes.

• Each pair of homologous chromosomes

includes one chromosome from each
parent.

• The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic

cell are two sets of 23: one from the mother
and one from the father.

• A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes

• For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)

• A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set of

chromosomes, and is haploid (n);

• For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23);

• Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes and a single sex

chromosome;

• In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X;

• In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y.

Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle

• Fertilization is the union of gametes (the sperm and the egg);

• The fertilized egg is called a zygote and has one set of chromosomes from

each parent;
• The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis and develops into an adult.
• At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes.

• Gametes are the only types of human cells produced by meiosis, rather than mitosis.

• Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes in each gamete.

• Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles to maintain chromosome

number.

Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid

• Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of chromosomes

• Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions, called:

• meiosis I and meiosis II.

• The two cell divisions result in four daughter cells, rather than the two daughter cells
in mitosis.

• Each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell.

The Stages of Meiosis

After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions follow: Meiosis I &

Meiosis II.

❖ Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs pair up and

separate, resulting in two haploid daughter cells with
replicated chromosomes.
❖ Meiosis II (equational division) sister chromatids separate.

The result is four haploid daughter cells with unreplicated

chromosomes.

❖ Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when the

chromosomes are duplicated to form sister chromatids which are:

1. Genetically identical;

2. Joined at the centromere.

❖ The single centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes.

❖ Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases:

1. Prophase I

2. Metaphase I

3. Anaphase I

4. Telophase I
and cytokinesis
• Prophase I typically occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis.

• Chromosomes begin to condense.

• In synapsis, homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by

gene

• Each chromosome pairs with its homolog:

1. Aligned gene by gene.

2. And crossing over occurs

Meiosis in an Animal Cell

• In crossing over, non-sister chromatids
exchange DNA segments.

• Each pair of chromosomes forms a

tetrad, a group off our chromatids.

• Each tetrad usually has one or more

chiasmata, X-shaped regions where
crossing over occurred.
Metaphase I

▪ In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one

chromosome facing each pole.
▪ Microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad.

Anaphase I

▪ Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate.

▪ Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and move as
one unit toward the pole.

Telophase I

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

▪ In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell has a haploid

set of chromosomes; each chromosome still consists of two sister
chromatids.
▪ Cytokinesis usually occurs together, forming two haploid daughter
cells.

Meiosis II

▪ No chromosome replication occurs between the end of meiosis I

and the beginning of meiosis II because the chromosomes are
already replicated.
▪ Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases:
▪ Prophase II; Metaphase II; Anaphase II; Telophase II and
cytokinesis.
▪ Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
Prophase II

• In prophase II,a spindle apparatus forms.

• chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids) move toward the

metaphase plate.

Metaphase II

• In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate.

• The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from

opposite poles.
Anaphase II

• In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate.

• The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as two newly individual
chromosomes toward opposite poles.

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

• In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles.

• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing.

• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm.

• At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
unreplicated chromosomes.

• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the parent
cell, because of crossing over in meiosis I.

A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

• Mitosis 1conserves the number of chromosome sets, 2producing cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell.
• Meiosis 1reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one
(haploid), producing 2cells that differ genetically from each other and from the
parent cell.
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