OUTLINE 5: SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

With a single grain of rice, an Ondo housewife tests if all the rice in
the pot has boiled; from a cup of tea, a tea-taster determines the
quality of the brand of tea; and a sample of moon rocks provides
scientists with information on the origin of the moon. This process of
testing some data based on a small sample is called sampling.

Definition

A sample is a subset of the population being studied. It represents the

larger population and is used to draw inferences about that
population. It is a research technique widely used in the social
sciences as a way to gather information about a population without
having to measure the entire population. Sampling is the process by
which inference is made to the whole by examining a part.

When conducting research, it is almost always impossible to study the

entire population that you are interested in. For example, if you were
studying political views among college students in the United States, it
would be nearly impossible to survey every single college student
across the country. If you were to survey the entire population, it
would be extremely timely and costly. As a result, researchers use
samples as a way to gather data.

There are several different types and ways of choosing a sample from a
population, from simple to complex. The ways can be summarized
under two broad methods of sampling.

1. Probability Sampling

2. Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are

gathered in a process that gives all the individuals in the population
equal chances of being selected.

1. Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the

basic sampling method assumed in statistical methods and
computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the
target population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is
then generated and the units having those numbers are included in
the sample. For example, let’s say you have a population of 1,000
people and you wish to choose a simple random sample of 50 people.
First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a
list of 50 random numbers (typically with a computer program) and
those individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in
the sample.
2. Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of
the population are put into a list and then every kth element in the
list is chosen (systematically) for inclusion in the sample. For
example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high
school and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the
students would be put into list form and then every 20th student
would be selected for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any
possible human bias in this method, the researcher should select the
first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic
sample with a random start.

3. Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique

in which the researcher divided the entire target population into
different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling
is used when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups
within the population. For example, to obtain a stratified sample of
university students, the researcher would first organize the population
by college class and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen,
sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher
has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.

4. Cluster Sample. Cluster sampling may be used when it is

either impossible or impractical to compile an exhaustive list of the
elements that make up the target population. Usually, however, the
population elements are already grouped into subpopulations and
lists of those subpopulations already exist or can be created. For
example, let’s say the target population in a study was church
members in the United States. There is no list of all church members
in the country. The researcher could, however, create a list of
churches in the United States, choose a sample of churches, and then
obtain lists of members from those churches.

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples

are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the
population equal chances of being selected.

1. Convenience Sample: Relying on available subjects, such as

stopping people on a street corner as they pass by, is one method of
sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with many
cautions. This method, sometimes referred to as a convenience
sample, does not allow the researcher to have any control over the
representativeness of the sample. It is only justified if the researcher
wants to study the characteristics of people passing by the street
corner at a certain point in time or if other sampling methods are not
possible. The researcher must also take caution not to use results
from a convenience sample to generalize to a wider population.
2. Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or judgmental,
sample is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population
and the purpose of the study. For example, if a researcher is studying
the nature of school spirit as exhibited at a school pep rally, he or she
might interview people who did not appear to be caught up in the
emotions of the crowd or students who did not attend the rally at all.
In this case, the researcher is using a purposive sample because those
being interviewed fit a specific purpose or description.

3. Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in

research when the members of a population are difficult to locate,
such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented
immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects
data on the few members of the target population he or she can locate,
then asks those individuals to provide information needed to locate
other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a
researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from
Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented individuals
that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those
subjects to help locate more undocumented individuals. This process
continues until the researcher has all the interviews he or she needs
or until all contacts have been exhausted.

4. Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are

selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics so
that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics
assumed to exist in the population being studied. For example, if you
a researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might need to
know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion
is female as well as what proportions of each gender fall into different
age categories, race or ethnic categories, educational categories, etc.
The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions
as the national population.
Sampling techniques: Advantages and disadvantages

Technique Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages

Simple Random sample Highly representative Not possible without

random from whole if all subjects complete list of
population participate; the ideal population members;
potentially
uneconomical to
achieve; can be
disruptive to isolate
members from a group;
time-scale may be too
long, data/sample
could change

Stratified Random sample Can ensure that More complex, requires

random from identifiable specific groups are greater effort than
groups (strata), represented, even simple random; strata
subgroups, etc. proportionally, in the must be carefully
sample(s) (e.g., by defined
gender), by selecting
individuals from
strata list

Cluster Random samples of Possible to select Clusters in a level must

successive clusters randomly when no be equivalent and some
of subjects (e.g., by single list of natural ones are not for
institution) until population members essential characteristics
small groups are exists, but local lists (e.g., geographic:
chosen as units do; data collected on numbers equal, but
groups may avoid unemployment rates
introduction of differ)
confounding by
isolating members

Stage Combination of Can make up Complex, combines

cluster (randomly probability sample limitations of cluster
selecting clusters) by random at stages and stratified random
and random or and within groups; sampling
stratified random possible to select
sampling of random sample
individuals when population
lists are very
localized

Purposive Hand-pick subjects Ensures balance of Samples are not easily

on the basis of group sizes when defensible as being
specific multiple groups are representative of
characteristics to be selected populations due to
potential subjectivity of
researcher
Quota Select individuals Ensures selection of Not possible to prove
as they come to fill adequate numbers of that the sample is
a quota by subjects with representative of
characteristics appropriate designated population
proportional to characteristics
populations

Snowball Subjects with Possible to include No way of knowing

desired traits or members of groups whether the sample is
characteristics give where no lists or representative of the
names of further identifiable clusters population
appropriate even exist (e.g., drug
subjects abusers, criminals)

Volunteer, Either asking for Inexpensive way of Can be highly

accidental, volunteers, or the ensuring sufficient unrepresentative
convenience consequence of not numbers of a study
all those selected
finally
participating, or a
set of subjects who
just happen to be
available

Source: Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An

integrated approach to research design, measurement, and statistics.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGEPublications, Inc. (p. 118)

Advantages of Sampling

1. Greater economy: The total cost of a sample will be much less

than that of the whole lot.
2. Shorter time-lag: With smaller number of observations it is
possible to provide results much faster as compared to the total
number of observations.
3. Greater scope: Sampling has a greater scope regarding the
variety of information by virtue of its flexibility and adaptability.
4. Actual appraisal of reliability

Disadvantages of sampling

● Errors due to sampling may be high for small administrative

areas.
● Sampling may not be feasible for problems that require very
high accuracy.