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IM No.4: ECE01-2S-2021-2022

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

DEGREE Bachelor of
PROGRAM Science in
COURSE NO. ECE 01
Mechanical
Engineering
SPECIALIZATION COURSE
Basic Electronics
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME 5Hrs WKNO. 4 IM NO. 04

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Semiconductors PN Junction Diode Part II

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Ideal Diode versus Practical Diode

2. Resistance Levels
2.1 DC or Static Resistance
2.2 AC or Dynamic Resistance
2.3 Average AC Resistance

3. Diode Equivalent Circuits

3.1 Piecewise-Linear Model
3.2 Simplified Model
3.3 Ideal device

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This module provides the students the fundamentals of the semiconductor device part IV,
which is mainly the electronic device nowadays. This module discusses the semiconductor device
from its initial state as a pure element; Silicon, Germanium, etc., up to its final complete material
form, the simplest electronics device the “Diode”.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the ideal diode and practical diode.

2. Identify the different diode resistance levels.

3. Solve problems related to diode equivalent circuits and resistance levels.

V. LESSON CONTENT

1. Ideal Diode versus Practical Diode

Ideally, the semiconductor diode behaves like a closed switch in the forward-bias region, the
resistance of the diode should be 0Ω. In the reverse-bias region its resistance should be ∞Ω to

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represent the open-circuit equivalent. Such levels of resistance in the forward and reverse-bias
regions result in the characteristics of Figure 1.0.

Figure 1.0 Ideal versus actual semiconductor characteristics.

An analogy often used to describe the behavior of a semiconductor diode is a mechanical

switch. In Fig. 2.0 the diode is acting like a closed switch permitting a generous flow of electron
charges in the direction indicated. The level of current is so small in most cases that it can be
approximated as 0 A and represented by an open switch as shown in the Figure 2.0

.
Figure 2.0 (a) Conduction and (b) nonconduction states of the ideal diode

The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a mechanical switch in that it

can control whether current will flow between its two terminals. However, it is important to also
be aware that: The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch in the sense that
when the switch is closed it will only permit current to flow in one direction.

When a switch is closed the resistance between the contacts is assumed to be 0 Ω as

shown in Figure 1.0 . At the plot point chosen on the vertical axis the diode current is 5 mA and
the voltage across the diode is 0 V. Substituting into Ohm’s law results in;
𝑉𝐷 0𝑉
𝑅𝐹 = = = 0Ω ( Short-circuit Equivalent)
𝐼𝐷 5 𝑚𝐴

In fact, at any current level on the vertical line, the voltage across the ideal diode is 0 V and the
resistance is 0 Ω. For the Horizontal section of the curve.
𝑉𝐷 20𝑉
𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐷
= 0 𝑚𝐴
≅ ∞Ω ( Open-Circuit Equivalent)

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Again, because the current is 0 mA anywhere on the horizontal line, the resistance is considered
to be infinite ohms (an open-circuit) at any point on the axis.

In Practical Diode Model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model. When the diode is
forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source
equal to the barrier potential (0.7V) with positive side toward the anode as indicated in the Figure
2.1(a). This equivalent voltage source represents a fixed voltage drop (VF) produced across the
forward biased PN junction of the diode and is not an active source of voltage.

Figure 2.1 Practical Diode Model

(*Note that the VF is for the practical model is sort of the same with VD for the ideal model, same
with IF and ID)

While, when the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal
model, as shown in figure 2.1(b). The barrier potential does not affect the reverse bias.

The Figure 2.1(c) shows the characteristic curve for the practical diode model. The barrier
potential is included and the dynamic resistance is neglected, the diode is assumed to have a
voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the
origin.
VF = 0.7 V

The forward current is determined by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to Figure 3.0(a):
VBIAS - VF – VR LIMIT = 0
VR LIMIT = IF RLIMIT
Substituting and solving for IF,
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇
Sample Problem:

Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode in Figure 2.2 for each of the
Diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case.

Figure 2.2

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Solution:

Ideal Model:

VD = 0 V
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 10 𝑉
𝐼𝐷 = = = 10 mA
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 1.0 𝑘Ω

VRLIMIT = ID RLIMIT = (10mA) (1.0 𝑘Ω) = 10 V

Practical Model:

VF = 0.7 V
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹 10 𝑉 − 0.7𝑉
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇
= 1.0 𝑘Ω
= 9.3 mA

VRLIMIT = ID RLIMIT = (9.3 mA) (1.0 𝑘Ω) = 9.3 V

2. Resistance Levels

There are three different levels of diode resistances that appear as we examine diode
devices.

2.1 DC or Static Resistance

The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in

an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the
diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID
as shown in Figure 3.0 and applying the following equation:

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐼𝐷

The dc resistance levels at the knee of the curve and below will be greater than the
resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels
in the reverse-bias region will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a
relatively constant-current source, the resistance determined will be at a preset current level
(typically, a few milliamperes).

Figure 3.0 Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

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In general, therefore, the higher the current through a diode, the lower is the dc resistance
level. Typically, the dc resistance of a diode in the active (most utilized) will range from about 10Ω
to 80 Ω.

Example # 1:

Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Figure 4.0 at

a. ID = 2 mA (low level)

b. ID = 20 mA (high level)

c. VD = 10 V (reverse-biased)

Figure 4.0 Example # 1

Solution:

a. At 𝐼𝐷 = 2 mA, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.5𝑉 (from the curve) and

𝑉𝐷 0.5 𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷
= 2 𝑚𝐴
= 250 Ω

b. At 𝐼𝐷 = 20 mA, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.8𝑉 ( from the curve) and

𝑉𝐷 0.8 𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷
= 20 𝑚𝐴
= 40 Ω

c. At 𝑉𝐷 = 0 − 10𝑉, 𝐼𝐷 =𝐼𝑆 = −1µA (from the curve) and

𝑉𝐷 10 𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷
= 1𝜇𝐴
= 10 MΩ

2.2 AC or Dynamic Resistance

If a sinusoidal input signal rather than a dc input is applied, the situation will change
completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point ( Q-pt.) up and down a

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region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown
in Figure 4.0. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q -point
appearing on Figure 4.0, determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived
from the word quiescent , which means “still or unvarying.”

Note: The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the
region surrounding the point of interest.

Figure 5.0 Defining the dynamic or ac resistance.

A straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q -point as shown in Figure 6.0 will
define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic
resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. An effort should be made to keep the change
in voltage and current as small as possible and equidistant to either side of the Q -point. In
equation form,

𝚫𝑽𝑫
𝒓𝒅 =
𝚫𝑰𝑫

where ∆ signifies a finite change in the quantity

The steeper the slope, the lower is the value of ∆𝑉𝐷 for the same change in ∆𝐼𝐷 and the lower
is the resistance. The ac resistance in the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is therefore
quite small, whereas the ac resistance is much higher at low current levels.
In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or lower
voltage), the higher is the ac resistance.

Example # 2:

For the characteristics of Figure 6.0.

a. Determine the ac resistance at 𝐼𝐷 = 2 mA.

b. Determine the ac resistance at 𝐼𝐷 = 25 mA

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c. Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the dc resistance at each current level.

Figure 6.0 Example # 2

Solution:

a. For 𝐼𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝐴, the tangent line at 𝐼𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝐴 was drawn as shown in Figure 7.0 and a swing of
2 mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen. At 𝐼𝐷 = 4 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.76 𝑉, and
𝐼𝐷 = 0 𝑚𝐴 at 𝑉𝐷 = 0.65 𝑉. The resulting changes in current and voltage are, respectively,

∆𝐼𝐷 = 4𝑚𝐴 − 0 𝑚𝐴

and

∆𝑉𝐷 = 0.76V - 0.65V = 0.11V

and the ac resistance is

∆𝑉𝐷 0.11 𝑉
𝑟𝑑 = ∆𝐼𝐷
= 4 𝑚𝐴
= 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓 Ω

b. For 𝐼𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝐴, the tangent line at 𝐼𝐷 = 25𝑚𝐴 was drawn as shown in Figure 6.0 and a swing
of 5 mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen. At 𝐼𝐷 = 30 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.78 𝑉,
and at 𝐼𝐷 = 20 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.78𝑉 . The resulting changes in current and voltage are, respectively,

∆𝐼𝐷 = 30 𝑚𝐴 − 20 𝑚𝐴 = 10 mA

and ∆𝑉𝐷 = 0.8 𝑉 − 0.78 𝑉 = 0.02 𝑉

and the ac resistance

∆𝑉𝐷 0.02 𝑉
𝑟𝑑 = = =𝟐Ω
∆𝐼𝐷 10 𝑚𝐴

c. For 𝐼𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 𝑉 and

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𝑉𝐷 0.7𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = = = 𝟑𝟓𝟎 Ω
𝐼𝐷 2 𝑚𝐴

which far exceeds the 𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑓 27.5 Ω.

For 𝐼𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.79 𝑉 and

𝑉𝐷 0.79𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷
= 25 𝑚𝐴 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 Ω

Which far exceeds the 𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑓 2 Ω

Derivation of the Dynamic Resistance Formula:

Recall the basic definition in differential calculus that states:

The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at
that point.

therefore, essentially by finding the derivative of the function at the Q -point of operation for the
semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward bias and then invert the result, we will
have an equation for the dynamic or ac resistance in that region.

𝑑 𝑑 𝑉
( 𝐷⁄𝑛𝑉 )
( 𝐼𝐷 ) = [𝐼𝑠 (𝑒 𝑇 − 1]
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑑𝑉𝐷

And
𝑑𝐼𝐷 1
= (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑆 )
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑉𝑇 𝐷

after we apply differential calculus. In general, ID W Is in the vertical-slope section of the

characteristics and
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝐼𝐷
≅
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑉
Flipping the result to define a resistance ratio (𝑅 = 𝐼
) gives

𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑉𝑇
= 𝑟𝑑 =
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝐼𝐷

Substituting 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑉𝑇 ≠ 26 𝑚𝑉 results in

𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽
𝒓𝒅 = Equation # 1
𝑰𝑫

It implies that the dynamic resistance can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of
the diode current into the equation.

The Dynamic Resistance of an Actual Diode.

𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽
𝒓′𝒅 = 𝑰𝑫
+ 𝒓𝑩 ohms

Where: 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

body resistance - resistance of the semiconductor material itself .

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contact resistance - the resistance introduced by the connection between the
semiconductor material and the external metallic conductor.
- The factor 𝑟𝐵 can range from typically 0.1 Ω for high power devices to 2 Ω for
some low-power, general-purpose diodes.
-
For Example # 2, the ac resistance at 25 mA was calculated to be 2Ω.
𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽 𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽
𝒓𝒅 = 𝑰𝑫
= 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 Ω

The difference of about 1 could be treated as the contribution of 𝒓𝑩 .

Another one, from Example # 2, the ac resistance at 2 mA was calculated to be 27.5 Ω. Using
Equation # 1 but multiplying by a factor of 2 for this region (in the knee of the curve n = 2),
𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽 𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝑽
𝒓𝒅 = (𝟐) ( ) = (𝟐) ( ) = (𝟐)(𝟏𝟑) = 𝟐𝟔 Ω
𝑰𝑫 𝟐𝒎𝑨

The difference of 1.5 Ω could be treated as the contribution due to 𝒓𝒅 .

2.3 Average Ac Resistance

If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in Figure
7.0, the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the average ac resistance.
The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined by a straight line drawn
between the two intersections established by the maximum and minimum values of input voltage.
In equation form (note Figure 8.0),

∆𝑽𝑫
𝒓𝒂𝒗 = | Equation # 2
∆𝑰𝑫 𝒑𝒕.𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒕.

Example # 3:

Figure 7.0 Example # 3

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For the example # 3, the values as determine in Figure 7.0

∆𝐼𝑑 = 17 𝑚𝐴 − 2 𝑚𝐴 = 15 𝑚𝐴

And

∆𝑉𝑑 = 0.725𝑉 − 0.65𝑉 = 0.075𝑉

With
∆𝑽𝑫 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝑽
𝒓𝒂𝒗 = ∆𝑰𝑫
= 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝑨
=𝟓Ω

As with the dc and ac resistance levels, the lower the level of currents used to determine the
average resistance, the higher is the resistance level.

Summary Table

Table 1.0 was developed to reinforce the important conclusions of the last few pages and
to emphasize the differences among the various resistance levels.

Table 1.0 Summarized Resistance Levels

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3. Diode Equivalent Circuits

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the

actual terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating region.

In other short, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed
from a schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the
actual behavior of the system. The result is often a network that can be solved using traditional
circuit analysis techniques.

3.1. Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

The approximate characteristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in

Figure 8.0, is called a piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.
It should be clear from Figure 8.0 that the straight-line segments do not result in an exact
duplication of the actual diode characteristics, especially in the knee region. However, the
resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual curve to establish an equivalent circuit that
will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual behavior of the device.
For the sloping section of the equivalence the average ac resistance is the resistance level
appearing in the equivalent circuit next to the actual device.
In essence, it defines the resistance level of the device when it is in the “on” state. The
ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction through the
device, and a reverse-bias condition will result in the open-circuit state for the device.
Since a silicon semiconductor diode does not reach the conduction state until 𝑉𝐷 reaches
0.7 V with a forward bias, a battery 𝑉𝐾 opposing the conduction direction must appear in the
equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 9.0. The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the
device must be greater than the threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device
in the direction dictated by the ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established
the resistance of the diode will be the specified value of 𝑟𝑎𝑣 . .

Figure 8.0 Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit using straight-line segments
to approximate the characteristic curve.

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Figure 9.0 Components of the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.

Keep in mind, however, that the value 𝑉𝐾 in the equivalent circuit is not an independent
voltage source. If a voltmeter is placed across an isolated diode on the top of a laboratory bench,
a reading of 0.7 V will not be obtained. The battery simply represents the horizontal offset of the
characteristics that must be exceeded to establish conduction.

The approximate level of 𝒓𝒂𝒗 can usually be determined from a specified operating point
on the specification sheet.

For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if 𝐼𝐹 = 10 𝑚𝐴 (a forward conduction

current for the diode) at 𝑉𝐷 = 0.8 𝑉, we know that for silicon a shift of 0.7 V is required before the
characteristics rise, and thus, we obtain
∆𝑽𝑫 𝟎.𝟖𝑽−𝟎.𝟕𝑽 𝟎.𝟏 𝑽
𝒓𝒂𝒗 = |
∆𝑰𝑫 𝑝𝑡.𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑡.
= 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨−𝟎 𝒎𝑨
= 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎 Ω

If the characteristics or specification sheet for a diode is not available the resistance 𝒓𝒂𝒗 can be
approximated by the ac resistance 𝒓𝒅 .

3.2. Simplified Equivalent Circuit

For most diode applications, the resistance 𝒓𝒂𝒗 is sufficiently small to be ignored in
comparison to the other elements of the network. Removing 𝒓𝒂𝒗 from the equivalent circuit is the
same as implying that the characteristics of the diode appear as shown in Figure 10.0. Indeed,
this approximation is frequently employed in semiconductor circuit analysis. The reduced
equivalent circuit appears in the same figure. It states that a forward-biased silicon diode in an
electronic system under dc conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across it in the conduction state at any
level of diode current.

.
Figure 10.0 Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon semiconductor diode.

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3.3. Ideal Equivalent Circuit

The third diode model has now 𝑟𝑎𝑣 has been removed from the equivalent circuit, let us
take the analysis a step further and establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison
to the applied voltage level. In this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal
diode as shown in Figure 11.0 with its characteristics

Figure 11.0 Ideal diode and its characteristics.

Summary Table

For clarity, the diode models employed for the range of circuits parameters and
applications are provided in Table 2.0 with their piecewise-linear characteristics. There are always
exceptions to the general rule, but it is fairly safe to say that the simplified equivalent model will
be employed most frequently in the analysis of electronic systems, whereas the ideal diode is
frequently applied in the analysis of power supply systems where larger voltages are encountered
compare with the diode knee voltage 𝑉𝐾 .

Table 2.0 Diode Equivalent Circuits Models

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Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4: ECE01-2S-2021-2022

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. DRAWING ACTIVITY
2.
DIRECTION: Using a black ball pen, draw the required figure of the following questions:

1. Draw the simplified diode

equivalent circuit also called
diode approximate model.

2. Draw the simplified diode

equivalent circuit
characteristic curve.

3. Draw the piece-wise linear

equivalent characteristic
curve.

2. ESSAY

DIRECTION: Discuss the following terms briefly in your own words. (Minimum of 30 words)

1. Simplified or approximate diode equivalent circuit.

2. DC or Static resistance
3. AC or Dynamic Resistance

VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

1. ONLINE ASSIGNMENTS

2. ONLINE QUIZZES

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for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution’’
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4: ECE01-2S-2021-2022
VIII. ASSIGNMENT

1. PROBLEM SOLVING TYPE

Direction: Read carefully the given problem and determine the required parameters. Show your
complete solutions.

1. Determine the static or dc resistance of the commercially available diode of Figure 11.0, at a
forward current of 4 mA.

Figure 11.0 Problem # 1

2. Using Equation # 2, determine the ac resistance at a current of 1 mA and 15 mA for the diode
of Figure 11.0. Compare the solutions and develop a general conclusion regarding the ac
resistance and increasing levels of diode current.

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for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution’’
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4: ECE01-2S-2021-2022
IX. REFERENCES

A. Book/Printed Resources

Boylestad, R.L. & Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic devices and circuit theory (11th Ed.) Pearson
Education South Asia. Singapore

Floyd, T.L. (2005). Electronic devices: conventional current version (7th Ed.). Pearson Education
South Asia. Singapore.

Neamen, D.A. (2002). Electronics circuit analysis and design (2nd Ed.). Philippines: McGraw-Hill
International Edition.

B. e-Resources/ e-Book

Schultz, Mitchel E. (2016). Grob Basic Electronics. ( 12 Edition). McGraw-Hill Education,

2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. https://engineeringbookslibrary.com/grobs-basic-
electronics-12th-edition/

MIT OpenCourseWare ( 30 August 2019) Circuits and Electronics

http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-002-circuits-and-
electronics-spring-2007

Dube.D.C. ( 30 August 2019 ) Electronics I

https://freevideolectures.com/course/3062/electronics-i

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for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution’’