11.1.

Introducing Gregor
Mendel
A. Gregor Mendel
A. Gregor Mendel :
1. He was an Austrian monk.
2. He formulated two fundamental
laws of heredity in the early 1860s.
3. Previously, he had studied science
and mathematics at the University of
Vienna.
4. At the time of his research, he was
a substitute science teacher at a local
technical high school.
B. Blending Concept of Inheritance
1. This theory stated that if parents were
different, offspring would possess traits
intermediate between those of parents.
2. If red and white flowers produce pink,
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a return of red or white progeny was
considered instability in genetic material.
3. Charles Darwin wanted to develop a
theory of evolution based on hereditary
principles; the blending theory was of no
help:
a. The blending theory did not account
for variation, and therefore could not
explain species diversity.
b. A particulate theory of inheritance, as
proposed by Mendel, can account for
presence of differences among members
of a population generation after
generation.
c. Mendel's work was unrecognized until
1900; Darwin was never able to use it to
support his theory of evolution.
C. Mendel Breaks with the Past
1. Mendel did a statistical study, probability , because he had
a mathematical background.
2. He prepared his experiments carefully; he conducted
preliminary studies.
a. He chose to work with garden pea, because peas were
easy to cultivate, had a short generation time, and could be
cross-pollinated. Loading…
b. From many varieties, Mendel chose 22 true-breeding
varieties for his experiments.
c. True-breeding varieties had all offspring like the parents
and like each other.
d. Mendel studied simple traits (e.g., seed shape and color,
flower color, etc.).
 11.2. Mendel Did a Monohybrid Cross .
1. Cross-pollination monohybrid cross.
1. A hybrid: is the product of parent organisms that
are true-breeding for distinctly different forms of a
single trait.
2. A monohybrid cross is between two parent organisms
true-breeding for distinct forms of a single trait.
3. Mendel tracked each trait through two generations. a.
P generation is the parental generation in a breeding experiment.
b. F1 generation is the first-generation offspring in a breeding
experiment.
c. F2 generation is the second-generation offspring in a breeding
experiment.
B. Mendel's Results
1. Contrary to those predicted by a blending theory of inheritance.
2. He found that the F1 plants resembled only one of the parents.
3. Characteristic of other parent reappeared in about 1/4 of F2
plants; 3/4 of offspring resembled the F1 plants.
4. Mendel saw that these 3:1 results were possible if :-
a. F1 hybrids contained two factors for each trait, one dominant
and one recessive;
b. factors separated when gametes were formed; a gamete carried
one copy of each factor;
c. random fusion of all possible gametes occurred upon
fertilization.
5. Results of his experiments led Mendel to develop his first law
of inheritance:
 Mendel's law of segregation:
a. Organism contains two factors for each
trait; factors segregate in the formation of
gametes; each gamete contains one factor
for each trait.
b. Mendel's law of segregation is consistent
with a particulate theory of inheritance
because many individual factors are passed
on from generation to generation.
c. Recombination of factors explains variations
and why offspring differ from their parents.
Modern Genetics Has an Explanation
1. Each trait in a pea plant is controlled by two alleles or Factors,
alternative forms of a gene that occur at the same gene locus on
homologous chromosomes.
a. Dominant allele masks or hides expression of a recessive allele; it
is represented by an uppercase letter.( AA) .
b. Recessive allele is an allele that exerts its effect only in the
homozygous state; its expression is masked by a dominant allele; it
is represented by a lowercase letter.(aa) .
2. Gene locus: is a specific location of a particular gene on
homologous chromosomes.
3. In Mendel's cross, the parents were true-breeding; each parent
had two identical alleles for a trait--they were homozygous,
indicating they possess two identical alleles for a trait.
a. Homozygous dominant genotypes possess two dominant alleles
for a trait.
b. Homozygous recessive genotypes possess two recessive alleles
4. After cross-pollination, all individuals of the F1 generation had
one of each type of allele or factor.
a. Heterozygous genotypes possess one of each allele for a
particular trait.
b. The allele not expressed in a heterozygote is a recessive allele.
5. Two organisms with different allele combinations can have the
same outward appearance (e.g., TT and Tt pea plants are both tall;
therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between alleles and
appearance of the organism).
a. Genotype refers to the alleles an individual receives at
fertilization.
b. Phenotype refers to the physical appearance of the individual.
D. Doing Monohybrid Genetics Problems
1. First determine which characteristic is
dominant; then code the alleles involved.
2. Determine genotype and gametes for both
parents; an individual has two alleles for each
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trait; each gamete has only one allele for each
trait.
3. Each gamete has a 50% chance of having
either allele.
E. Figuring the Probable Results
1. Probability is the likely outcome a given event will
occur from random chance.
a. With each coin flip there is a 50% chance of heads and
50% chance of tails.
b. Chance of inheriting one of two alleles from a parent is
also 50%.
2. Multiplicative law of probability states: that the
chance of two or more independent events occurring
together is the product of the probability of the events
occurring separately.
a. Chance of inheriting a specific allele from one parent
and a specific allele from another is 1/2 x 1/2 or 1/4.
b. Possible combinations for the alleles Ee of
heterozygous parents are the following:
EE = 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4
eE = 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4
Ee = 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4
ee = 1/2 × ½ = 1/4
3. Additive law of probability calculates a probability
of an event that occurs in two or more independent
ways; it is a sum of individual probabilities of each way
an event can occur; in the above example where,
unattached earlobes are dominant (EE, Ee, and eE), a
chance for unattached earlobes is 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 3/4.
F. Punnett Square Figures for You
1. Provides a simple method to calculate probable results
of a genetic cross.
2. In a Punnett square, all possible types of sperm alleles
are lined up vertically, and all possible egg alleles are
lined up horizontally; every possible combination is
placed in squares.
3. The larger of sample size examined, the more likely
the outcome will reflect predicted ratios; a large number
of offspring must be counted to observe the expected
results; only in that way can all possible genetic types
of sperm fertilize all possible types of eggs.
4. We cannot testcross humans in order to count many
offspring; in humans, the phenotypic ratio is used to
estimate the probability of any child having a particular
characteristic.
G. Mendel Did a Testcross :
1. Mendel performed testcrosses by crossing
his F1 plants with homozygous recessive
plants.
2. Results indicated the recessive factor was
present in the F1 plants; they were
heterozygous.
3. A testcross is between an individual with a
dominant phenotype and an individual with a
recessive phenotype to see if the individual
with the dominant phenotype is homozygous
or heterozygous.
11.3. Mendel Did a Dihybrid Cross :
A. Dihybrid Crosses. .
1. A dihybrid cross is an experimental cross between
two parent organisms that are true-breeding for different
forms of two traits; produces offspring heterozygous
for both traits. (TTGG x ttgg ) : TtGg
2. Mendel observed that the F1 individuals were
dominant in both traits
B. Plants to Self-Pollinate.
1. Mendel observed four phenotypes among F2
offspring; he deduced the second law of heredity.
2. Mendel's law of independent assortment: states
members of one pair of factors assort independently of
members of another pair; all combinations of factors
occur in gametes.
C. Doing Dihybrid Genetics Problems
1. Laws of probability indicate a 9:3:3:1
phenotypic ratio of F2 offspring resulting in
the following:
a. 9/16 of the offspring are dominant for both
traits.
b. 3/16 of the offspring are dominant for one
trait and recessive for the other trait.
c. 3/16 of the offspring are dominant and
recessive opposite of the previous proportions.
d. 1/16 of the offspring are recessive for both
traits.
2. Punnett square for dihybrid crosses
a. A larger Punnett square is used to calculate probable results of
a dihybrid cross. .
b. A phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 is expected when heterozygotes
for two traits are crossed and simple dominance is present for
both genes.
c. Meiosis explains these results of independent assortment.
D. Dihybrids Can Be Tested Also
1. Dihybrid testcrosses test if individuals showing two
dominant characteristics are homozygous for both or for one trait
only, or is heterozygous for both. .
2. If an organism heterozygous for two traits is crossed with
another recessive for both traits, the expected phenotypic ratio is
1:1:1:1.
Q: what are the Significance of Meiosis
Beautiful Chance