Insulation coordination

(As per IEC 60071-1 and 60071-2)

“Determination of the standard insulation level”

R.C.A.M. Koevoets
September 2017 August 2022
 Insulation coordination
• It is … not:

“… what we, in HVL, normally do …”,

• but, … yes indeed … , it is:

“ … the basis for what we, in HVL, normally do …”

content
• 01 Introduction
• 02 Language
• 03 Normal voltage
• 04 Overvoltage
• 05 Insulation level
• 06 Typical insulation conditions
• 07 Electrode configurations
• 08 Insulation
• 09 Clearance
• 10 When it goes wrong
• Appendix 1 Testing
• Appendix 2 Equipment and insulation
Part 1: Introduction
• “From normal voltage via overvoltage to standard test voltages”

• Insulation coordination (definition)

Selection of the dielectric strength (= insulation level) of equipment
in relation to the operating voltages and overvoltages
which can appear on the system for which the equipment is intended
and taking into account the service environment
and the available preventing and protective devices
(IEV 604-03-08 modified)
IEC 60071-1
• System

• Equipment
How do we connect equipment to a system?

← System: “installations and plant

for electricity generation,
transmission, distribution”

← Equipment: “item(s)
for generation, conversion,
transmission, distribution
or utilization of electric energy”
Two rules, two standards
• Ensure that the “normal” voltage on the system is not higher
than the “normal” voltage of the equipment. Reference: IEC 60038.

• Ensure that the “abnormal” voltages (= overvoltages) on the system

are lower (or statistically acceptable) in comparison with the proven
“abnormal” withstand voltages (= test voltages) of the equipment.
Reference: IEC 60071.
Insulation coordination standard IEC 60071
• International agreement on standard assigned values for highest voltage of
equipment Um

• Together with corresponding standard test voltage levels

• And requirements for minimum clearance between conductors in air

• Based on statistical evaluation for reliable functional operation and on

protection level ensured by arresters or configuration

• Not for human safety

procedure
• System analysis:
find overvoltage to be expected (lightning strokes, load shedding, switching operations)
find overvoltage limitation (by arresters, structure etc.)

• Statistics:
evaluation of overvoltage occurance versus expected lifetime of the insulation,
with correction factors, also for expected conditions and altitude

• Determination:
of a set of voltage levels (higher than protection level)
for standard overvoltage shapes representing the result of analysis and evaluation

• Selection:
of nearest higher standard test voltages and in this way
determination of standard insulation level
 What is the aim, the purpose, the goal?
• To limit failure risk to acceptable levels

• To ensure that failure only hits locations with easy, low cost, fast
repair

• To reduce risk of failure of complicated, costly, long repair equipment

such as cables, transformers, to an absolute minimum

• To ensure overall reliability and obtain standard solutions

Part 2: Electrotechnical Language

How do we obtain agreement about coordination?

we speak/listen/write/read/propose/discuss/argue/agree, and

• We use understandable international language (english or other).

• We use agreed words, terms, statements, expressions, definitions,

• for systems, equipment, requirements, tests, conditions, and so on,

• in the electrotechnical world, as per

• international electrotechnical vocabulary (IEV) IEC 60050

• Sometimes (mostly?) modified by the relevant electrotechnical comittee

keywords
• Insulation and electric field
• Electrodes and their shape
• Clearance between the electrodes
• Voltage between the electrodes and across the insulation

• Air
• Standard atmospheric conditions
• Dry and wet
• New and clean

• Operational safety (not human safety)

• Type tests only
Systems and equipment
• Nominal voltage for systems
• Highest voltage for equipment
• Overvoltages
• Protection of system and equipment
• Stress on the insulation of the equipment
• Standard test voltages (insulation level)
• Clearance
• Testing techniques
Systems and equipment, definitions
• electric power system
electricity supply system (in a broad sense)
all installations and plant provided for the purpose of generating,
transmitting and distributing electricity (IEV 601-01-01)

• electric equipment
item used for such purposes as generation, conversion, transmission,
distribution or utilization of electric energy, such as electric machines,
transformers, switchgear and controlgear, measuring instruments,
protective devices, wiring systems, current-using equipment (IEV 826-
16-01)
Part 3: “Normal” Voltage
• nominal voltage of a system
a suitable approximate value of voltage used to designate or identify a system (IEV
601-01-21)

• rated voltage, <of equipment>

voltage value assigned by a manufacturer or other entity for a specified operating
condition of a component, device or equipment (IEV 614-03-09)

Note: The value for the rated voltage of high voltage equipment is generally assigned from the list of
highest voltages for equipment in Tables 3, 4 and 5 of IEC 60038:2009.

Note: Equipment may have more than one rated voltage value or may have a rated voltage range.
Nominal voltage and highest voltage (IEC 60038)
Range I Range II
Nominal Highest System Voltage/ Highest System Voltage/
Nominal System
System Highest voltage for Highest Voltage for
Voltage
Voltage equipment Equipment

Un Us or Um Un Us or Um
[kV] [kV] [kV] [kV]
10/11 12 … (300)
20/22 24 … 362
30/33 36 400 420
66/69 72,5 500 525/550
110/115 123 … 765/800
150/154 170 … 1100
220/230 245 … 1200
Nominal Voltage as per IEC 60038, series I and II
• Nominal system voltage (see IEC 60038) Un

Nominal System Voltage is the phase to phase voltage of the

system for which the system is normally designed.

Such as 11, 33, 66, 110, 132, 132, 220, 400 kV systems.

• Highest voltage of a system (Us) or (Usys)

(= Un +10 % for series I or Un + 5 % for series II)
(excluding transient or abnormal conditions)

• Lowest voltage of a system

(= Un – 10 % for series I or Un – 5 % for series II)
(excluding transient or abnormal conditions)
What is in a name? All “normal” voltage levels
• Low voltage (LV) < 1 kV

• High voltage (HV) 1 kV and above

• Medium voltage (MV) (not used in the UK in this sense, nor in Australia) any set of voltage levels
lying between low and high voltage Note – The boundaries between medium- and high-voltage levels overlap and
depend on local circumstances and history or common usage. Nevertheless the band
30 kV to 100 kV
frequently contains the accepted boundary. (IEV 601-01-28)

• Extra High voltage (EHV) 345 – 400 – 500 – 765 kV

• Ultra High voltage (UHV) 1000 – 1600 kV

we connect equipment to systems
• Equipment may only be used
on systems having a highest system voltage Us
less than or equal to
the highest voltage for equipment Um

• Highest voltage for equipment (Um)

is the phase to phase voltage of the equipment
for which its insulation is normally designed.
such as 12 , 36 , 72,5 , 123 , 145, 170, 245, 300, 362, 420 kV
System voltage, equipment voltage, test voltage
voltage
system equipment
(kV)
test
insulation level
voltage
protection upper
level limit
abnormal voltage
abnormal (overvoltage)
voltage
(over
(remaining) overvoltage
voltage)

↑ Um ≥ Us upper limit
upper
Us normal
limit
voltage
+/- normal
Un (5–10) voltage
%
lower
U…
limit
IEC 60038 IEC Standard Voltages
• Horizontal standard = Standard on fundamental principles, concepts,
terminology or technical characteristics, relevant to a number of
technical committees and of crucial importance to ensure the
coherence of the corpus of standardization documents

•
Part 4: Overvoltage
• Systems are equipped with earth wires, structures, spark gaps, arresters
and this gives some protection against very high overvoltage

• But still overvoltages occur due to lightning strikes, failures and switching
operations

• The overvoltages have typical shapes and the overvoltage levels can be
estimated

• Typical test voltages and test levels and shapes can be formulated for the
equipment

• Test voltage levels must be higher than the overvoltage protection levels
Overvoltage limitation by the system construction
When do we speak about overvoltage?
• Phase to phase: any voltage exceeding Us . √2

• Phase to earth: any voltage exceeding Us . √2 / √3

• TOV = temporary power frequency overvoltage, with a duration from

less than a second to several hours

• Transient overvoltage, mostly unidirectional,

with a front time from nanoseconds to a few milliseconds,
mostly caused by lightning strokes to earth near overhead lines
 Typical overvoltages: abbreviations/classes/tests
•… continuous overvoltage → …

• TOV ` temporary overvoltage → short-duration power frequency test

• SFO slow-front overvoltage → switching impulse test

• FFO fast-front overvoltage → lightning impulse test

• VFFO very-fast-front overvoltage → ……..

 IEC 60071-1
table 1

• Actual shapes of overvoltages

• Standard overvoltage shapes

• Standard withstand voltage tests

 Factors for determination of
the rated or standard insulation level
•k Earth fault factor, depending on X1/X0

• Kt atmospheric correction factor

• Ka altitude correction factor

• Ks safety factor

• Ktc test conversion factor

• Kc co-ordination factor
 Procedure overview
Insulation level
(Set of standard Test Voltages)
Um, LI, SI, AC See IEC 60071 and specific equipment standards

↑ Test conversion factor Ktc

Required withstand voltage Urw
↑ Atmospheric correction factor Ka; Safety factor Ks
Coordination withstand voltage Ucw
↑ Coordination factor Kc
Representative overvoltage Urp

↑ System studies on overvoltages and actual protection levels ↑

Highest voltage for equipment Um
↑ Um ≥ Us
Highest system voltage Us …..
↑ 5 – 10 %
Nominal voltage Un …..
↑ See IEC 60038
Earth
Part 5: Insulation level
Insulation coordination = determination of insulation level

Insulation coordination = determination of dielectric strength

insulation level = dielectric strength

 Insulation levels (Um, L.I., S.I., A.C.) as per IEC
• Range I (for Um from 1 kV up to and including 245 kV)

• Lightning impulse withstand voltage (LI)

• Power frequency withstand voltage (AC)
• Values are same for phase to earth, phase to phase and longitudinal insulation
• Switching impulse withstand voltage tests are not required (are covered by other tests)

• Range II (for Um from 300 kV and higher)

• Switching impulse withstand voltage (SI)

• Lightning impulse withstand voltage (LI)
• Specific values for phase to earth, phase to phase and longitudinal insulation
• Power frequency withstand voltage tests are not required (are covered by other tests)
 Standard insulation levels as per IEC 60071-1
Range I (for Um from 1 kV up to and including 245 kV)
- Phase-to-earth insulation
The standard voltages are all the same for : - Phase-to-phase insulation
- Longitudinal insulation

Highest voltage for Standard rated Standard rated

equipment short-duration lightning impulse
(Um) power-frequency withstand voltage
withstand voltage

kV kV kV
(r.m.s. value) (r.m.s. value) (peak value)

Example:
60
12 28 75
95
 Standard insulation levels as per IEC 60071-1
Range II (for Um above 245 kV)
- Phase-to-earth insulation
The standard voltages are different for : - Phase-to-phase insulation
- Longitudinal insulation
Highest voltage Standard rated
for Standard rated switching impulse withstand voltage lightning impulse
equipment withstand voltage
(Um)
longitudinal phase-to-earth phase-to-phase
insulation insulation insulation

kV kV kV (ratio to the kV
(r.m.s. value) (peak value) (peak value) phase-to-earth (peak value)
peak value)

Example:
1300
420 950 1050 1,50
1425
(Basic) insulation level as per IEEE (not IEC)
• BIL : Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level

• BSL: Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level

The insulation level must be higher than the
protection level
Overvoltage limiters:

- Arresters

- Air gaps

- Insulator strings

- Structures with earth wires

Part 6: Typical insulation and conditions
• External insulation
Distances in atmospheric air, and the surfaces in contact with air,
of solid insulation of the equipment,
which are subject to dielectric stresses
and to the effects of atmospheric and other environmental conditions from the site,
such as pollution, humidity, vermin, etc.
(IEV 604-03-02 modified)

• Internal insulation
Internal distances of the solid, liquid, or gaseous insulation of equipment
which are protected from the effects of atmospheric and other conditions
(IEV 604-03-03 modified)
Insulation coordination Principles
Insulation: three main situations
• To earth (between a phase and earth);
• phase to earth insulation
• clearance to ground

• Between two phases (of the same system);

• phase to phase insulation
• clearance between phases

• Across open contacts (of different systems, in a phase)

• longitudinal insulation; isolating distance
• longitudinal voltage: an instantaneous combination of lightning or switching
surge and power frequency voltage
Three different “distances” for insulation (1) (2) (3)

← insulation Phase to Phase (R1-Y1, Y1-B1, B1-R1) (1)

R1 ← insulation Phase to Earth (R1-E, Y1-E, B1-E) (2)

Y1 ← System 1
B1
← Longitudinal insulation (R1-R2, Y1-Y2, B1-B2) (3)
between Systems
R2
← System 2
Y2
B2 ← insulation Phase to Phase (R2-Y2, Y2-B2, B2-R2) (1)
← insulation Phase to Earth (R2-E, Y2-E, B2-E) (2)
Across open contacts
• Circuit-breakers (within the same system?)

• Disconnectors (between two systems)

• Other name: isolators
• Isolating distance
Part 7: Electrode configurations
• Plane plane (homogeneous field)

• Rogowski profile

• Sphere gap

• Conductor - conductor

• Conductor - structure

• Rod - structure

• Rod - rod
 Electrodes (shapes) and electrical fields
and gaps (clearance, distance)
← more homogenous field? less →
Rogowski- Conductor- Conductor- Rod-
Plane-plane Sphere-gap Rod-rod
profile conductor structure structure

“Ideal” literature IEC 60052 IEC 60052

higher ← withstand voltage at same elektrode distance → lower

lower ← highest field strength at same elektrode distance → higher

 Sphere gap, rod gap and minimum clearance
50 % Flashover voltage in air as per IEC 60052 (peak values)
U 50 [kV]

Minimum clearance as per IEC 60076-3 phase to phase and phase to earth based on lightning impulse voltage (trendline)

2000

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

gap distance [cm]

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

sphere gap, a.c., d.c., impulse negative sphere gap, positive, impulse rod gap, d.c. pos/neg minimum clearance [cm]
Part 8: Insulation

• Some definitions

• Insulation in air

• Electric strength

• Some values
Insulation: Some definitions

IEV ref definition

material of low electric conductivity, used to
separate conducting parts at different electric
potentials or to isolate such parts from the
212-11-01 insulating material
surroundings
Note – An insulating material may be a solid, a liquid
or a gas, or a mixture of these.
insulation between conductive parts, necessary for
195-02-41 functional insulation
the proper functioning of the equipment
part of an electrotechnical product which separates
conducting parts at different electric potentials
212-11-07 electric insulation
during operation or insulates such parts from the
surroundings
Insulation: in air

• Standard atmospheric conditions (of the air):

pressure: p = 1013 hPa (= 1013 mbar)

humidity: h = 11 g (H2O) / m3
temperature: Ѳ = 20 ˚C

• Other conditions (not in IEC 60071 but in relevant equipment standard):

altitude higher than 1000 m

wet (under artificial rain)
polluted
Electric strength and dielectric strength
• Electric strength (as per IEV 212-11-37): quotient of the maximum
voltage applied without breakdown, by the distance between
conducting parts, under prescribed conditions!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
expressed in [V/m] but also in [kV/mm]

• (Compare: maximum electric field strength Emax [V/m])

• Compare: dielectric strength = insulation level = set of test voltages

• Rated insulation level (as per IEC 60071-1:2010): set of rated

withstand voltages which characterize the dielectric strength of the
insulation
Insulation: some values
“Gases”

electric strength permittivity

“material” symbol
[kV/mm] Ɛ

at normal ambient at higher pressure

conditions (1 bar) (5 bar)
Vacuum 15 - 30 1
air 3 5 x 3 = 15 1
nitrogen N2 1,15 x 3 1
hydrogen H2 0,65 x 3 1
carbon dioxide CO2 0,95 x 3 1
sulphur hexafloride SF6 2,3 x 3 = 6,9 5 x 6,9 ≈ 36 1
Part 9: clearance
• IEC 60071-1 Annex A

• Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3 converted into grafical representation

IEC 60071-1 table A.1
Range I, Um max 245 kV
2500
standard lightning impulse withstand voltage [kV]

2000

1500

rod-structure

1000 conductor-structure

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
minimum clearance [mm] phase to erarth and phase to phase
IEC 60071-1 table A.2
Range II, Um 300 kV and above
1800
rated switching impulse withstand voltage [kV] phase to erath

1600

1400

1200

1000

conductor-structure
800
rod-structure

600

400

200

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
minimum clearance [mm] phase to earth
IEC 60071-1 table A.3
Range II, Um 300 kV and above
3000
rated swiching impulse withstand voltage [kV] phase to phase

2500

2000

1500
rod-conductor
conductor-conductor parallel

1000

500

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
minimum clearance [mm] phase to phase
Clearance for switchgear
IEV ref definition
the distance between two conductive parts along
441-17-31 clearance a string stretched the shortest way between these
conductive parts
clearance the clearance between any conductive parts of
441-17-32
between poles adjacent poles
the clearance between any conductive parts and
clearance
441-17-33
to earth
any parts which are earthed or intended to be
earthed
the total clearance between the contacts, or any
clearance between open
441-17-34
contacts
conductive parts connected thereto, of a pole of a
mechanical switching device in the open position
isolating distance
the clearance between open contacts meeting the
441-17-35 (of a pole of a mechanical
switching device) safety requirements specified for disconnectors
 “clearance” for insulators
IEV ref definition

shortest distance in the air external to the insulator between the

arcing
471-01-01 metallic parts which normally have the operating voltage between
distance
them
shortest distance or the sum of the shortest distances along the
surface on an insulator between two conductive parts which
normally have the operating voltage between them
creepage Note 1 –The surface of cement or of any other non-insulating
471-01-04
distance jointing material is not considered as forming part of the creepage
distance. Note 2 – If a high resistance coating is applied to parts of
the insulating part of an insulator, such parts are considered to be
effective insulating surfaces and the distance over them is
included in the creepage distance.
Part 10: When stress becomes too high
• Failure = an event (something happens and goes wrong)

• Fault = a state (nothing happens but something is wrong)

What does it all mean?
• Breakdown

• Flashover

• Puncture
 Discharges
IEV Ref definition
(electric) abrupt change of all or part of an insulating medium into a conducting medium
212-11-33
breakdown resulting in an electric discharge
breakdown voltage at which electric breakdown occurs under prescribed test conditions, or in
212-11-34
voltage use
212-11-38 (electric) movement of charge carriers through parts of an otherwise insulating material
discharge Note – An electric discharge may be partial or disruptive
passage of an electric arc following electric breakdown
disruptive
212-11-46 Note – Depending on the amount of energy contained in the discharge, it will be
discharge
described as a discharge of low or high energy, based on the maximum current,
and the amount of damage to the insulating material.
electric breakdown between conductors in a gas or a liquid or in vacuum, at least
212-11-47 flashover
partly along the surface of solid insulation
212-11-48 sparkover disruptive discharge in a gaseous or liquid insulating material
disruptive discharge occurring through a solid insulation material, producing a
212-11-49 puncture path of permanent damage
Note – The term puncture is also used as a synonym for electric breakdown in
solids.
Other discharges
• partial discharges (PD)

• Radio interference (voltage) (RIV)

• (visible) corona
APPENDIX 1:

TESTING
Testing
• After the insulation level (set of assigned test voltages) has been
established, dielectric testing may be performed accordingly

• It is …, yes indeed … , it is:

“… what we, in HVL, normally do …”,

• Type testing, Routine testing, Special testing, Sample testing, ….

• And after testing: Monitoring and Maintenance

Testing: Standards, General

• IEC 60060-1: High-Voltage Test Techniques,

General Definitions and Test Requirements

• IEC 60060-2: Measuring Systems

• IEC 60060-3: Definitions and Requirements

for On-Site Testing
Test on the insulation: dielectric tests (1)
What is in a name? What is in a definition?
• In many equipment standards we can find the expression dielectric tests, although there is no
direct definition for dielectric tests in IEC.

• In the Scope of IEC 60060-1:2010 (High-Voltage Test Techniques), is written: “This Standard is
applicable to dielectric tests with direct voltage, alternating voltage, impulse voltage, and
combinations of these voltages”.
• However, in clause 5, dealing with these tests, the expression dielectric tests is not used any
more. Here, a definition of dielectric tests cannot be found.

• In IEV 614-03-28, lightning impulse, is defined as “voltage pulse of a specified shape applied
during dielectric tests with a virtual front duration of the order of 1 μs and a time to half value of
the order of 50 μs” and in IEV 614-03-30, switching impulse is defined as “voltage pulse of a
specified shape applied during dielectric tests, with a time to crest of 100 μs to 300 μs, and a
time to half value of a few milliseconds”.
• Also here is referred to dielectric tests without giving the definition.
Test on the insulation: dielectric tests (2)
What is in a name? What is in a definition?
• In IEC 60071-1:2010 clause 3.37 the standard voltage withstand test, is defined as
“dielectric test performed in specified conditions to prove that the insulation complies with
the standard rated withstand voltage”

• In IEC 60071-1:2010 clause 3.37 Note 1 is written: “This standard covers

- short-duration power-frequency voltage tests

- switching impulse tests
- lightning impulse test,
- combined switching impulse tests
- combined voltage tests”

• Hence, from the above, including the previous sheet, it must be concluded, that the
meaning of the expression dielectric tests is given by the list of above mentioned tests.
 (Type) Testing: The Impact

• Successful electrical type testing is not a guarantee for quality

• It is only proof of design, in new, clean condition

• Additionally, routine tests and special tests are required, such as

tests under extreme conditions, endurance tests to simulate
lifetime, and sometimes sample tests with statistical evaluation

• Extreme conditions may be short-circuit, load shedding, pollution,

influence of sunlight, vibration, high temperature, and more
 (Succesful) Testing: What comes next?
• Frequent Checks are required before, during and after each service

• Insulation may become less effective and even critical as a result of

Deterioration, Degradation, Aging

• As a result of normal use

• And thermal, chemical and mechanical influences, and impact of partial discharges, corona

• Or attack by rodent or insects, etc. etc.

• Which makes it necessary to apply programmes for Monitoring and Maintenance

Monitoring and Maintenance: Some examples

• Visual examination and surveillance

• Measurement of Tan delta and or Power factor (as function of voltage/frequency)

• Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

• Measurement of exciting current

• Measurement of Partial Discharges (PD) (in many cases on-line)

• Measurement of DC insulation resistance (IR) and Polarization Index (PI)

• Oil Sampling: Dielectric breakdown test / dissolved gas analysis (DGA)

• Check of mechanical performance

APPENDIX 2:

Equipment and insulation

Equipment: insulation, design
Design of Equipment in respect to Insulation “Coordination”

includes:

- management of field strength and electric strength

- creating desired voltage distribution

- selection and application of suitable insulation materials,

mostly in combination with each other, based on their electrical
and chemical and physical and mechanical and other properties

- realising that all materials are subject to aging and hence realising that these
“cannot be applied up to maximum theoretically permissible field strength”
Equipment: Insulation materials

• Must act as electrically non-conductive barrier between conducting

parts with potentially (high-voltage) across them
• Solids must have sufficient mechanical properties to withstand
forces, shocks and vibrations, occurring during normal and extreme
conditions
• Must have properties to conduct heat for cooling puposes, to
withstand influences by temperature changes, must be resistant
against chemical influence and influence of sunlight
• May bring nasty effects such as being toxic or harmful for
health/nature/environment
• May be flammable or cause risk of suffocation
Equipment: Insulation

(Power) transformers and reactors

Rotating electric machines
Instrument transformers
Switchgear and controlgear
Insulators
Capacitors
Cables and accessories
(Power)Transformers and Reactors (IEC 60076)

Please note:

• For the basis of insulation coordination of transformers see appendix E of

IEC 60076-3 (2013)

• Clearance requirements
- for l.i. levels up to and including 750 kV: rod to structure values
- for l.i. levels above 750 kV: conductor to structure values
(Power)Transformers and Reactors
• Transformer Construction
core type
shell type

• Transformer main insulation types

liquid-immersed type
dry type
gas-insulated type

• Transformer Categories as per IEC 60076-5

category I: up to 2,5 MVA (small distribution transformers)
category II: 2,5 – 100 MVA (medium size transformers)
category III: above 100 MVA (large transformers)
(Power)Transformers and reactors: important testing
• Dielectric testing
as per the schedules of IEC 60076-3

• Temperature rise testing

(sometimes based on assigned reference temperature)
as per IEC 60076-2 (Liquid-immersed)
as per IEC 60076-11 (Dry-type)

• Short-circuit testing
as per IEC 60076-5
based on transformer category (rating)

• Thermal shock testing

as per IEC 60076-11 (Dry-type)
Liquid-immersed Transformers, cooling methods
A combination of four(4) letter symbols, for example ONAN
Internal cooling medium External cooling medium
nature circulation mechanism nature circulation mechanism
First letter Second letter Third letter Fourth letter
O: mineral oil N: natural thermosiphon flow A: air N: natural convection
or synthetic through cooling equipment and
insulating liquid windings
with
fire point ≤ 300 ˚C
F: forced circulation through cooling F: forced circulation
(fans, pumps)
equipment, thermosiphon flow in
K: insulating liquid windings
W: water
with
fire point ≥ 300 ˚C
D: forced circulation through
cooling equipment, directed from the
L: insulating liquid with cooling equipment into at least the
no measurable fire point main windings
Dry Type Transformers: cooling methods

- Air Natural or Self Air Cooling

In this method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural flow of surrounding air.
Generally applicable for small transformers (up to 3 MVA).

- Air Blast or Forced Air Cooling

In this method, air is forced on the core and windings by means of fans or blowers.
The air supply must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles
in ventilation ducts.
Generally applicable for larger transformers (more than 3 MVA).
Transformers and reactors: insulation, general
• Functional grouping:

Interwinding insulation (between coils)

Interturn insulation (between turns)
Terminal insulation (phase to earth and phase to phase)
Core laminations insulation (to core clamp)
Core clamp insulation (to earth/tank)

• Critical insulation:

Tap changer and leads

Interconnections between windings and terminals (bushings)
supports of windings and coils
all insulation to earth (tank)
 Liquid-immersed Transformers, insulation materials

• The Insulation of (most) liquid-immersed transformers/reactors consists of:

liquid insulation:

oil (Mineral or Synthetic oil) or other liquids (with different Fire Point)

solid insulation:

major insulation structures: barriers, spacers and clamps

minor insulation structures: winding insulation
materials: enamel, cotton, wood, cellulose (paper/pressboard)
Liquid-immersed Transformers, insulation materials

electric strength permittivity

material nature comments
[kV/mm] Ɛ
mineral 10 - 25 2-4
oil fluid for immersion
synthetic
aramid (aromatic for insulation
polyamid) fibre solid 17 - 33 1,6 – 3.7 paper or
(NOMEX) board sheets
normal, dry 3-5 1,8 – 2,6
cellulose 16
paper solid
varnished 10 - 80 5
oil-impregnated 55 - 100 3,5
cellulose acetate solid 20 - 45 3,5 - 7
oil-impregnated
Wood (Lignostone 15-18
perpendicular for support
= wood veneer + solid 3,7 - 4,1
oil-impregnated purposes
synthetic resin) 3-4
along the sheets
porcelain solid 10-25 6-8 for bushings
Dry-Type Transformers, insulation materials

• Two Types, different in method of insulation:

Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer (CRT)
windings are encapsulated with epoxy resin
Vacuum pressure Impregnated Transformer (VPI)
windings are void free impregnated with polyester resin under vacuum.

• Insulation
Varnish and Resin (epoxy or polyester)
Insulation classes F (155 ˚C) or H (180 ˚C)

(windings can be foil or strip or disk).

Dry-Type Transformers, insulation materials

permittivity
material nature electric strength [kV/mm] comments
Ɛ
for conductor
enamel solid
insulation
for insulation
barriers,
polyester solid 25 - 30 3,2 – 4,3
spacers and
duct sticks
for insulation
combined with glass barriers or
epoxy resin solid fibre or quartz 20 - 45 3,3 – 3,9 complete
powder vacuum cast
windings
Rotating electric machines: (IEC 60034)
Insulation Systems
Stator winding Rotor winding
Synchronous
Random wound Form-wound Hydro-generators
machines
Strand insulation / Turn insulation
Strand insulation
Ground wall insulation
Ground wall insulation
Coil separator
Strand insulation Rotor Pole Turn Insulation
Coil separator Top, Mid-stick and bottom Packing

Phase insulation Stack Conslolidation

Turn to turn insulation Rotor Pole Collars
Slot wedges Slot wedges

Blocking and Bracing Slot insulation V-Blocks

Adhesive tapes
Simiconducting Coating
Impregnation resin and VPI resin
finishing varnish Resin Rich Technology
Rotating electric machines: (IEC 60034)
insulation classes
Insulation Max permissible
class temperature some insulation materials application

cotton, silk and paper, impregnated or coated or

A 105 obsolete
immersed in a dielectric liquid such as oil.
materials of synthetic resins and enameled wires, low voltage
E 120
cellulose, tri-acetate film. machinery
materials or combinations of materials such as mica,
B 130 glass fibre, asbestos, bonded, impregnated, or coated Common use
using shellac, asphalt, bitumen, synthetic resin.
mica, fiberglass, with epoxy, cross linked polyester
F 155 Common use
resins etc.
traction
H 180 Mica, glass fiber, suitably bonded, impregnated
motors
Mica, porcelain, glass, quartz, with inorganic binders
C > 180 special
such as glass or cements, silicone resins
Rotating electric machines:
code systems and insulation
• Several features of Rotating Eelectric Machines are specified by standardised
code systems:

- mounting: IM-code

- cooling: IC-code

- protection: IP-code

- insulation: class of insulation

• Main functions of insulation systems in Rotating Eelectrical Machinery:

- to avoid short-circuit between winding turns and winding turn to ground (iron core)
- to prevent winding movement in the rotor and stator.
Rotating electric machines:
insulation, some values
permittivity For comments
material nature electric strength [kV/mm]
Ɛ see next sheet 1)
asbestos solid 4 3–5 obsolete
asphalt solid 2,68
shellac solid 10 – 15 3–4
epoxy resin solid 20 – 45 3,3 – 3,9
polyester resin solid 25 3–7
cotton solid varnished 4 2,5 – 3,8
mica solid normal 30 – 40 7 2)
23°C 50%RH
polyimide
solid thin sheets 150 – 300 3,6 3)
Kapton HN
(12,7 – 125 µm)
Thickness
polyamide
solid 0,05 – 0,76 mm 17 - 33 1,6 – 3.7 4)
Nomex 410
calandered paper
Thickness
polyamide
solid 0,13 - 0,58 mm 9 1,2
Nomex 411
uncalandered
Rotating electric machines:
insulation, some comments
1) None of the materials listed are used separately. The insulation
systems of rotating machines comprise always a combination of
materials, each having its own particular function
2) Pure mica is nowadays hardly ever used in rotating machines. In
most applications use is made of mica paper-based tapes where
mica paper is combined with glass cloth or polyester (PET) or
polyimide (Kapton) films, pre or post impregnated with
epoxy/polyester/silicon resins. Electric strength is mainly
determined by the impregnation resin and carrier material. Mica
is present in the system to make it insensitive to prolonged partial
discharges over its entire life
3) Insulation sheet material with a thickness lower than 0,1 mm tends
to have far higher breakdown field strengths than thicker
samples, irrespective of the nature of the material
4) NOMEX is a paper made of aramide (aromatic polyamide) fibres
Instrument transformers: purpose, standards
• Application, purpose

metering (power, tariff, calibration, industrial operation)

protection (relays)

• Main standards for instrument transformers

IEC 61869-1 General requirements for instrument transformers

IEC 61869-2 Additional requirements for current transformers
IEC 61869-3 Additional requirements for inductive voltage transformers
IEC 61869-5 Additional requirements for capacitor voltage transformers

• Please Note:

Ur (rated voltage) is related to voltage transformation

(for voltage transformers)

Um (highest voltage for equipment) is related to insulation level

Instrument transformers: Insulation Technology

• Principle (conventional)
- Inductive with electromagnetic circuits and windings

- Analog output

• Options (for housing and insulation)

- Oil/paper insulated, with oil expansion device and oil level indicator and buchholz relay

- Bushing porselain or composite (silicon rubber), sometimes with helical creepage distance ribs

- Gas Insulated (SF6) with all relevant requirements and provisions

- Epoxy resin insulation

Switchgear: Different Functional Types
“go and no go for currents”
Abilities, duties Can Can
of switchgear Can Can Should Can
Make Break Can Create
Conduct Make/Break Operate Make/Break
→ (close) (open)
(withstand)
Conduct
(open/close) (open/close) small
isolating
short-time short-time Rated distance
Type of short-time rated in off-load capacitive
(short- (short- (normal) in open
switchgear (short-circuit) (normal) conditions or inductive
circuit) circuit) currents position
currents currents only currents
↓ currents currents
Circuit-
yes yes yes yes yes no no
breakers
(motor) switch no no if specified yes yes no no
Switch-
no no if specified yes yes no yes
disconnector
Disconnectors
no no yes yes no yes yes yes
(US: isolators)
to some for limited
Fuse-switches
no specified value/ yes no no
disconnectors extent duration
Earthing
no no yes no no yes no
switches
Switchgear: Insulation materials
• Oil/Air/GasVacuum/CO2:
- OIS ? Oil insulated switchgear (bulk oil/low volume oil)
- AIS Air insulated switchgear
- GIS Gas insulated switchgear (approx ten(10) times smaller than AIS)
- VIS ? Vacuum insulated switchgear
- CO2S ? CO2 insulated switchgear

• Notes:

- dielectric strength of SF6 at a pressure > 300 kPa is higher than that of oil
- breakdown voltage of SF6 is about 2,5 times higher than that of N2 or air
- for interrupting purposes SF6 is approx 100 times better than air
- SF6 pressure in GIS is normally from 400 to 600 kPa (4 – 6 bar)
Switchgear: symbols as per IEC 62271

• Please note:

The symbol for highest voltage of equipment is Ur (not Um !)

Ur = rated voltage = highest voltage of equipment !

Capacitors
• Examples of IEC Standards for capacitors:
(for a.c. power systems having a rated voltage above 1 000 V)

IEC 60871: Shunt capacitors / IEC 60143: Series capacitors

• The Rated Temperature Category of a capacitor:

the range of temperature of the ambient air or of the cooling medium for
which the capacitor has been designed (IEV ref 436-01-17)
Capacitors: main parameters
• Capacitance C [Farad]

• Dissipation factor tan(δ) (loss angle)

The dissipation factor (tan(δ)) of the capacitor is the

quotient of the capacitor losses [P] and the reactive output [S]

tan(δ) = P/S [W/Var]

or: P = U2 ωC tan(δ) [W]

Capacitors: Banks, Units, Elements, Dielectrics
• Capacitor Banks consist of several Capacitor Units and auxiliary
equipment.

Capacitor Banks and their Capacitor Units may have

different insulation levels

• Capacitor Units contain several Capacitor Elements

Capacitor Units may be equipped with internal or external

current limiting fuses and discharge resistors

• Capacitor Elements may be built up by thin aluminum electrode foils

with a dielectric of
polypropylene film and a synthetic impregnation fluid
Capacitors: Selfhealing / Selfrestoring

IEV ref definition

a capacitor of which the electrical properties,

436-03-12 self-healing capacitor after local breakdown of the dielectric,
are rapidly and essentially restored

Insulation which, after a short time,

604-03-04
modified
self-restoring insulation completely recovers its insulating properties
after a disruptive discharge during test
Capacitors: insulation, some values

permittivity
material nature electric strength [kV/mm] comments
Ɛ

synthetic
polypropylene fluid > 40 2,1 low tan(delta)
impregnation
Capacitors: some important tests

• Discharge tests

• Thermal stability test

• Determination of temperature coefficient

• Endurance test (simulation of life time)

Insulators: discharges

IEV Ref definition

disruptive discharge external to the insulator, and over its

flashover
471-01-07 surface, connecting those parts which normally have the
(of an insulator)
operating voltage between them

disruptive discharge passing through the solid insulating

puncture
471-01-14 material of the insulator which produces a permanent
(of an insulator)
loss of dielectric strength
Insulators: Types, Accessories, Materials
• Types

Post insulators, spacers, bushings

Insulators for overhead lines
Suspension or tension strings consisting of
cap and pin type units with ball and socket or clevis and tongue fittings
Long rod insulators

• Accessories
Fittings, (anti)corona rings, anti arc gaps (spark gaps)

• Materials

KER: Porcelain, Glass

GFR: Glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin
Moulded resin
Silicon rubber
Insulators: insulation, some values

permittivity
material nature electric strength [kV/mm] comments
Ɛ

porcelain solid 35 6-8

glass solid 12 - 100 4 - 12

silicon solid 5 3-8

Cables and accessories: Examples of IEC Standards

IEC 60502: for rated voltages from 1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)

IEC 60840: for rated voltages above 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)

IEC 62067: for rated voltages above 150 kV (Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um = 550 kV)

Test methods and requirements for

Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories

Cables and accessories

• Please note:

In the sense of insulation coördination it should be noted that, for

cables and accessories:

- Impulse test voltages are based on Um

- Power frequency test voltages are based on U0

(Power) cables: with extruded insulation; main elements
item nature material abbreviation
(from inside to outside)

Core of the cable conductor Aluminum or Copper

conductor screen semiconducting

insulating Low/High Density Thermoplastic/Cross Linked Polyethylene PE/HDPE/XLPE

Main Insulation
compound Ethylene Propylene Rubber/High Modulus or Hard Grade EPR/HEPR

insulation screen semiconducting

Bedding layer Swellable

Copper tape or Copper wires or Copper shields or Copper straps,

Metallic Sheath Conductor
or Extruded Lead Sheath

Bedding layer swellable

Polyvinyl Chloride (St1 , St2) PVC

Outer Sheath oversheating Polyethylene (St3 , St7) PE
(Oversheath or Jacket) compound Low Smoke Halogen Free (St12) LSHF
Cables: insulation, some values
permittivity
material symbol electric strength [kV/mm] comments
Ɛ
generally not
suitable for
high
natural 12 - 20 temperatures,
not resistant to
chemical
rubber influences
synthetic 30 2-4
natural rubber
mixed with
vulcanised India
VIR 20 - 30 3,5 - 5 sulphur/
rubber
zinc oxide/
red lead
ethylene propylene for cable
EPR 4-6
rubber sheats
neoprene 12 6,7
polyvinylchloride PVC 30 - 50 3,4 - 6 mixed polymer
PE 40 2,3 polymer
polyethylene XLPE vulcanised 50 2,5
derived from
ethylene
(Power) cables, accessories: joints
straight-joint: accessory making a connection between two cables
definition
to form a continuous circuit (IEV ref 461-11-04)
interconnection between two (single core or multi core) cables,
providing:
- continuation of (main) conductors (connectors, suitable also for short-
circuit currents)
description
- continuation of screen (conductors) (except screen interruption joint)
- continuation of insulation (insulation level)
joint
- continuation of insulating fluids (except in case of stop joint)
- continuation of outer protection against ambient
hand-taped(wrapped), pre-molded, heat shrink, cold shrink
construction
resin insulated, SF6-insulated, silicon insulated
straight-through joints or Y-type joints
arrangement
screen interruption and link box for cross-bonding
interconnection of different cable constructions such as oil/paper and
transition
XLPE
 (Power) cables, accessories: terminations

device fitted to the end of a cable to ensure electrical connection

Definition with other parts of the system and to maintain the insulation up to
the point of connection (IEV ref 461-10-01)
description interconnection between a cable and terminals of equipment
application indoor or outdoor or in fluid ambient
cable end sealing end, cable lug, terminal box, cable gland, terminal, bushing
termination
construction flexible or self-supporting, porcelain or composite
- prefabricated with composite insulator
dry-type
- silicone, suitable for XLPE and EPR-insulated cables

- for GIS or transformers, with composite or porcelain insulator and

fluid-filled silicon oil, suitable for XLPE- and EPR-insulated cables
- for the connection/installation of low-pressure oil-filled cables
Cables systems: important test

• cable system (IEC 62067)

cable with installed accessories including components used for
thermo-mechanical restraint of systems limited to those used for
terminations and joints only

• important test on cables systems:

Pre-Qualification test (PQ)

Finish?
• Thank you for your kind attention