Conflict in Europe Essay Tables

The Collapse of Collective Security

LoN established in 1920 ● League structure was based on internationalism Richard Overy: ‘there was a growing
relied on the principle of since all votes had to be unanimous → difficult to contradiction between the existing
internationalism within a reach conclusions (power of veto) international system and the reality of power
society where nations ● Aim of disarmament rested on contradiction since made more dangerous by the restless political
emphasised nationalism Article 8 stated powers must disarm at a level of forces released by economic modernisation and
consistent national safety → vague terms the rise of mass politics.’
● Attempts to strengthen the League failed since
nations didn’t want to be involved in conflict
As nations, such as Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain,
endeavoured to focus on domestic affairs and reject
internationalism, the League became highly out of
touch with the desires of the growing European
Powers and thus became unsuccessful. Collective
security did not succeed in the unstable climate that
was post WWI.
Never reflected the true ● Nations relied on Britain and France Peter Raffo: “Through such events, from the
reality of a world balance of ● France and Britain had different interests even departure of Germany and Japan from the
power (US, initially though the League relied on Anglo-French League in 1933 to the Italian invasion of
Germany and USSR, and cooperation (France: strong league; Britain: flexible Abyssinia in 1935 the League was tested and
later Japan and Italy weren’t league) failed to rise to the challenge. By 1937, all
members of the League) Germany joined in 1926, left in 1933. USSR joined heart for collective action had gone out of the
1934. Italy left in 1937 (after economic sanctions league and all that was left was the failure of
placed as a result of Abyssinia), 1933 Japan withdrew appeasement.”
from the League.
● League was seen as a conservative body backing
the interests of established powers
As nations were rejected from the league a strong
distaste towards the ‘Big Four’ grew. Furthermore,
 the exclusion of various nations meant that any
events involving those nations could not be
addressed by the League and thus attempts to create
collective security were restricted. As nations left to
pursue domestic endeavours, expand their colonies
and increase their military; the ineffectiveness of the
League was demonstrated due to its inability to
enforce sanctions on non-member states.
Sanctions placed on nations Sanctions were restricted to reparations and military Sally Marks: ‘... the League lacked any
were largely unenforceable restrictions, which could be ignored, and trade substantial enforcement of powers, any
as the League had limited restrictions. Evident in Treaty of Versailles answer to the fundamental impracticality of
military resources to back it Abyssinia as primary example- collective security, or any solution to the
as a result of WWI, thus - Victory in Abyssinia would be the start of the inevitable conflict between a supranational
nations would disregard resurgence of a new Roman empire organisation and the claims of national
Leagues attempts to enforce - Italian economists argued Abyssinia was rich in sovereignty, which had only been rendered
sanctions resources and would provide Italy with food and more strident by the war and the peace.’
October 1935-May 1936 export markets
- Historian Denis Mack Smith argued there was a
political motive: divert people’s gaze from home
discontents and to unite the nation around its common
patriotism.’
- Italy was humiliated by Abyssinia at Battle of
Adowa in 1895
- Convenient because it was in between two Italian
colonies: Eritrea and Somaliland (also had nowhere
else to colonise)
Impacts
- Proved that the concept of collective security was
dead
● Hoare-Laval Plan (December 1935) showed that
Britain and France would prefer to do deals with
dictators than stand up Hoare-Laval Agreement >
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs/France’s PM-
appeasement at its worst, without notifying Selassie,
let Italy keep 60% of captured land to form “corridor
for camels”
● Britain and France could have taken strong action
against Italy (both had colonies near Italy’s colonies
or deny Italy’s use of Suez Canal)
- Destroyed the maintenance of the Stresa Front
which was formed to stand up to the threat of Nazi
Germany
● Transformed Italy from a nation willing to stand up
to Hitler to one willing to become Hitler’s loyal
partner
● Encouraged Hitler to behave that he could get away
with acts of aggression as he marched into the
Rhineland during the Abyssinian Crisis
- League imposed limited sanctions
● Oil and coal weren’t included (key resources for
war)
● Austria, Albania, Switzerland and Hungary refused
to endorse sanctions
● Germany and USSR helped Italy
- The Abyssinia Crisis was an international crisis
in 1935 originating in what was called the Walwal
incident in the then-ongoing conflict between
the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia
(then commonly known as "Abyssinia").
The League of Nations ruled against Italy and
voted for economic sanctions, but they were never
fully applied. Italy ignored the sanctions, quit the
 League, made special deals with Britain and
France and ultimately established control of
Abyssinia. The crisis discredited the League and
moved Fascist Italy closer to an alliance with Nazi
Germany.

Britain, France and the Policy of Appeasement

Allowed military expansion Re-armament March 1835- William Shirer: “To prepare secretly for war
Hitler publicly announced Germany’s military status and to proceed with enough caution in foreign
and plans (army/Wehrmacht of 300, 000 and 2, 500 policy and clandestine rearmament to avoid
war planes/Luftwaffe). This broke the terms of the any preventive military action against
Treaty of Versailles. Hitler also introduced Germany by the Versailles powers—such were
compulsory military conscription in Nazi Germany Hitler’s tactics during the first two years.”
with an army target of 550, 000 men. In April 1935
Britain, France and Italy formed an alliance known as
the Stresa Front in preparation to oppose any move
by Germany to annex Austria. In May 1935, France
concluded a treaty with Russia.
Anglo-German Naval Agreement June 1935-
-Treaty of Versailles limited German navy to only six
war ships over 10, 000 tons and banned any
submarines. However, Germany wanted a navy to
rival that of Britain’s. In June 1935, the Naval
Agreement was signed. This allowed Germany to
have one third of the tonnage of British navy’s
surface fleet and an equal tonnage of submarines.
Rhineland 1936-
-Mussolini’s Italy demonstrating the weakness of the
League of Nations in the Abyssinia Crisis provided
Hitler with confidence in implementing the first stage
of his expansionist plan in the Rhineland to gain
 more territory, resources and demonstrate the power
of a rearmed Germany under a Nazi leader. In 1936,
Hitler re-militarised the Rhineland and met no
opposition.
Facilitated the growth of Sudetenland Crisis Frank McDonough: ‘Chamberlain’s worst
European tensions - Chamberlain didn’t want Britain to go to war over error was to believe he could march Hitler on
an obscure issue in central Europe the yellow brick road to peace when in reality
- He knew how vulnerable the British were to air Hitler was marching very firmly on the road
attack and dreaded the prospect of German to war.’
bombs falling on British homes
- Chamberlain was hailed a hero for preventing
another war as he assured Europe ‘peace in our
time’
- Czechoslovakia lost land, three million citizens,
border defence and industry and mineral sources
The End of Appeasement
- German troops marched into the rest of
Czechoslovakia after the Munich Conference
- Bohemia-Moravia was incorporated into the Reich
while Slovakia became a Nazi puppet state
- Germany later seized Lithuanian port of Memel and
its surrounding district
- Mussolini annexed Albania
- Chamberlain government was forced to abandon
the policy of appeasement
- Britain announced that they would formally
guarantee independence of Poland
● If Germany attacked Poland, Britain would go to
war with (along with Romania, Greece, Turkey and
France)
Anschluss March 1938-
 -The political union of Austria and Germany
demonstrated the foreign policy of ‘lebensraum’. This
event was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.
Hitler promoted civil unrest in the nation and
German troops entered Austria to ‘restore order’, a
citizen vote approved of the union.
Munich Agreement September 1938/Sudetenland-
-Hitler demanded occupation of the Sudetenland, a
region of Czechoslovakia with 3 million Germans.
This conference between Germany, Britain, France
and Italy resulted in Germany gaining the territory.
British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, signed
an agreement with Germany which outlined that the
country would not gain any other territories.
Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia March 1939-
-Seven months following the Munich Agreement,
German military occupied more of the country.
Britain would not go to war over this but gave a
guarantee to Poland that if that nation was invaded
they would enter the conflict.
Contributed to the collapse Sanctions were restricted to reparations and military Peter Raffo: “Through such events, from the
of collective security restrictions, which could be ignored, and trade departure of Germany and Japan from the
restrictions. Evident in Treaty of Versailles League in 1933 to the Italian invasion of
Abyssinia as primary example- Abyssinia in 1935 the League was tested and
- Victory in Abyssinia would be the start of the failed to rise to the challenge. By 1937, all
resurgence of a new Roman empire heart for collective action had gone out of the
- Italian economists argued Abyssinia was rich in league and all that was left was the failure of
resources and would provide Italy with food and appeasement.”
export markets
- Historian Denis Mack Smith argued there was a
political motive: divert people’s gaze from home
 discontents and to unite the nation around its common
patriotism.’
- Italy was humiliated by Abyssinia at Battle of
Adowa in 1895
- Convenient because it was in between two Italian
colonies: Eritrea and Somaliland (also had nowhere
else to colonise)
Impacts
- Proved that the concept of collective security was
dead
● Hoare-Laval Plan (December 1935) showed that
Britain and France would prefer to do deals with
dictators than stand up Hoare-Laval Agreement >
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs/France’s PM-
appeasement at its worst, without notifying Selassie,
let Italy keep 60% of captured land to form “corridor
for camels”
● Britain and France could have taken strong action
against Italy (both had colonies near Italy’s colonies
or deny Italy’s use of Suez Canal)
- Destroyed the maintenance of the Stresa Front
which was formed to stand up to the threat of Nazi
Germany
● Transformed Italy from a nation willing to stand up
to Hitler to one willing to become Hitler’s loyal
partner
● Encouraged Hitler to behave that he could get away
with acts of aggression as he marched into the

Significance of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Signed 23rd August 1939
Prevented a two-front war –Secret protocols: ● Germany would receive western Isaac Deutscher: “But Hitler did not rest
until 1942 Poland and Lithuania ● USSR would receive Estonia, either. Having eliminated the danger of a war
Latvia, Finland and Bessarabia (Romania) on two fronts he subdued almost the whole of
Due to the secret protocols, the Nazi invasion of Europe and could then use the economic
Poland on the 1st of September 1939 occurred resources and labour force of a dozen
successfully without worry of an invasion from the countries for the purposes of the German war
East. Nations from Western Europe declared war machine...”
against Germany consequently, however, if weren’t
for the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Hitler
would further have to be concerned with war
declarations coming from the USSR.
The sharing of Poland and the Nazi-Soviet Pact
allowed Nazi Germany to direct their attention
towards Western European Countries. On the 10th of
May 1940, Hitler launched an invasion into the
Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and Belgium. By
the 25th of June 1940, Nazi Germany had captured
Western mainland Europe.
Up until the 22 June 1941, when Operation Barbarossa
was launched, Nazi Germany was able to secure
strong relations with Russia and prevent a two-front
war. After Germany had secured a strong Western
front, Barbarossa was launched on the Eastern front,
breaking the Non-Aggression Pact. It wasn’t until
October 1942 that Germany encountered a two-front
battle.
Thus, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was
instrumental in the launching of WWII as if it were not
for it, Germany would be threatened with the
possibility of a two front war alike what occurred in
WWI.
Soviet’s distrusted the west, West couldn’t be trusted- Munich and Western Richard Evans: “From Stalin’s perspective,
gained land and had time to vacillation throughout 1930s proven this. Britain’s it provided a respite and opened up the
rearm their forces guarantee to Poland was inevitable. Hope that Hitler enticing prospect of Europe’s capitalist
would exhaust himself against France and Britain. A powers, Germany, France and Britain, and
deal with Hitler would give Stalin a share of Poland fighting a war of mutual destruction between
and provide security buffer between Germany and themselves.”
Russia. Gave Russia time to rearm.
Russia was excluded from alliances and proposals by
major powerscontributed to Stalin’s paranoia
/desperation for military expansion  ‘diplomatic
isolation’.
Soviet Union had a lack of faith in Britain and France
(due to appeasement policies)
Mostly evident in Czechoslovakian crisis and
following Munich Conference
French refused Russian suggestion of both standing
by 1935 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance,
supporting the Czechs.
Allowed Hitler trade of resources and a promise that
they would not force a war on two fronts if invading
Poland.
Stalin would also get a buffer zone and avert
immediate risk of war.
Trade, Nazi received money The first pact was an economic trade agreement, William Carr- “At a stroke of a pen he had
in order to fund military which Ribbentrop and Molotov signed on August 19, ended Germany's fear of a war on two fronts
expansion 1939. and in the event of an allied blockade had
The agreement, which proved instrumental in helping ensured supplies of essential raw materials
Germany bypass the British blockade during the early from the east.”
years of World War II, committed the Soviet Union to
provide food products and raw materials to Germany
in exchange for products such as German machinery
 for the Soviet Union.
The German–Soviet Credit Agreement (also referred
to as the German–Soviet Trade and Credit
Agreement) was an economic arrangement
between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union whereby
the latter received an acceptance credit of 200
million Reichsmark over 7 years with an effective
interest rate of 4.5 percent. The credit line was to be
used during the next two years for purchase of capital
goods (factory equipment, installations, machinery
and machine tools, ships, vehicles, and other means of
transport) in Germany and was to be paid off by
means of Soviet material shipment from 1946
onwards. The economic agreement was the first step
toward improvement in relations between the USSR
and Germany.
This ensured Nazi powers that they would have access
to raw materials that were crucial to the survival of the
Nazi military and Nazi civilians. Without the security
of these materials, Nazi officials would have entered
the war with an uncertainty as to whether or not they
could materially sustain themselves.

Aims and Strategy of German Foreign Policy Up Until 1939

Military strengthening, After the Treaty of Versailles, Germany’s military was William Shirer: “To prepare secretly for
rearmament substantially weakened and restricted. The focus of war and to proceed with enough caution in
Germany’s foreign policy quickly became rearmament foreign policy and clandestine rearmament to
and military expansion. Successful attempts at avoid any preventive military action against
military expansion and rearmament are evident in: Germany by the Versailles powers—such
Return of the Saar January 1935- were Hitler’s tactics during the first two
Treaty of Versailles gave France control of the years.”
resource-rich region for 15 years. In 1935, an
independent and observed area vote gave a 90% vote
to re-join Germany. Germany once again had access to
the richest coal basin in Europe and could continue
weapon and chemical production in the industrial
zone.
Re-armament March 1835-
Hitler publicly announced Germany’s military status
and plans (army/Wehrmacht of 300, 000 and 2, 500
war planes/Luftwaffe). This broke the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles. Hitler also introduced
compulsory military conscription in Nazi Germany
with an army target of 550, 000 men. In April 1935
Britain, France and Italy formed an alliance known as
the Stresa Front in preparation to oppose any move by
Germany to annex Austria. In May 1935, France
concluded a treaty with Russia.
Anglo-German Naval Agreement June 1935-
-Treaty of Versailles limited German navy to only six
war ships over 10, 000 tons and banned any
submarines. However, Germany wanted a navy to
rival that of Britain’s. In June 1935, the Naval
Agreement was signed. This allowed Germany to have
one third of the tonnage of British navy’s surface fleet
and an equal tonnage of submarines.
Rhineland 1936-
-Mussolini’s Italy demonstrating the weakness of the
League of Nations in the Abyssinia Crisis provided
Hitler with confidence in implementing the first stage
of his expansionist plan in the Rhineland to gain more
territory, resources and demonstrate the power of a
 rearmed Germany under a Nazi leader. In 1936, Hitler
re-militarised the Rhineland and met no opposition.
Lebensraum, Adolf Hitler's government conducted a foreign policy Tony Joel: “the idea that German expansion
Volksdeutsche, aimed at the incorporation of ethnic Germans in “the East” would solve its economic
expansionism (Volksdeutsche) living outside German borders into the problems by creating Lebensraum; the
Reich; German domination of western Europe; and the importance of German expansion to ensure
acquisition of a vast new empire of "living space" its status as a world power; and concern that
(Lebensraum) in eastern Europe. starting a conflict with Poland invariably
Creating German control in Europe, Hitler calculated, would embroil Germany in war with France
would require war, especially in eastern Europe. The and Britain.”
"racially inferior" Slavs would either be driven east of
the Urals, enslaved, or exterminated. Besides
acquiring Lebensraum, Hitler anticipated that the "drive
to the East" would destroy Bolshevism.
Examples of Volksdeutsche and Lebensraum:
Anschluss March 1938-
-The political union of Austria and Germany
demonstrated the foreign policy of ‘lebensraum’. This
event was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler
promoted civil unrest in the nation and German
troops entered Austria to ‘restore order’, a citizen vote
approved of the union.
Munich Agreement September 1938/Sudetenland-
-Hitler demanded occupation of the Sudetenland, a
region of Czechoslovakia with 3 million Germans.
This conference between Germany, Britain, France and
Italy resulted in Germany gaining the territory. British
Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, signed an
agreement with Germany which outlined that the
country would not gain any other territories.
Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia March 1939-
 -Seven months following the Munich Agreement,
German military occupied more of the country. Britain
would not go to war over this but gave a guarantee to
Poland that if that nation was invaded they would
enter the conflict.
Rejection of Foreign Policy- Rejection of international agreements Sally Marks: “A rejection of
internationalism and treaties, only favouring with nations for strategy internationalism was at the core of Nazi
and protection of Germany’s interests (Rome-Berlin foreign policy. The Nazi party wanted to
Axis and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact). dissociate themselves from those who crippled
From 1933–1938, Konstantin von Neurath, a the nation post WWI.”
conservative career diplomat, served as German
foreign minister. During his tenure, Germany
followed a revisionist policy aimed at overcoming the
restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of
Versailles and seizing the diplomatic initiative from
Britain and France.
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations;
began rapid rearmament; signed a nonaggression pact
with Poland; reacquired the Saar territory through a
plebiscite; militarily assisted the supporters of
Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War; and
remilitarized the Rhineland.
Rejecting internationalism allowed Nazi Germany to
promote nationalist ideologies.
Germany joined in 1926, left in 1933.

Social and Economic Effects of the War in Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union
Economic Britain Arthur Marwick: ‘... The struggle for
As well as tax increases. civilians survival at home initiated lasting
- Wealthy could obtain goods from black market + social changes. Experience of the Blitz, food
those who grew supplies shortages, and lack of clothing ensured that
- 1938-1944 cost of living rose 50%, weekly earnings Great Britain emerged from this war a very
rose 80% (black market, gambling) different type of society, with a new emphasis
Battle for Atlantic on social equality.’
Prevented commodities Richard Overy: ‘... for the Soviet people as
Ration booklet for all citizens: money + relevant they struggled to come to terms with life in
coupon = product an economy where there was little left over
Affluent citizens complained most > poorer classes for civilians once the forces were equipped
had access to food at fixed price and fed. Theirs was an exceptional, brutal
E.g. butter, sugar, petrol, clothes in 1941 (66 annual form of total war.’
coupons)
Bread, alcohol, and tobacco weren’t (Morale)
Introduction of initiatives by Minister of Food (Lord
Woolton) to control/boost morale
The Kitchen Front – BBC radio program, how to make
rations into recipes
Victory garden concept > vegies weren’t rationed
By 1942, 1.4m flower beds converted to victory
gardens
Propagandised characters like Potato Pete and Dr.
Carrot to rely on these
Food rationing began in January 1940 for butter, bacon
and sugar
- Other food were added to the ration list (e.g. tea,
margarine, fats, jam)
- In December 1941 a points a system was introduced
which gave each person 16 points to ‘spend’ at any
shop on the items they wanted
- Ministry of Food exhorted people to try substitute
foods such as carrot tart, American Spam and whale
meat
- Eggs were rare as many chickens had been killed
- Average egg ration was one egg a fortnight
- From July 1942 dried eggs appeared
- People were exhorted to grow vegetables → ‘Dig for
Victory’
- Exotic products like chocolate became highly valued
- Tobacco and alcohol were not rationed by trading
hours were limited
- Clothes were rationed
- Utility clothes were created- clothes that didn’t have
frills or any extravagances
- ‘Make Do and Mend’ encouraged women to reuse
their garments and make other articles of clothing
- Nylon stockings were difficult to get so women
resorted to drawing a line up the back of their legs to
give the impression of a stocking seam
- Black markets were thriving for people to barter
goods
Germany
Rationing & Government controls
Food was already scarce, so they implemented a 4-
week ration card creating flexibility in the food
supply. Different people were given different
proportions depending on how important they were:
Normal consumers= 2570 calories per day
Heavy workers= 4652 calories per day
Food rationing was generous in Germany compared to
Britain, but issues arose due to the unfair nature f the
distribution of food.
The War Economy Decree on the 4th of September met
resistance in the population as it:
Compulsory Sunday work
Wage freezes
Cut overtime rates
Increased taxes
During 1942 there was a lack of heating, fuel and
school closures. Nazis dreaded cutting rations and on
6th April 1942 all were cut by 250grams of bread and
150grams of meat however it was soon reversed.
Nothing much changed the rest of the war bread
rations actually increased from 1940 to 1944. When the
war began only 200,000 Jews remained in Germany
and were increasingly restricted in their activity. In
41’ deportation to death camps began. New laws were
implemented to ensure defeatism or dissent to the
Nazis was destroyed. It was a crime to listen to foreign
radio and spread the Wests news.
*Rationing/shortages*
- Ration cards printed in 1937, issued in August 1939.
Food + clothes.
- Black market emerged as it did in Britain.
- In Britain, tobacco and alcohol wasn’t rationed to
keep up morale. In Germany, tobacco was expensive,
and breweries were producing grain alcohol as an
alternate fuel source rather than for consumption.
- Shortages were evident as German territory shrank
and Allied disruption worsened.
- Farmers refused to give crops to authorities > sold to
townspeople > class divide
- Situation was never as critical as WWI  autarky,
Rhineland etc.
Soviet Union
- Other industrial areas were within range of German
 bombers
- Stalin’s solution to the problem was mass migration
eastwards of factories, plant, machines and
workers
● Government moved over 1500 industrial enterprises
eastwards beyond the Ural mountains out of range of
German bombers
Over 10 million workers accompanied this move
● Complete factories were stripped down, taken east
and rebuilt
● Conditions in the east were exceptionally tough
since Soviet workers had to cope with a lack of food,
freezing temperatures and a 16-19 hour working days
● Discipline was strict
- The Soviet produced what could only be described as
an economic miracle since factories during the war
produced
● 135 000 aircraft
● 500 000 guns and 100 000 tanks
● 3500 new industrial enterprises were built
- Soviet industry worked on principles of simplicity
and tight rationalisation
- From mid-1942, Soviet industry helped with inflow
of aid from US under the Lend Lease Scheme
Social Britain Isaac Deutscher: ‘Stalin artificially boosted
Dramatic fall in crime the nationalist emotion as a matter of policy...
● 1939-1945: 787 000- 467 000 offences Hosts of propagandists followed him with a
● Drunkenness in 1945 was 40% of the 1939 level grotesquely immoderate glorification of
- Concern on moral standards Russia’s imperial past.’
● Increase in promiscuity and premarital sex Alan Jenkins: ‘... The shelter life was normal
● In the last year of war, over 70 000 illegitimate for thousands of people... The word
children were born ‘togetherness’ had not yet been invented, but
- Gratitude was felt towards the Americans this was it... By Christmas 1941, thousands
- Deep resentment towards the Americans since they of Londoners were leading an astonishingly
had more money, smarter uniform and were cheerful troglodyte existence underground.’
‘taking our women Burleigh: “Redefinition of the family…
- Violence between British and American soldiers was neither wives nor adolescent children
common prepared to subordinate themselves to the
- By the end of the war, 60 000 British women had returning father”
married American servicemen
*Role of women* - point of contrast between countries
ARMED SERVICES
Used to free men for armed service, perform auxiliary
roles.
Women’s Voluntary Service (1938) – in war, ran
bombsite field kitchens, evacs, support services in
shelters
National Service (No. 2) Act conscripted
single/childless widows 20-30 for military service.
By 1943 (conscription age lowered to 19) > 90% of
single and 80% married women employed in essential
work
Many joined branches of army to perform non-combat
roles: radar op, welders.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
1/3 of workforce in metal/chemical industries,
shipbuilding, vehicle manufacture
Pay rate still roughly half.
End of 1942, 10m women 19-50 registered for war
work.
Women’s Land Army (1939) engaged in farm work
Germany
Different to Britain: women took on some workforce roles
but were primarily domestic according to Nazi racial
philosophy/policy
Increase in workforce: 11.4m (33)  14.8m (39). Made
up 37% of workforce at outbreak.
Allowances given to families in armed forces >
women lost 45% of this allowance if they were
working > disincentive to work! (but even though
300k left, still were lots)
Primary role of Aryan women to have children 
cultural rejection of women in work
Speer wished to recruit more female labour, but
employers preferred hiring POW which could be paid
less (racially inferior)
Speer – “Sauckel laid great weight on the danger that
factory work might have upon German womanhood”
Army called for compulsory labour  Nazis went
“nah”
Women asked to volunteer instead  women went
“nah”
Class divide inherent
Working class women beared the burden of necessary
work
3m women registered > 50% worked part-time
because of family commitments
New roles – traditionally ‘female’ until urgency of
situation required changes  this had impacts on
traditional ideas of family structure
Burleigh – “Redefinition of the family…neither wives nor
adolescent children prepared to subordinate themselves to
the returning father”
1939: Wehrmacht employed 160k women (secretaries,
cooks, cleaners etc.)
From 1943, newer roles.
By end of war, 50k women involved in anti-aircraft
defence op. (not shooting though)
30k were searchlight operators.
Overy – “A popular myth that German women were not
recruited to war work… Women in Germany played a
major part in keeping the war effort going.”
Soviet Union
- The Soviet Union comprised of multinational groups
- The Ukraine’s in particular suffered enormously
under Stalin during the collectivisation of agriculture
as he attempted to have all signs of national Ukrainian
identity eliminated
- Stalin was concerned about these groups’ loyalties
towards the Soviet Union when Germans invaded
- German treatment of these groups grew savage as it
was towards ordinary Russians
- Nationalities soon saw Stalin as the lesser evil to
Hitler
- Germans living in Leningrad and other cities were
quickly deported to the east
- When Red Army liberated areas taken by Germans,
Stalin ordered deportation east of entire national
groups
Effects of the War on the Communist Party
- 1941-1945: great increase in membership due to 5
million new candidate members
- By end of the war, half of the Communist Party
membership was in the armed forces
 - Military element within the party had been modest
before 1941
- Party members with technical skills were held back
from the army
- Extremities of the wartime experience established a
close bond between the newer members and the party
- Partisan groups, bands of irregular guerrilla fighters,
fought the Germans, often behind enemy
line
- Some partisan groups remained beyond state control
for years after the war
Political Britain Pinson – “Goebbels’ propaganda machine
- In 1941, Minister of Labour Bevin brought in the began to turn from the motif of master race…
Essential Works Order to that of a battle for survival” [of post-
● Placed essential workers (e.g. railway employees), Stalingrad Germany]
under government control → total war Propaganda, Isaac Deutscher: ‘Stalin artificially boosted
Censorship and the Media the nationalist emotion as a matter of policy...
- Ministry of Information under John Reith controlled Hosts of propagandists followed him with a
amount and nature of information to British people grotesquely immoderate glorification of
- Involved: Russia’s imperial past.’
● Censoring soldiers’ letters home GDH Cole: ‘... In the period that began with
● Pushing anti-German message in billboard posters May 10, the history of the British common
● Encouraging people to be careful what they said in people cannot be separated from that of all the
case ‘spies’ might be listening nation. The unity so frequently promised or
- Churchill believed it was better to tell people the appealed to in politicians’ speeches was some
truth time a reality.’
- Radio was key disseminator of government
information and propaganda
- Some posters aimed to grow their own food and
save waste (difficult to import food during wartime)
- Also used to encourage women to work and
participate in the war effort
- Posters were used to maintain high morale and
spirit
- ‘Wings for Victory’- Blitz (pilots in the Battle of
Britain)
- ‘Careless Talk Costs Lives- Be like Dad, keep Mum!’ -
keep quiet, there might be spies
- ‘Keep mum, she’s not so dumb!’ - there might be
spies
- ‘Never was so much owed by so many to so few.’-
Battle of Britain pilots
- ‘Is your journey really necessary.’- stop people from
taking up railways (used railway for goods and
troops)
* Government control *
WAR LEGISLATION
- National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1940: men 18-40
available for conscription. Increased to 51 in 1941
End of 1940, 1.5m had volunteered/were conscripted.
- Treacheries Act 1940: defined forms of
sedition/treason
- Emergency Powers Act 1940: gave power for gov to
conscript workers into essential war industries (e.g.
steel/textiles)
Women with children <14 were exempt.
20k+ men not called up for Service were employed in
mines.
- Essential Works Order 1941: specific industries under
government control > ‘total war’ thinking began
Industries included railways, aircraft production,
munitions.
PROPAGANDA
Ministry of Information (MOI) controlled
communication, media, entertainment, culture.
- British Broadcasting Commission (BBC) was an
outlet.
- 23 transmitters, 4k workers  inc. to 11.5k by 1944.
- News was read factually as part of total war
atmosphere – “keep the people determined, not
demoralised” – Churchill
- Live entertainment in workforce > amateurs, unpaid
> nationalism and bonding
- Public cinema for propaganda > themes of
patriotism, heroism, sacrifice, determination.
Germany
*Government control and Nazi ideology*
BUSINESS AS USUAL V TOTAL WAR
First strategy maintained morale  believed to be a
quick war
Rigid government control of industrial resources
maintained
Women weren’t mobilised > used to satisfy domestic
policies, withdrawn from workforce at start of war.
February 1943: shift to ‘total war’ (Winter defeats of
1942-43 and Operation Uranus)
Sportpalast speech Goebbels – “total war means a shorter
war”
More extreme policies – economy, repression,
propaganda
Albert Speer made Armaments Minister  policy of
rationalisation increased weapons production.
PROPAGANDA
Ever present due to Goebbels. Boosted deteriorating
morale.
Mehr Sein Als Schein (Be more than you appear to be)
> self-reliance
Wehrmacht’s profile  > cinemas still showed
Riefenstahl films.
REPRESSION/TERROR
Unique to Germany.
Police-terror state, SS and Gestapo paranoia. This
assured no opposition  became much more
radicalised over the course of the war.
Night and Fog Decree (Sep 1941): arrest and detain
without trial
By 1945, 714k Germans were in concentration camps
for political crimes
Soviet Union
Soviet Propaganda and Religious Policy
- Propaganda took on a strictly patriotic and
virulently anti-German tone
● Mentioning of socialism, the Party and Lenin was
kept to an absolute minimum
● Soviet people had become brothers and sisters,
children of ‘mother Russia’
● Stalin made sure he was being associated with great
Russian heroes of the past (e.g. Peter the Great,
General Kutuzov)
● Strong anti-German themes were developed
● The party paper ‘Pravda’ stated: ‘May holy hatred
become our chief, our only feeling’
● Poems and plays promoted feelings of hatred and
revenge
 - Russian cinema had a smaller output than its
equivalent in Britain or the US
● 70% of Soviet films had wartime themes with a focus
on resistance partisan groups
attacking Germans and emphasis on heroines (e.g.
‘She defends the motherland.’)
- Religious policy
● Church schools were allowed to reopen and give
religious instruction
● Trainee priests were allowed to train in seminaries
● League of Militant Atheists was closed down
● Anti-religious propaganda almost disappeared;
churches opened
● In 1943, Stalin allowed the election of a new
patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church
● October 1943: ‘Central Direction of Muslims’ was
established to prevent German efforts to gain Muslim
support
- Arts presented strong patriotic themes
● AA Fadeev’s ‘Leningrad in the Days of the Blockade’
Bombs Britain Richard Overy: “War production was
*Impacts of the Blitz* affected by direct bomb attack and by the
Evacuation (psychological) diversion of resources…Post-war surveys of
Early war was met with fear of bombings. German morale showed that 91% of Germans
1.5m child evacuees sent to smaller believed that bombing was the hardest thing
towns/countryside (1/09/40) for civilians to endure during the war.”
Strain of family separation led to 60% families Alan Jenkins: ‘... The shelter life was normal
returning children when bombs had not fallen yet for thousands of people... The word
2 May 1945-March 1946 – London Return Plan > ‘togetherness’ had not yet been invented, but
individual case decisions, some didn’t want to return, this was it... By Christmas 1941, thousands
some orphaned. of Londoners were leading an astonishingly
At end, 5200 children still not returned home. cheerful troglodyte existence underground.’
Blackouts
Introduced 1/09/39 to prevent light showing in
windows to guide German bombers
ARP (Air-Raid Precaution) wardens enforced
restrictions
Led to many deaths: Sep-Dec 1939 4133 deaths on
British roads [100% increase from 1938] (vehicles could
only operate with slits of light through blackout
covers)
Casualties
Most of Britain’s major cities were bombed in 1940 +
41 incl. Coventry (14-15/11/40)
30k incendiary bombs
60k of 75k dwellings were destroyed/damaged >
massive loss of life
Blitz resulted in 43500 civilian deaths.
By end of war: 62k civilians killed (49% in London);
86k seriously wounded.
Not until 1943 that enemy had killed more soldiers
than civilians.
Shelter
- Based on class
- Rich: ‘funk hotels’ outside of cities
- Poor: ‘trekkers’ would leave cities each night and
return to work in morning (only 2k of Clydeside’s 47k
population were sleeping there)
- Government provided shelters for those who
couldn’t leave e.g. Morrison shelter (indoors, could
double as table, steel cage with solid top) and
Anderson shelter
- Inconvenience and rising sense of fatalism
- November 1940: 27% of 3.2m Londoners were using
shelters
- Government set up public shelter in the Tube
(underground railways). 120k people a night stayed
here.
- 2.25m made homeless Sep 1940-May 1941 (2/3 in
London).
Germany
*Impact of bombing*
EVACUATION
Similar to Britain.
By 1943, 300k children had been sent away. Class
differences were evident even in Germany (rich had
some control about where they went)
HOWEVER, German kids would often go to Nazi-run
youth camps.
As bombing intensified, there were lots of refugees >
much more extreme than in Britain, people would live
in the Black Forest.
SHELTER
- Above-ground shelters and bunkers constructed in
major cities by 1940
Bombing of Cologne in 1942  death toll was only 460
bc there were 500 public shelters (75k people).
By end of war, 4m homes destroyed, 12m left
homeless.
DEATHS/EFFECT (also look at 2.2)
Total: 750k German civilians killed vs. 50k British
civilians.
The Nature and Effects of the Holocaust in Nazi Occupied Territories
The Final Solution While still victorious (INTENTIONALIST) 31/07/41: William Shirer: ‘The Jews and the Slavic
Goring sends a message to Heydrich to plan mass peoples were the Untermenschen-
killing > mobile gas vans subhumans. To Hitler they had no right to
Wansee Conference (20/01/42) Heydrich > plans to live, except as some of them, among the
work the Jews to death and kill the “…remaining…in the Slavs, might be needed to toil in the fields
quickest way possible” and the mines as slaves of their German
Hitler (at meeting 22/02/42): “we shall regain our health masters.’
by eliminating the Jews”
Posen Conference (6/10/43): Himmler – “Gas will be
used. We will exterminate this Jewish bacteria before it kills
us all.”
Camps (33-45)
Concentration and Extermination Camps
Labour Camps
Retrain political Specific purpose killing
enemies, work to death Chelmno was the first in
undesirables (for war 41 > Treblinka,
effort) Auschwitz in 42
Dachau (33), network by Auschwitz-Birkenau had
42. 2 sections, larget: killed
Himmler’s ‘Death 8k daily, 4m+ between
Hand’ units ran the 41-44.
camps > torture, “At Auschwitz we found…
disease, experiments, umbrellas and lampshades
sanitation made from human skin.”
40 labour camps existed
in Germany and Poland
alone

DEATH TOLL
 Racial killings Political and social
killings
6m Jews (3m Polish 100k communists
Jews) 25k homosexual men
1.2m Serbs 5k Jehovah’s Witnesses
200-800k Romani
200-300k disabled
people
The Final Solution
- Jews were herded into cattle trucks that were sealed,
crowded and stifling in the summer and freezing in
the winter
- Trainloads of cattle trucks might take days to reach a
place like Auschwitz
- Bodies of those already dead would have to be
removed first
- Lined up, they would receive a cursory examination
from an SS doctor
● Those who were believed they could work would be
gestured to one side
● Those who aren’t able to work would be gassed
immediately
- Forced to undress, they would be ordered to line up
and take their turn in the delousing shower
- Small children were sometimes tossed over people’s
heads
- When they were gassed, Jewish ‘volunteer prisoners
would extract bodies from the chamber and
taken to the crematoria
- Any gold fillings and remaining jewellery were
extracted from bodies
 - Human hair was shaved off and can be turned into a
blanket
- All possession were kept to reuse
- Dr Josef Mengele conducted medical experiments on
prisoners
- They might be injected with diseases to trace the
progress of infection, or subjected to intense
cold or air pressure
- Twin experiments would also be conducted
Discrimination and The conquest of Poland presented the Nazis what with Warsaw ghetto historian Emanuel
Segregation to do with Poland’s estimated 3 million Jews Ringelblum wrote in 1942, “Even in the
In November 1939, it was compulsory for Polish Jews most barbaric times, a human spark glowed
to wear the yellow Star of David in the rudest heart, and children were spared.
A month earlier, Jews from Austria and Moravia were But the Hitlerian beast is quite different. It
sent to Poland would devour the dearest of us, those who
- In 1940, ghettos were set up in Polish cities such as arouse the greatest compassion—our
Warsaw innocent children.”
- Thousands of people were crammed into very small
areas
Food supplies were poor, medical facilities non-
existent and thousands died from starvation and
disease
- Warsaw Ghetto contained 450 000 people
Ghettoes (40-45): held before shipped to various
camps
Warsaw from 40-43 (380k) and Lodz (160k)
Warsaw contained 30% of city’s population, but 2.4%
of the space
Operation Reinhard
Was the Mass deportation of Polish Jews in Ghettos to
death camps. The liquidation of the ghettos and their
 occupants began in October 1941 and continued till
November 1943. It is estimated that during this time 2
million Jews were sent from Ghettos to Belsec, Sobibor
or Treblinka.
Ghettos
The earliest ghettos in Poland were established in
October 1939. They were small walled off areas of a
city designated for Jews. They had little supplies,
disease was rife, and many died. The ghettos made it
easier for the transportation of Jews to death camps.
Began with 337,000 Jews (29% of the total population
of Warsaw). By March 1941 there were half a million
Jews in an area 3.5squarekm
Increasing violence - The western regions of Russia were inhabited by Ian Kershaw: ‘Hitler had raised hopes which
millions of Jews encouraged pressure for radical action from
- The SS units called the Einsatzgruppen (formed in his subordinates. That the hope could be
1939) were killing squads tasked to seek Jews and fulfilled less easily than anticipated then
systematically kills them simply fanned the flames, encouraging the
- Throughout the second half of 1941, tens of frantic quest for an ultimate solution.’
thousands of Jews were murdered by the
Einsatzgruppen
- On one occasion in September, 33 000 people were
killed in one ‘action’ at Babi Yar near Kiev
- The shooting activities of the Einsatzgruppen were
inefficient, time-consuming and ‘distressing’ for those
taking part
Einsatzgruppen (41-43)
Elite SS units > widespread murder of racial
undesirables and political enemies
1.6m Jews were murdered in open-air shootings before
development of camp system, 100k per month for first
 5 months
Kristallnacht- 9th-10th November they arrested victims,
around 30,000 Jewish men aged 16-60 were arrested.
Concentration camps Dachau, Buchenwald and
Sachsenhausen were expanded to fit the new
prisoners. Firefighters were told to only intervene in
fires if it threatened adjacent Aryan property. After 2
days and nights 1,000 synagogues were burned, 7,500
Jewish Businesses looted, 91 Jews killed, Vandalism of
Jewish homes, cemeteries, schools and hospitals.
Kristallnacht marked the end of any potential for Jews
to safely co-exist in Germany while the Right-wing
rhetoric was so heavily present. All Jewish claims for
compensation were blocked by the government. Jews
were forced to clear the rubble and damage and the
Jewish community were given a collective fine of $1
billion Reichsmarks.

Conflict in Europe Battle Essay Plans

September 1st 1939 until May 8th 1945

GERMAN ADVANCES: THE FALL OF POLAND, THE LOW COUNTRIES AND FRANCE
Poland- 1 Sep 1939 – 6 Oct 1939
Lowlands- 10 May 1940 - 28 May 1940
France- 10 May 1940 – 25 June 1940
The Blitzkrieg Tactic  Blitzkrieg ‘Lightning War’. This strategy was developed by
Exemplified General Heinz Guderian and involves a rapid series of
simultaneous attacks and involves infantry, tanks, aircraft and
airborne troops. During stage one the Luftwaffe (air force) would
obliterate predetermined targets with ongoing sweeps of
 saturation bombing. During stage two, tanks (panzers) would
close off all road networks leading to the target, thus trapping
anyone inside. Lastly, the Wehrmacht (army) and airborne troops
would work in conjunction with panzer units to capture enemy
soldiers or civilians
 This technique would catch opposition off guard and caused
maximum damage, with this ultimately being the reason for the
success of early German advances
 In conjunction with Russian forces advancing from the East,
Polish forces rapidly collapsed to Nazi powers. Strike force in
excess of one million troops, 2400 tanks, 1400 aircraft and more
than 10000 artillery pieces. Soviet Union launched its invasion
through the Baltic states on the 17 th of September. Two large
military forces with innovative tactics ultimately destroyed
Poland, with Warsaw being bombed until the country has been
captures
 Luftwaffe blitz tactic largely allowed for capture of Belgium and
Netherlands
 Panzers IV made their way through the Ardennes, a tactic an
approach not seen before in conflict as the region was considered
‘impenetrable’. Area not protected by the French Maginot line
and thus Nazi forces were met with minimal initial resistance. 46
divisions of tanks, artillery and infantry along with 300
bulldozers and tractors
 Technique of Sichelschnitt (sick cut) separated Maginot line
forces, diminishing their collective power
Lebensraum/Foreign  The foreign policy of lebensraum was exemplified as Nazi
Policy Germany powers gained land on the European mainland and
furthermore gained the colonies of occupied nations. By the time
France was captures, Hitler had occupied nine European
 countries with several others (Italy, Spain and Russia) having
agreements with him. Britain remained the only isolated free
nation
 The win of these nations allowed Nazi forces to gain industry,
population and land (lebensraum). Gained colonial powers in
Africa
 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact signed 23rd of August 1939
between Molotov and Ribbentrop- prevented a two-front war
until 1942 (October, El Alamein). Ensured the success of Polish
invasion as USSR would receive Eastern Poland and aid with the
invasion
 German-Soviet Credit Agreement August 19th, 1939 (predecessor
to NSNAP). Provided Nazi with 200 million Reichsmark over 7
years. Used effectively until the launch of Barbarossa in June 1941
for the purchase of military equipment, ships, vehicles,
machinery and tools. Prevented a blockade from occurring, alike
what happened to Germany in WWI. Allowed for re-armament of
Germany and for their military to be increased- thus allowing for
more successful strategies and numbers
The war in the  Through both the blitzkrieg method and German foreign policy,
East/Access to the Nazi powers could optimise their impact and their success in the
English Channel course of WWII
 Germany allowed themselves to focus on the war in the West
whilst keeping Russian forces at bay, that is until the launch of
Operation Barbarossa in June of 1941
 Germany gained access to the English Channel with intent to
establish air and naval supremacy in order to launch Operation
Sealion- however, this was not a success as the 1940 July-
September Battle of Britain become the first Allied victory in the
course of WWII. Securing these nations allowed Germany to
 divert his attention to the war in the East as attempts to capture
Britain failed
 The main goal of preventing a two-front war was successful up
until 1942 as Nazi powers could focus on the Eastern and
Western front at separate times

THE AIR WAR AND ITS EFFECTS: THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ, THE BOMBING OF GERMANY
Battle of Britain- 10 Jul 1940 – 7 September 1940
The Blitz- 7 Sep 1940 – 16 May 1941
Bombing of Germany- 25 August 1940 – 21 April 1945
Technological Impact  Use of radar technology, provided significant gains for the British
and allowed them to essentially win the Battle of Britain as
Luftwaffe could be detected before they struck
 Dowding System (created in 1935), provided Britain with
significant advantage when used in conjunction with radar, first
technology to combine defences and was revolutionary in regard
to military communication
 Heinkel, Dornier, Stukas and Messerschmitt (BF109E) G,
Supermarine Spitfighters and Hurricanes B became faster and
capable of fighting for longer periods of time, thus influencing
the extent of impact air battles had. Aircraft was faster and could
fly further
 Blitzkrieg tactic successful and German access to French coastline
and British Channel made it strategically easier
 V1 and V2 rockets, significant impact on Britain during
1944/1945 air raids, caused mass damage to cities
Its Failure allowed for a  The success of Blitzkrieg on citizens Historian James Holland
war in the East and  Britain’s win of Battle of Britain prevents Operation Sealion from "[The Battle of Britain] is
impacted the success of occurring, (G establishment of French coastline was essential for unquestionably one of the
Nazi powers Bombing) however the Blitz occurred following this key turning points,"
  The Blitz allowed Germany to keep Britain at Bay and prevent an Holland says. "It confines
invasion into France, thus allowing Germany to pursue a war in Germany to a long,
the East and launch Barbarossa in June 1941 attritional war on multiple
 However, El Alamein (23rd October 1942) and Italy’s Greek fronts that they can’t
invasion occurred, Germany became stretched across two fronts ultimately win."
(with the Blitz acting as a third stretch of resources), thus
contributing to the loss of WWII
 Also allowed Britain to develop their artillery as air bases were
no longer being targeted
 No treaty or surrender of Britain left the nation to be a
continuously targeted region throughout the war. Blitz and
continues bombings acted as a means to prevent the development
of a second front in WWII, however, the Blitz just became a
drainage on Nazi resources. Germany was ultimately unable to
secure the Western, Eastern and Northern front due to a resource
stretch
The First Allied Victory  Bombing of Germany gave Allied air superiority in 1944, this was Aaron Pegram
enabled the final success needed for D-Day (Operation Overlord, launched 6 th June 1944),
additionally the success of D-Day stretched Germany onto a third
front
 Area-bombings of military bases inhibited German artillery from
sustaining itself with already stretched resources, additionally the
liberation of France allowed for the Allies to have easier access to
deeper German key sites
 Bombing in east Germany aided the Russian counter-offensive
(1944-45), making it easier for them to enclose on Berlin
 Successful support during D-Day landing, re-opening the third
front. Subsequent liberation of France allowed for deeper
bombing and access to key German sites
 Lend-Lease scheme (1941), provided the British Royal Air Force
 with military and air support from American. Enhanced Allies
ability to inflict damage on German bases. In 1944, tactics on the
bombing of Germany were altered as long-range escort fighters
would distract the Luftwaffe whilst American aircraft would use
the tactic of area-bombing in a more precise manner. In early
1944, the Allies had established air supremacy over Germany
which allowed for Operation Overlord to be launched on the 6 th
of June 1944. Area bombings of military, civilians and valuable
sites could be used to a greater degree of accuracy as Allies went
through the mainland of Europe and thus Nazi troops were
unable to replenish military supplies

OPERATION BARBAROSSA, THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RUSSIAN
CAMPAIGN
Operation Barbarossa- 22 June 1941 – 5 December 1941
Battle of Stalingrad- 23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943
Fighting a war on two  Launched after Britain failure in an attempt to gain lebensraum,
fronts/weather limited slave labour and supremacy in the East and Europe. Three
the resources available to groups- north for Leningrad, centre for Moscow and south for
Nazi powers Kiev and Ukrainian grain belt and later Stalingrad and the
Caucasus
 Between 1939 and May 1944, over 32000 air attacks were
launching against Britain, thus limiting the Luftwaffe access and
resources in the Soviet Union, particularly a restriction during
Barbarossa as Germany had lost the Battle of Britain and
continued bombings in an attempt to prevent Britain from
launching an invasion onto Europe’s mainland
 Barbarossa- Primary goal was Moscow, the capital. Operation
Taifun launched by Centre group in October, however, as winter
approached the German tanks and entire Wehrmacht were not
 ready. Resources were restricted as 750000 men died during the
1941-42 winter. Tanks were immobile and there was insufficient
clothing and food, with resupplying of troops being difficult
given the weather conditions and the Red Army’s air-craft crew
being prepared for the Luftwaffe, which was already restricted as
a consequence of Britain bombings. Centre group surrendered in
June 1942
 Nazi resources were further restricted by Russia’s scorched earth
policy, which made any material gains redundant and non-
existent
 Stalingrad- The battle of El Alamein on the 23 rd on October 1942
led to a stretch of resources as the Afrika Korps attempted to
maintain its colonies/gain Egypt and German General Erwin
Rommel was not present in Russia, one of the strongest members
of the German army. Despite Germany (Army group A) gaining
the Caucasus, Russia’s scorched earth policy prevented Nazi
powers form gaining any material or oil. The decision to send
Army Group B to Stalingrad further restricted access to resources
as B and A were separated by the Red Army at the Volga River
United Russia with the  The breaking of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact led to
Allied forces Russia no longer being a Nazi ally
 This ultimately led to the Tehran conference. 28 November – 1
December 1943. Which was held with Joseph Stalin, Franklin D
Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Within this conference,
Operation Overlord was planned, as was the United Nations, the
division of Germany and the Soviet’s involvement in the war in
the Pacific
 These plans ultimately led to the collapse of Nazi powers in the
Eastern and Western front and organised the Nuremberg Trials
 Bagration and Overlord were coordinated attacks which saw the
 demise of Nazi powers across all fronts as a result of the Stalin
Ally union
Precursor to the Russian  These events became an impetus for the Soviet Union launching
counter offensive which Bagration in conjunction with Overlord
ultimately led to the  As the Siberian forces joined the Red Army, their half a million
collapse of Nazi Powers men advanced with an initial aim to recapture Ukraine and
in the East Crimea. Bagration was launched on 22nd June 1944, after the
success of Overlord. This was a large strain on Nazi Powers as by
July German forces were being driven out of Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania. This threatened German food supplies and links to
Sweden and Finland. Poland was entered into in July, with Lvov
being liberated within less than a fortnight. In August, Polish
resistance groups began an uprising against forces, Warsaw
Rising August-October 1944. In mid-September, advancements
were made towards Warsaw. In October, Germans evacuated
sending over 200000 Poles into concentration camps and
destroyed everything on their way. Battle of Berlin began on the
16th of April 1945 as Russia had continued through Hungary

BATTLE OF EL ALAMEIN AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONFLICT IN NORTH AFRICA TO THE EUROPEAN
WAR
El Alamein- 23 October 1942 – 11 November 1942
Created a third front in  First battle in early 1942 stopped German advancement in Egypt
the European conflict that and led to stalemate
ultimately weakened  Battle of Stalingrad and continued bombings over Britain were
Germany and spread out occurring during the beginning of the Battle of El Alamein, thus
their resources adding a third front for needed resources which created strains
on the Eastern and Western front. Five hundred Nazi tanks and
100000 men were used in the battle. In the span of three days 350
tanks and 15000 troops were lost
  In May 1943, the Afrika Korps ultimately surrendered, not long
after German forces had already lost the battle of Stalingrad
 Contributed to the restraints occurring in Russia, Army group A
and B of the Southern division had been split and the Red Army
was making advancements
 Was a large allied victory
Allied victory allowed for  Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Allied victory in El
invasion into Southern Alamein was that it led to Allied forces launching an invasion
Italy and thus the end of through Italy and end the alliance between Germany and Italy
the German-Italy alliance  On the 9th of July 1943, American, UK and Canadian troops
launched an invasion into Sicily. Subsequently, Operation
Avalanche and Baytown were launched onto the mainland of
Italy on the 3rd of September. Allied forces safely captured the
South of Italy by the 17th of September
 It took the Allies 20 months to reach the North of Italy. They
persisted North until the collapse of Nazi powers, this became a
persisting third front
 However, it was still a significant gain as Germany had lost one
of its most significant allies and had further lost crucial access to
the Mediterranean
 Italy surrendered on the 8th of September 1943. The Armistice of
Cassibile was signed on the day of Allied invasion and made
public later
Contributed to the  Whilst forces were in El Alamein, the battle of Stalingrad
collapse of the Eastern occurred
front  Nazi powers ultimately lost this battle, largely to a lack of
resources, Bagration was launched in 1944 which drove Nazi
powers out of the East as they did not have the supplies to
sustain itself. Battle of Stalingrad on 23rd of August 1942 lasted
until February of 1943, thus Nazi resources were consistently
 spread across multiple fronts
 Germany’s loss in the Battle of Stalingrad minimised their ability
to advance through Russia and Russia’s scorched earth policy
minimised the use of any obtained resources
 Continues to minimise Nazi resources in Italy, Germany lost a
large ally and sent a large portion of their military resources to
attempt to secure and occupy the North of Italy, they largely with
held their position but at a large cost to the Eastern front,
particularly when Bagration was launched in June 1944

‘D’ DAY AND THE LIBERATION OF FRANCE

D Day- 6 June 1944
Liberation of Paris- 19 – 25 August 1944
Led to the fall of Nazi  The allied attack D Day 6th June and Soviet attack Bagration 22nd
powers in the West June was a coordinated campaign- result from Tehran Conference
whilst Russia made its 1943
way through the East,  Success of D Day can be contributed to the involvement of the
allowing for the final USA- led to military dominance on the western front
defeat  A true third front became open with D Day
 Operation Bagration significantly contributed to the success of D
Day and allied victory as it helped with the depletion of German
supplies, troops & morale on all fronts, resulting in the growth of
allied superiority
 Ultimately, D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic
sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon
with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one
offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16 th December 1944) was
largely a failure and the Allies had established European
supremacy
 Allied air superiority was consolidated as a result of D Day and
 Soviet army size/ numbers provided the manpower necessary to
launch an attack over such a vast area
 The established air superiority allowed waves of Luftwaffe to be
combated to a greater extent and further enhanced the ability of
the RAF and US pilots to launch ‘area-bombings’, particularly
evident in Dresden
Stretched German forces  D Day was the beginning of a true third front
across three fronts,  Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16 th December
ultimately inhibiting their 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established
ability to win European supremacy
 Luftwaffe, tanks, artillery and troops were required across the
Eastern, Northern and Western front, a reality that could not be
sustained by Nazi forces
 June 6th- D Day. June 23rd Bagration was launched. The
coordinated attacks ensured Nazi troops were encircled whilst
bombings of Rome took place up until June 5th as Allied captured
Rome on the 4th. Bombings became concentrated in Bologna, Italy
which was not captured until April 1945
 The Baltic regions in the East, with valuable oil, were lost from
Nazi powers, as Poland was gradually closed in on
 Resources were used to transport prisoners. Warsaw was closed
in July 1944. Troops accompanied 4500 prisoners on a death
march to Kutno and then transported to Dachau
Provided Allied forces  Liberation of France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands
with the access to the diminished Nazi lebensraum and resources gained from those
main land of Europe that regions, inhibiting any ability to gain access to aid
was necessary to liberate  Ultimately, D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic
the nation and camps in sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon
France, Belgium and the with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one
Netherlands offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16 th December 1944) was
 largely a failure and the Allies had established European
supremacy
 This contributed to the diminishment of German military and
allowed for Allied forces to advance through the lowlands and
free France
 Liberation of camps, such as Natzweiler-Sruthof (22000 deaths at
this concentration camp) and Guts (internment camp). This
uncovered and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-
Semitism, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the
world, therefore to complete the defeat of Germany, not only
militarily, the Allies needed to also ideologically defeat Germany-
Nuremberg War Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945
 Nuremberg- Of the 185 people indicted in the
subsequent Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death
sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional
77 people received prison terms of varying lengths

RUSSIAN COUNTER-OFFENSIVES 1944

Bagration- 23 June – 19 August 1944
Weakened German  As D Day invasion was launched on the 6th of June, Bagration
forces, allowing for assisted with the ability of American and British forces to
greater success of the D advance through the West of Europe as Bagration continued to
Day invasion and the strain Nazi resources
advancement through  Three front war continued until the end of the European Conflict,
France and the Lowlands restricting Nazi ability to launch a counter offensive
 More than 2.3 million Soviet troops went into action against
German Army Group Centre, which had a strength of fewer than
800,000 men. At the points of attack, the numerical and quality
advantages of the Soviet forces were overwhelming. The Red
Army achieved a ratio of ten to one in tanks and seven to one in
 aircraft over their enemy. The Germans crumbled. The capital
of Belarus, Minsk, was taken on 3 July, trapping some 100,000
Germans. Ten days later the Red Army reached the prewar Polish
border. Bagration was, by any measure, one of the largest single
operations of the war.
 By the end of August 1944, it had cost the Germans ~400,000
dead, wounded, missing and sick, from whom 160,000 were
captured, as well as 2,000 tanks and 57,000 other vehicles. In the
operation, the Red Army lost ~180,000 dead and missing (765,815
in total, including wounded and sick plus 5,073 Poles), as well as
2,957 tanks and assault guns.
Led to Russian access to  Battle of Berlin- 16 April to 2 May 1945.
Berlin and the fall of Nazi  Suicide of Adolf Hitler and deaths of other high-ranking Nazi
Powers officials
 Unconditional surrender of the Berlin city garrison on 2 May
 Capitulation of German forces still fighting the battle outside
Berlin on 8/9 May, following the unconditional surrender of all
German forces
 End of WWII in Europe and the end of Nazi Germany
 D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of
Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This
closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched
(Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and
the Allies had established European supremacy
 Bombings of Berlin aided Allied advancements. 1945 as Soviet
forces closed on the city. British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of
bombs; the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. As the bombings
continued more and more people moved out. By May 1945, 1.7
million people (40% of the population) had fled.
Led to the liberation of  Liberation of camps, such as Auschwitz (1 million deaths at this
Ukraine and Poland and concentration camp) and Krakow(liberated 1945). This uncovered
further the liberation of and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-Semitism,
those imprisoned, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the world, therefore
to complete the defeat of Germany, not only militarily, the Allies
needed to also ideologically defeat Germany- Nuremberg War
Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945
 Resources were used to transport prisoners. Warsaw was closed
in July 1944. Troops accompanied 4500 prisoners on a death
march to Kutno and then transported to Dachau
 ‘Liberation’ of these nations diminished Nazi supply to resources,
particularly the valuable oil location in the Baltic regions
 Nuremberg- Of the 185 people indicted in the
subsequent Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death
sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional
77 people received prison terms of varying lengths

FINAL DEFEAT 1944–1945

Operation Market Garden- 17 September – 25 1944
Battle of the Bulge- 16 Dec 1944 – 25 Jan 1945
Final Russian Offensive- 20 January 1945 - May
Ultimately led to the  Battle of Berlin- 16 April to 2 May 1945.
collapse of the Nazi  Suicide of Adolf Hitler and deaths of other high-ranking Nazi
empire and the officials
conclusion of the war in  Unconditional surrender of the Berlin city garrison on 2 May
Europe and allowed  Capitulation of German forces still fighting the battle outside
Allied forces to focus on Berlin on 8/9 May, following the unconditional surrender of all
defeating powers in the German forces
Pacific  End of WWII in Europe and the end of Nazi Germany
 D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of
Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This
 closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched
(Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and
the Allies had established European supremacy
 Bombings of Berlin aided Allied advancements. 1945 as Soviet
forces closed on the city. British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of
bombs; the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. As the bombings
continued more and more people moved out. By May 1945, 1.7
million people (40% of the population) had fled.
The liberation of the  Liberation of camps, such as Auschwitz (1 million deaths at this
remaining camps and concentration camp) and Krakow(January liberated 1945). This
allowed for Nuremberg uncovered and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-
war crimes Semitism, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the
world, therefore to complete the defeat of Germany, not only
militarily, the Allies needed to also ideologically defeat Germany-
Nuremberg War Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945
 Nuremberg- Of the 185 people indicted in the
subsequent Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death
sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional
77 people received prison terms of varying lengths
 Natzweiler-Sruthof (22000 deaths at this concentration camp) and
Guts (internment camp).
German last attempt  Despite Operation Market Garden (September 17th-25 1944 being
lacked success as three an Allied strategic failure, the Nazi attempt to launch an offensive
fronts collapsed onto was largely unsuccessful
them  Battle of the Bulge- 16th of December 1944- 25th January 1945.
 Western Allied offensive plans delayed by five or six weeks.
 German offensive exhausts their resources on Western Front.
 German collapse opens way for the Allies to ultimately break
the Siegfried Line. (defence built opposite to French Maginot
 Soviet offensive in Poland launched on 12 January 1945, eight
 days earlier than originally intended.
 Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they
halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all
sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16 th
December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had
established European supremacy